Chapter 8：Psychological Assessment

contents：

1 Introduction

2 Essential Concepts of a Psychological Test

3 Tests of Intellectual Ability

4 Personality Tests

5 Neuropsychological Tests

6 Other Tests and Assessments

1. Introduction

The psychological measurement tools are very important. The researchers had study the

psychological test and psychometric assessment for a long time. The Binet-Simon Intelligence

Test is an earlier psychological test in history. Besides the tests of intellectual ability, there are

many other personality tests such as the Minnesota multiphase personality inventory, the 16

personality factor questionnaire, the Eysenck personality questionnaire etc.

2. Essential Concepts of a Psychological Test

2.1 Reliability

Reliability refers to the extent to which a test is consistency and repeatable. The test is

reliable if the test is consistent, reproducible and stability. The reliability reflected the measuring

something consistently. A reliable test may be consistent but being valid. The aim of considering

reliability is to decide which variability in scores is due to measurement error and what is on

account of variability in true scores.

Reliability can be improved by getting different methods and techniques. There are many

measures to ensure the test reliable. We can evaluate reliability by getting the same test using

repeated measurements. The types of reliability include test-retest reliability, split half reliability,

alternate forms, interrater reliability and internal consistency etc.

2.2 Validity

The Validity refers to the extent to which a test surveys what it is claimed to measure in

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psychometry. The validity reflected the measuring what the test was supposed to measure. The

validity is important in psychometrics. The Validity can be measured by correlating technique. The

validity is differs from the reliability of the test. A test must be reliable so as to be valid. However

it does not ensure the validity. It is possible to have reliability but is invalid.

There are several types of validity in psychologic test, i. e. , face validity, construct validity,

criterion validity, content validity, discriminant validity and predictive validity are in common use.

2.3 Standardization

Standardized test refers to the measure is administered in a similar way. That implies the

measure conditions should be the same for everyone. The test is administered under uniform

conditions, no matter when, where, to or by whom it is given.

The procedures of the test scoring are specified in detail. The test scored objectively. The test

scores of different subjects should be comparable for each one. Standardization means uniformity

of procedure in the measure. In giving instructions, tone, facial expression, the speaking rate,

pauses, condition, scoring, procedures, and inflections should be uniformity.

Raw score of a given test is insignificant. In order to interpret the raw scores of the

psychometry, normative sample and norms are very important to standardization. The normative

sample must be representative of the objective group of subjects. The norms can be established by

which the average performance or normal obtained from a group of people. It can determine what

is the subjects performance in the measure in a group of people actually. The standardization

sample must be representative and too great enough to compare. The normative sample should be

reasonable. The standard scores and percentile are norms in common use.

3. Tests of Intellectual Ability

3.1 Binet-Simon Intelligence Test

Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon initiated the modern intelligence testing. As a

psychologist, Binet took part in the special education programs by the French government

commission. The French government had the laws that kids can attend school. The French

government hope that Binet help to screen the school children who experience difficulty in study.

Identifying children who need special help was important. Binet was asked to develop a method of

examining intellectually challenged children. Theodore Simon, as a colleague and Binet student,

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cooperated to study mental deficiency in French school.

Binet and Theodore Simon design the questions about the attention, memory and problem-

solving skills. The research led to the Binet-Simon Intelligence Scales developed. Binet found that

some kids could answer the more difficult questions that elder kids can generally answer these

questions in their research. On the other hand, the other same aged kids could only answer the

questions that the younger children generally answer. Binet put forwarded the mental age to

relative to the chronological age ground on their research. Binet used the mental age to assess the

intelligence for children of some age group. Binet and Simon suggested that the Intelligence Test

predict the study success.

Binet and Simon developed the Binet-Simon Intelligence Test in 1905. The test was primarily

used for children. The child's intelligence could compare to other kids of the same age by Binet-

Simon Intellgence Test. Binet and Simon employed the medical method, the pedagogical method

and the psychological method. They claimed that it could measure intelligence by evaluating the

comprehension, judge, creation and reason. Binet and Simon said that the psychological measure

is the most direct method to study intelligence. Binet and Simon released the new versions of

Binet-Simon Intelligence Test in 1908 and 1911.

The Binet's Intelligence Test included 30 items. The measure ranged from the ability to touch

one's nose or ear, and from varying in difficulty to abstract concepts. The test involved attention,

memory and verbal skill. Some sample items of tests as follow:

"Follows a moving object with the eyes"

"Grasps a small object which is seen"

"Recognizes the difference between a square of chocolate and a square of wood" "

Points to familiar named objects" for example, give me a paper.

Tells how two common objects are different" for example, the cardboard and the cup.

"Puts three nouns in a sentence" for example "cup, cardboard, paper"

"After paper folding and cutting, draws the form of the resulting holes".

Binet and his assistant Simon developed the world's first intelligence test scale.“Binet-Simon

scale”. It marks that people's identification of intelligence has entered the quantitative stage.

3.2 Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales

The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales originated by pychologist Alfred Binet in France. The

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Stanford-Binet test was revised by Lewis Terman at Stanford University in the United States.

Terman developed the "Stanford Revision of the Binet-Simon Scale" in 1916. Terman translated

the items of the Binet's Intelligence test in French version to English version. Terman revised and

added new items in the test. The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale, in short the "Stanford-Binet"

has widely used in the world.

Goddard got the Binet-Simon Intelligence Scale to the America in 1908. Soon, Lewis Terman

adapted it for kids of American schools. Terman standardized the measure at the Stanford

University. Lewis Terman released agelevel norms. Terman adopted the mental age which William

Stern suggested in 1912.

The Stanford-Binet Scale used the intelligence quotient (a single number) reflected the

intelligent level (the intelligence quotient score of a person, IQ score). The intelligence was a ratio

of the mental age (MA) to the chronological age (CA). The score of the IQ was calculated by the

MA dividing the CA, then multiplying by 100. The formula of the intelligence quotient was
‫ܯܣ‬
IQ= ×100 For example, a boy of aged 8 years old had the mental age of 9. His IQ was 112. 5.
‫ܥܣ‬

Terman of Stanford University put forward the concept of intelligence quotient (IQ) in

his revised "Steinver-Binet scale" in 1916, which made the intelligence measurement of subjects

of different ages have a unified scale

3.3Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale

The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) is designed to assess intelligence. David

Wechsler developed the Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Scale in 1939. After revision, Wechsler

released the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) in 1949, the Wechsler Adult

Intelligence Scale (WAIS Form I) in 1955, the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of

Intelligence in 1967, and the WAIS-R in 1981 respectively. Recently, the WAIS-IV was published

in 2008. The WAIS also has the short version. The four-subtest version of the WAIS-III battery

can measure the intelligence in a shorter time. The Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence was

another short version. It took about 30 minutes to complete the Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of

Intelligence.

Wechsler's Intelligence Test is based on his intelligence theory. Wechsler claimed that the

general intelligence was composed of specific elements. Human could isolate, define and

subsequently measured the individual elements. He insists that the intelligence capacity was

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consist of various specific and interrelated functions. The Wechsler's Scale is different from the

Stanford-Binet Scale. The Stanford-Binet Scale depended heavily on the language capacity. The

Wechsler's Scale could measure the intelligence by language, but also could measure by the

nonverbal performance. The Wechsler's Scale can be used for children and adult, but the Binet's

Scale was used for children.

Wechsler, an American psychologist, further proposed the concept of deviant IQ. The

difference IQ is not based on a person's age, but on the average of his or her group.

3.4 Raven's Progressive Matrices

Raven's test, originally named Raven's Progressive Matrices, was developed by John C.

Raven in 1938. It is a nonverbal intelligence test that can be used to measure a person's

observation ability and reasoning ability .

Because the test is composed of figures and can be administered when verbal communication

is not convenient, it can be used to test the intelligence of people with language impairments. It

can also be used as a tool for cross-cultural research between different nationalities and different

languages, especially for large-scale intelligence screening or initial intelligence screening. It has

the effect of saving time and effort.

4．Personality Tests

4.1 Eysenck Personality Questionnaire

Hans Jürgen Eysenck and Sybil B. G. Eysenck developed the Eysenck Personality

Questionnaire (EPQ). The EPQ can be used for measuring the personality trait. The EPQ was

found on the Eysenck's theory of personality. The EPQ measured the personality traits by

measuring the dimensions of remperament. The EPQ has 4 scales (the extraversion, psychoticism,

neuroticism and the lie). The EPQ had more versions. There are 90 items in the EPQ in 1975. The

Revised EPQ inclueds 100 items in revised version in 1985. The subject answered the question to

each item by Yes or false/No. The EPQ's short form include 48 items.

The EPQ contains 90 items and according to the Eysenck's theory, the EPQ included the

extraversion, psychoticism, and neuroticism. Every dimension is bipolar characteristic. In the

dimension of extraversion and introversion, the extraversion is associated with the traits of active,

being outgoing, dominant, expressive, highly on positive affection, impulsivity, more need of

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stimulation, risk-taking, sociality and talkative. On the other hand, the introversion may be display

the reverse traits. Most people are in the midrange of the extraversion and introversion continuum.

In the dimension of neuroticism (emotionality) /stability, the neuroticism has the traits of high

negative affect levels, guilt feelings, instability, melancholy, moody and reactiveness. The persons

of neuroticism feel anxiety and depressed easily. Their activation thresholds are low. The neurotic

persons are unable to inhibit their reactions. They get nervous easily when they experience

negative affects. They are difficult to control the emotions. They are easily upset and tense. On the

other hand, the emotionally stable persons are calm. Their activation thresholds are high. Their

controlling emotion abilities are better than ordinary people.

They experience negative affects when they face the major stressors and more pressure. In

the dimension of psychoticism and socialization, the psychoticism indicated the absurd, angry,

aggression, assertive, cold, contradiction, dogmatic, egocentric, hostility, impulsiveness,

manipulative, psychotic episode, recklessness and unsympathetic.

The extraversion/introversion and neuroticism/ stability can form the traits of four quadrants.

The stable extraverts, unstable extraverts, stable introverts and unstable introverts made up of the

four quadrants. The stable extraverts corresponded to the sanguine qualities. The person of stable

extraverts has the traits of alive, easygoing, communicative, carefree, leadership, outgoing and

responsive. The unstable extraverts corresponded to the choleric qualities. The person of the

unstable extraverts has the traits of the changeful, excitable, hotheaded, irresponsible, restless and

touchy.

The stable introverts corresponded to the phlegmatic qualities. The person of the stable

introverts has the traits of the cautious, controlled, equilibrium, even-tempered, passive, reliable

and thoughtful. The unstable introverts corresponded to the melancholic qualities. The person of

the unstable introverts has the traits of the imperturbed, moody, pessimistic, quiet, rigid, reserved

and worriment.

4.2 Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory

The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) is one of the widely and

frequently used personality assessment. The MMPI was started in the late 1930's. The test was

developed in 1942. Starke R. Hathaway, and J. C. McKinley, at the University of Minnesota

Hospitals were the original authors of the MMPI. The MMPI is commonly used on mental health.

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The test can be used to diagnose illness. The test has been used for occupation, criminal justice,

education and other non-clinical assessments. The assessment was also designed to help identify

psychological problems in patients. The test helps provide relevant information to aid in diagnosis

and treatment.

In 1989, the MMPI-2 was released for adults. The MMPI-2 has 567 questions about physical

and psychological symptoms, attitudes, past experiences, and emotional reactions. The subject

answered the question to each item by true, cannot say or false. Some sample items in MMPI are

as follows: "I have never done anything dangerous for the thrill of it" "My mother or father often

made me obey, even when I thought it was unreasonable" "I daydream very little" "I think that

most people would lie to get ahead" "At times my thoughts have raced ahead faster than I could

speak them". It takes approximately 60 to 90 min to complete the test.

The MMPI's short form include 370 items on the long-form MMPI-2. The MMPI-A can be

used for the adolescents. Norms are published based on diverse ages. The MMPI has subscales

measure, which is hypochondiasis, depression, hysteria, psychopathic deviance, masculinity-

femininity, paranoia, psychasthenia, schizophrenia, hypomania, and social intervention. Since

1989, the MMPI has been revised for many times.

4.3 Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire

The Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire is in short 16PF. Raymond Bernard Cattell, a

psychologist, and his colleagues developed the 16PF in the 1940s. The 16PF was released in 1949.

Based on the traits theory Allport and Odbert, Cattell study the list of Allport-Odbert by the

techniques of factor analysis. He got the 12 personality factors and 4 traits factors based on the

correlation coefficient by the computer techniques. Cattell and his colleague researchers found the

sixteen primary traits and five "second-order" traits of personality.

Cattell and his colleagues discovered the 16 primary factors by factor-analyzing hundreds of

ratings of daily behaviors. The five "second-order" factors were a result of factor-analyzing the 16

primary traits. The 16PF provides scores on the second-order whole traits. The 16PF also provides

scores on the more precise primary traits. They reveal the details of everyone unique personality.

The 16PF has many editions. There are 185 multiple-choice items in the 16PF fifth edition

revision. The items are not threatened. The questions are simple and are written at a 5 grade level.

The content includes interests, daily behavior, and opinions. It takes approximately 35-50 min for

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completing the measurement. The subject can answer the questions by paper-and-pencil version or

by computer. The 16PF can be used for the different ages of the person. The Adolescent

Personality Questionnaire can be used for ages 12 to 18 years. There are sixteen primary scales, 5

global scales and three validity scales in the 16PF. The 16 primary scales are assosicated with a

brief ability scale. All personality scales are bipolar. Each scale have a meaningful definition on

the two sides.

4.4 California Psychological Inventory

Harrison Gough published the California Psychological Inventory (CPI) in 1956. The new

revision of the CPI was released in 1987. The CPI is a self-report personality test. The CPI is alike

to the MMPI. Many items of the CPI came from the MMPI. The CPI can be used for the person

aged 13 years or above. It takes approximately 45 ~ 60 min to complete the test.

There were the 462 items in the early CPI version. The current version of the CPI consists of

434 items. The subject needs to answer the true or false questions in the measurement. The CPI

included eighteen scales. There were 3 validity scales and 4 content validity scales in the 18

scales. The eighteen scales can be divided into 4 parts. Assessing the ascendancy, interpersonal

adequacy, the poise and the self-assurance were the one way of the CPI. The other part was

assessing the character, intrapersonal values, the responsibility and the socialization. Measuring

the achievement potential and the intellectual efficiency were the important parts in the CPI.

The last part included assessing the intelligence and interest modes. The CPI also included

the achievement via conformance, the achievement via independence, the capacity for status,

communality, the dominance, the empathy, femininity-masculinity, flexibility, good impression,

independence, psychological-mindedness, the responsibility, self-acceptance, self-control, sense of

well-being, the sociability, social presence and the tolerance.

4.5 Rorschach Inkblot Test

The Rorschach Inkblot Test is named after Hermann Rorschach. Rorschach developed the

psychological projective test of personality. The Rorschach Inkblot Test includes five black

inkblots, three multicolored inkblots, two black and red inkblots. In the test, a subject interpreted

the ten abstract inkblots's cards. In the test, a subject may see some inkblot pictures of animals, or

the flowers. A subject may sometimes see a man, the conceivable object, or even the creative

imagination in the cards. The result of the test scored according to the location, determinants or

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content.

The subject is supposed to project real personality into the inkblot by the interpretation in the

Rorschach technique so that it is called "projective test". The inkblots are purportedly ambiguous,

structureless entities, however the interpreter give them a clear structure. The testers consider the

inkblot test is an efficaciously method of getting into someone's subconscious mind.

4.6 Thematic Apperception Test

The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) is a projective assessment technique. Henry A.

Murray and Christiana D. Morgan developed the TAT during the 1930s. Many researchers believe

that a person described the ambiguous situations in conformity to the experiences or their

motivations. The TAT can assess the attitude, emotion and psychological characteristic by talking

about the ambiguous pictures. The people told the stories of the ambiguous pictures through their

concerns, and the way by which they comprehend the world. Therefore, we can apply the TAT to

explore the conscious, unconscious and the dynamics of personality.

In the TAT, the tester asks a subject interpreting a series of picture. The subjects need to

answer the questions about each presented picture when they tell the story about the ambiguous

pictures. The following questions were ask often: "What has led up to the event shown?" "What

the characters are feeling and thinking?" "What is happening at the moment?" "What the outcome

of the story was?".

There were thirty two picture cards in the TAT. Some cards had male figures in the pictures.

Some cards had female figures in the pictures, while some pictures had both male and female

figures. Some cards show the ambiguous gender, while some pictures had no human figures.

There was a blank card which was used for the subject eliciting a scene and a story about the

scene. Murray advised applying twenty cards in the measurement. in practice, the tester suggested

that eight to fourteen cards may be useful. Whatever, to turn away the bias and unilateralism, the

test needs using a variety of cards to obtain the global perspective information of the subject.

There were many ways to analysis the result of the TAT. According to the need-press theory,

Murray's scoring system scored the result of the TAT from 1 to 5. Murray coding every sentence

by presenting twenty presses and twenty eight needs. The scoring system of Murray is in the light

of the duration, frequency, importance and intensity to the plot. There were several other scoring

systems systematically analyzed the TAT's result except Murray's scoring system. The Defense

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Mechanisms Manual was another common method to analysis the stories of the TAT.

As someone's thoughts or feelings may project to the stories, the defense mechanisms manual

scoring system evaluated the defense mechanisms of the denial, identification and the projection.

The Social Cognition and Object Relations Scale was also a common scoring system. Four

dimensions of object relations were evaluated in it. They were the affect-tone of relationship

paradigms, capacity for emotional investment in relationships, complexity of representations of

people, moral standards and understanding of social Causality.

5. Neuropsychological Tests

5.1 Luria-Nebraska Neuropsychological Battery

Aleksandr R. Luria developed the Luria-Nebraska neuropsychological battery (LNNB). As a

standard of measurement, the LNNB based on Luria's theories of the brain function. The LNNB

can be used to the person aged 13 years above. The LNNB included 269 items and fourteen scales

such as the arithmetic, expressive speech, intelligence, left hemisphere, motor function, memory,

pathognomonic, reading, receptive language, rhythm, right hemisphere, tactile functions, visual

functions and writing.

5.2 Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychological Test Battery

Ward C. Halstead and Ralph Reitan released the Halstead Reitan Neuropsychological Test

Battery (HRNB). Ralph Reitan was a student of Dr. Ward C. Halstead in University of Chicago.

They studied the neuropsychological measurement to evaluate the neurological function and the

brain localization of the damage. The HRNB consists of the Controlled Oral Word Association

Test, Finger Oscillation Test, Halstead Category Test, Rhythm Test, Speech Sounds Perception

Test, Tactual Performance Test and the Trails A and B. Controlled Oral Word Association Test

measures the ability of the verbal associations to the specific letters.

6. Other Tests and Assessments

6.1 Symptom Checklist 90

The Symptom Checklist 90 (SCL-90) was developed by Leonard R. Derogatis and K. Rickels et

al. The SCL-90 came from the Hopkins Symptom Checklist. An early version included eighty

questions. Leonard R. Derogatis, R. S. Lipman, and K. Rickels released the 58 items version in

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1974. The SCL-90 was a instrument of self-report measurement. The Symptom Checklist-90-

Revised was released in 1994. The shortened version of the SCL-90 was Brief Symptom

Inventory.

There were 9 different symptom subscales in the SCL-90. The nine different dimensions were

the somatization, obsessive-compulsive, interpersonal sensitivity, depression, anxiety, hostility,

phobic anxiety, paranoid ideation, and the psychoticism in the SCL-90. There was an additional

item in the SCL-90. The additional item can evaluate the other aspect of the symptoms (e. g. , item

19, "poor appetite"). The SCL-90 also had 3 global indices. They were the global severity index,

positive symptom distress index and positive symptom total. The global severity index designed to

get a summary of the assessment and to evaluate overall mental distress. The positive symptom

distress index can evaluate the intensity of symptoms. The positive symptom total can assess the

number of the symptoms.

6.2 Social Readjustment Rating Scale

Thomas Holmes and Richard Rahe developed the Social Readjustment Rating Scale in 1967.

Holmes and Rahe study more than 5 thousand patients. They found that illnesses might be relative

to stressful life events. Based on their research, Holmes and Rahe developed Social Readjustment

Rating Scale, or Holmes and Rahe Stress Scale. The Social Read- justment Rating Scale can

measure the stress. The score of a subject may give someone a rough estimate of how the stress

affects the health.

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 According to the research of Holmes and Rahe, if the scores of the life change units are

greater than 300, someone is at risk of illness. If the scores of the life change units are between

150 and 299, their risk of illness may be moderate. If someone's score of Holmes and Rahe Stress

Scale is less than 150, they only have a slight risk of illness.

Relationship between LCU and health

Cumulative LCU values for one year ＞300 150～300 ＜150

Prevalence in the following year 86% 50% May be healthy.

6.3 Benton Visual Retention Test

The Benton Visual Retention Test, in short Benton Test can be used to assess the visual

perception and memory. The Benton Test can be used to evaluate the possible learning disabilities

as well. The Benton Test can be used to the person aged 8 years to adult. The tester shows ten

designs to the subject in the Benton test. The subject operated one by one, meanwhile complete

each task on plain paper by memory as exactly as possible. The results of measurement scored

according to the arrangement, form, pattern and shape of the subject.

6.4 Mental Status Examination

The mental status examination (MSE) was a clinical measurement. The MSE was sometimes

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called the MSE. We can observe the person's state of mind by the MSE, which would help to

diagnosis and treatment. Based on the theory of the descriptive psychopathology, The MSE

developed according to the research of Karl Jaspers. Jaspers assumed that we can comprehend and

know a patient's experience by their own descriptions. The MSE can evaluate the appearance,

attitude, behavior, thought process and content, cognition, insight, judgment, mood and affect,

perception and speech.

6.5 Mini-mental State Examination

The mini-mental state examination (MMSE) can be used to evaluate the cognitive

impairment and to screen for the Alzheimer's disease or dementia.

The MMSE can evaluate and screen the severity of cognitive impairment, but the maximal

score of 30 points can not exclude the dementia. Analysis of the score needs to be considered for

all factors.

6.6 Type A Behavior Pattern

The Type A Behavior Questionnaire was initiated from the research of the specific

personality type and the heart disease by Meyer Friedman and Ray Rosenman in the 1950s. They

found that the personality type was associated with high frequencies of the heart disease. Meyer

Friedman, Ray Rosenman and their colleagues used the structured interviews and much clinical

method studied deeply the relationships among the heart disease, behavior and personality in

1960. The Participants need to answer the questions in the structured interviews. Meyer Friedman,

Ray Rosenman and their colleagues studied the verbal behaviors, nonverbal behaviors and

everyday events of the participants. The structured interviews questions was about driving,

waiting and dealing with the daily problems etc.

The individuals of type a behavior pattern (TABP) was characterized by the personality type

and behavioral aspects. They are usually losing their temper in many situations, interrupting others

speech, feeling the time urgency, quick and loud speech. They used to be on success, achievement

in certain settings, competitiveness and workaholism. The type A individuals are less cooperative

and calm and more ambition than the type B individuals. The persons of type A behavior pattern

show angry, aggression, compulsiveness, hostility, impatience, frequent irritation, low tolerance

and self-esteem, negative affection, perfectionism, personal insecurity, provoking easily, rigidity,

stress and strictness in the emotional reaction response, psychology and behavior.

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 Many researches of the TABP suggested that the type A individuals displayed more risk of

developing CHD than the type B individuals. The TABP may be a significant predictor of the

CHD. More recently, researchers developed several self-reports or questionnaire to evaluate the

TABP. Jenkins developed the multiple-choice Jenkins Activity Survey (JAS) in 1979. The JAS

measures the attitudes and behaviors in the TABP.

Chapter Summary

In this chapter, we discussed the foundational concepts and the principles of the

psychological measurement and assessment. We introduce some psychological tests for evaluating

the psychological function such as intelligence, personality, mental status and mental mental

health. In the intelligence test, we discussed the Binet-Simon intelligence test, the Stanford-Binet

Intelligence Scenles, the Wechslev's Intelligence Test and the Raven's Progressive Matricess.

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