SOCIOLINGUISTICS

LESSON 5

INSTRUCTOR: LE NGUYEN NHU ANH

LESSON 5
NATIONAL
LANGUAGES AND
LANGUAGE
PLANNING
Lesson Contents
Key takeaways:

National and official languages

Planning for a national official language

Developing a standard variety in Norway

The linguist’s role in language planning

Example 1

Spanish: Guaraní:
highly regarded by the indigenous American Indian
upper class, language of language, 90% of population,
literature, 60% of population, L language of solidarity, love,
H language of administration, humour, poetry, regarded as
education, legal business real national language
1960s: Official language 1960s: National language
1992: Official language
Exercises
Exercise 1
Which of the following factors do you consider most relevant in assessing the suitability of Guaraní as the national
language of Paraguay? Order the factors according to their importance in relation to this issue.
(a) Guaraní is a linguistically interesting language with a complex tense system.
(b) Guaraní is spoken by over 90 per cent of Paraguayans and is the only language of many rural people.
(c) Guaraní has an extensive vocabulary, especially in areas such as botany, medicine and agriculture.
(d) Guaraní expresses solidarity between Paraguayans both at home and abroad.
(e) Guaraní is considered a melodious language, especially appropriate for expressions of love.
(f) Guaraní is an indigenous language which attracts a great deal of language loyalty from Paraguayans.
(g) Guaraní is a morphologically interesting language which forms words using additive and synthetic processes.
(h) Every president of Paraguay has been able to speak Guaraní.
Exercises
Exercise 1
Linguistic features of the language are less relevant than attitudinal, political and social factors.
Statements (a) and (g) are probably least relevant to the adoption of the language as a national language,
Statements (c) and (e) are relevant only to the extent that they express Paraguayans’ attitudes to their language and
suggest that it could be developed relatively easily if adopted for other reasons.
Statements (b), (d) and (f) are the ones we would rate highest, with (h) an interesting indication of the political value of
knowing the language.
Overall, it must be recognised that the preservation and maintenance of the language has owed much to political factors.
Guaraní has proved useful politically as a unifying symbol for the nation.
National and official languages
Example 2

A multilingual Pacific Bislama

republic, 80 islands, 200000 national language, English-
population, independence lexified creole (from a
from Britain & France in 1980 Melanesian plantation
pidgin), lingua franca in
Vanuatu, politically
acceptable
National and official languages

National language Official language

A national language is the language of An official language is a language which
a political, cultural and social unit. may be used for government business.

• Developed and used as a symbol of • Functions: primarily utilitarian

national unity. (sometimes can also be symbolic).

• Functions: identify the nation and

unite people.
National and official languages
Governments do not always recognise the distinctions made by sociolinguists => terms
used for political purposes
• Paraguay:
• official languages: Spanish, Guaraní
• national language: Guaraní
• Tanzania:
• official languages: Swahili, English
• national language: Swahili
• Vanuatu:
• official languages: Bislama, English, French
• national language: Bislama
National and official languages

Monolingual nations: the same language serves both purposes

Multilingual nations: choice to satisfy political+social goals & practical and utilitarian needs
• Asserting the nation hood of a newly independent or established nation
 national language
Ex: Swahili in Tanzania, Hebrew in Israel, Malay in Malaysia, Indonesian in Indonesia.
• Internal and external functions of government business  official languages
Example: + Ivory Coast, Chad: French
+ Israel: Arabic
National and official languages

• Choice of national language is problematic  official languages

National and official languages
Official status and minority languages
English is not legally the official language of England, the USA, or New Zealand
 de facto official language
Maori and New Zealand Sign Language are legally official languages of New Zealand
 de jure official language
National and official languages
Official status and minority languages
Example 3

Maori activist Now has the right to address

Insist on addressing the the court in Maori – court
court in Maori provides interpreter
1987, Maori declared official
status

Dun Mihaka
National and official languages
Official status and minority languages

English: official language of UK Welsh activists protested against

Welsh: recognized officially in Wales, the dominance of English
not Britain
National and official languages
Official status and minority languages
The costs in terms of providing services and information in all official languages are
considerable
 Most governments count them carefully.
It seems unlikely other minorities will earn such rights easily.
National and official languages
Official status and minority languages
The National anthem of South Africa: written in 5
languages (Zhosa, Zulu, Sesotho, Afrikaans, English)
Exercises
Exercise 3
In 1855, Dean Trench, a leading architect of the Oxford English Dictionary, expressed the hope that studying the dictionary
would ‘lead through a more intimate knowledge of English into a greater love of England’. In the 1980s, this attitude was
expressed once again in relation to the standard dialect of English. The British Secretary of State for Education pointed to
the importance of the English language as a symbol of nationhood.

What do you think of the claims of these men that studying standard English will develop a sense of national pride in
England?
Exercises
Exercise 3
The attitudes expressed by the men cited reflect the tendency to see language and nation as synonymous – one language =
one nation. This view of the ‘ideal’ nation-state as a single people using a single language is very widely held. To some
extent, it is apparent in the descriptions (derived from those of sociolinguists involved) of the language situations in
Paraguay presented above and Tanzania below. Alternative views are possible, however. Some sociolinguists argue, for
example, that the ‘one nation–one language’ reflects the hegemonic impact of predominantly monolingual cultures such as
those of France and England, where one ethnic group dominates, and is in control of political power. They suggest that
studying standard English is not likely to lead to a love of England for a British Black whose home language variety is
ridiculed and repressed, and whose economic prospects are depressing. Nor is it likely that linguistic minorities in Britain,
such as speakers of Panjabi, Polish and Greek, will be very enthusiastic about a ‘one nation –one language’ viewpoint.
National and official languages
What price a national language?
The development of a single national language  symbolise the unity of a nation
• establish a distinct national identity
• secure independence from colonial rule
• in multilingual countries, a symbolic unifying function
Numerical dominance is not always the case, political power is more important
National and official languages
What price a national language?
The Philippines
• Gained independence in 1946
• Pilipino (now Filipino) declared national language
• Closely based on Tagalog, 12 mil native speakers
• Tagalog speakers: political and economic powers, capital area
• Relabelled Filipino to gain wide acceptance

Tagalog Cebuana Ilocano

12 mil 10 mil 5 mil
National and official languages
What price a national language?
Indonesia
• Indonesian: a standardised variety of Malay, previously a trade language, chosen as
national language, a useful neutral linguistic choice in many situations
• Javanese, language of political and social elite, complex linguistically marked system
National and official languages
What price a national language?
Linguistic diversity of Indonesia
Planning for a national official language
Form, functions and attitudes
1. Selection: choosing the variety/code
2. Codification (corpus planning): standardizing structural/linguistic features
3. Elaboration: extending functions in new domains
4. Securing its acceptance (status planning/prestige planning): enhancing prestige,
developing pride/loyalty
Planning for a national official language
Form, functions and attitudes
Table 5.1 Steps in language planning

Form Function and attitudes

Social Selection Acceptance
Linguistic Codification Elaboration

Source: From Haugen 1966a: 934.

Planning for a national official language
Tanzania
The major languages of Tanzania
Planning for a national official language
Tanzania

 No worries (Swahili)
Planning for a national official language
Tanzania
1. Selecting a code:
- Swahili, a language of the Bantu language family: widely used as lingua franca throughout
the country
Reasons:
• Language of primary education
• 96% of Tanzania’s languages are Bantu languages
• Lingua franca of the anti-colonial political movement for independence
 social cement between different groups
Planning for a national official language
Tanzania
2. Codifying and elaborating Swahili:
• Standardising begun by British administration in the 1920s
• Zanzibar, a southern variety of Swahili, as basis
• Codification: developing a standard spelling system, describing the grammar, writing a
dictionary to record vocabulary
• After independence, used in more contexts (education, administration, politics, law)
• Vocabulary expanded for new contexts
Planning for a national official language
Tanzania
3. Attitudes to Swahili:
• High status and positive attitudes
• Neutral: not identified with any particular tribe
• Strong loyal
Exercises
Exercise 5
A successful national language needs to serve a variety of functions. The following have been identified as important.
• Unifying: it must unify the nation and offer advantages to speakers over their dialects and vernaculars.
• Separatist: it must set the nation off from surrounding nations. It should be an appropriate symbol of separate national
identity.
• Prestige: it should be recognised as a proper or ‘real’ language with higher status than local dialects and vernacular
languages.
• Frame-of-reference function: the standard variety serves as a yardstick for correctness. Other varieties will be regarded
as non-standard in some respect.

Are all these functions served for the Tanzanian nation by Swahili?
Exercises
Exercise 5
The discussion of Swahili illustrates that it can be regarded as serving all these functions in Tanzania.
• Unifying: Swahili serves to unify Tanzanians, since it is not the language of a particular tribe. It offers advantages over
tribal languages as a means of communication, education and access to government jobs, for instance.
• Separatist: Since Swahili is used throughout East Africa as a lingua franca, this function is not so clearly realised as
others. Guaraní in Paraguay is a better example of a language serving this separatist function, since it clearly
distinguishes Paraguay from other South American nations. Swahili sets the country off from surrounding countries only
to the extent that it is the national language of Tanzania. However, the standard used is a distinctly Tanzanian variety of
Swahili. It is certainly regarded by many Tanzanians as a symbol of their separate national identity.
• Prestige: There is no doubt about the status of Swahili as a proper or ‘real’ language. It has much greater status in the
nation as a whole than any tribal vernacular language.
• Frame-of-reference function: There is a standard variety of Swahili which exists alongside a range of regional varieties.
The standard was developed from the variety spoken in Zanzibar town. The standard is clearly recognised as the norm
and other varieties are regarded as regionally marked.
Developing a standard variety in Norway

1814

It’s over between us

Goodbye my lover, goodbye my friend

You have been the one
You have been the one for me
Developing a standard variety in Norway

Danish: Norwegian dialects:

H language L varieties
Upper-class: (1) Danish with No standard Norwegian
Norwegian pronunciation in language
formal situations, (2) compromise Lower-class
with local Norwegian dialects in Norwegian dialects (Danish
informal situations influence)
Developing a standard variety in Norway
Selecting a code
• Standard Danish: language of H domains, of “oppressors”, not widely used in
informal interaction, negative attitude from Norwegian
• Regional Norwegian dialects : lack of forms and functions, choosing one dialect
would create negative attitudes from others
2 approachs in developing a standard written variety of Norweigan
1. Selecting a variety based on Danish, with orthographic and morphological
modifications based on educated urban Norwegian speech  Bokmål
2. Creating a new Norwegian written standard using a range of rural Norwegian
dialects  Landsmål  Nynorsk
Developing a standard variety in Norway
Codification and elaboration
Nynorsk:
• Ivar Aasen wrote a grammar and a 40000-word
dictionary for the new Norwegian standard.
• Common grammatical patterns identified in
different dialects
• Vocabulary chosen from different regions (avoiding
Ivar Aasen
as much Danish influence as possible. (1812-1896)
Norwegian philologist,
• Extending functions using rural dialect resources lexicographer,
playwright, and poet.
• Creating new words from dialect forms
Developing a standard variety in Norway
Codification and elaboration
2 distinct written varieties: Bokmål & Nynorsk
• Efforts of uniting the two decreased after WWII due to political differences
• Identical syntax
• Different words and spelling
• Pronouncements made by the Norwegian Language Council about spellings and words
• Official documents printed in both varieties
• Schoolchildren taught to read and write both
• Local councils decide which is the main instruction in local schools
Developing a standard variety in Norway
Acceptance
Nynorsk Bokmål
• Welcomed by Norwegian nationalists • Used in most books

• Rejected by influential city-dwellers • Language of instruction in most schools

• 1885: voted as equal with Danish • Has urban and sophisticated connotations

• 1944: chief language of instruction for 34.1% of

all schoolchildren  decreases to 13.4% by 2008

• Continue to be displaced by Bokmål

Exercises
Exercise 7
The development of a standard language has sometimes been described as involving the following two steps:
(i) Create a model for imitation.
(ii) Promote it over its rivals.

Linguists are often involved as advisers at both stages. Some people have argued that linguists can provide useful linguistic
expertise for achieving step (i) but they have no contribution to make to step (ii). Do you agree?
Exercises
Exercise 7
While linguists have obvious expertise in developing the form of a standard variety, the task of promoting the variety will
require a variety of skills and resources which are not particularly linguistic. However, sociolinguists have a role to play in
advising on the relative advantages and disadvantages of different varieties from the point of view of their likelihood of
acceptance. Some varieties begin with a head-start – Swahili in Tanzania, for instance, had a great deal going for it in terms
of acceptance compared with English, and was therefore easier to promote. Promoting Yiddish would have been very
problematic in Israel.
Developing a standard variety in Norway

Language planning is a fascinating mixture of political and social considerations, as well as

linguistic ones.
Linguistic landscape: the "visibility and salience of languages on public and commercial
signs in a given territory or region" (Landry and Bourhis 1997:23)
• ‘Top-down’ signs are official signs, designed by public authorities
• ‘Bottom-up’ signs are non-official signs, usually produced by individuals or groups.
Developing a standard variety in Norway
‘Top-down’ signs

‘Bottom-up’ signs
Developing a standard variety in Norway

Linguistic landscape:
• Alternative classification: a continuum from official to non-official signs

official non-official

An analysis of the linguistic landscape can provide useful clues to the gap which
often exists between official language policy and actual linguistic practices.
Developing a standard variety in Norway
Example 6

Portuguese, Tetun: official languages

In 2002, UN peace-keeping forces arrived  English
2010 analysis:
• Portuguese: dorminant language
• English: 60% of signs surveyed (monolingual English),
15% (English and other languages)
• Tetun: no evident on official signs
Exercises
Exercise 9
Consider this sign from the carpark of
Macdonalds in Meknes, a Moroccan city.
1. Can you identify the languages in each
segment?
2. What does your experience of written material
suggest
(a) about the status relationship between the
two languages?
(b) about the relationship between official
language policy and actual practice in
Meknes?
Exercises
Exercise 9
1. The two languages are French and Modern Standard Arabic, the language of media and written texts in Morocco.
2.
(a) If you are not familiar with Arabic you might assume that the sign is giving precedence to French since it is on the left
side of the sign and people using Roman script read from left to right.
If you are familiar with Arabic you will know that Arabic is read from right to left. Thus an Arabic reader will see the Arab ic
as taking precedence.
Bilingual readers will recognise the fact that the sign gives equal status to each language.
(b)The official languages of Morocco are Modern Standard Arabic and Berber. However French is a prestige language
and an official second language, taught in schools, used in commerce, culture, science, education and government and
widely used as a lingua franca. So this sign is somewhat inconsistent with official policy (which would specify Arabic and
Berber) but reflects widespread practice.
The linguist’s role in language planning

1. Codification of orthography
• Previously influenced by the church (through missionaries)
• Spelling reform by government
2. Developing Vocabulary
3. Acceptance
4. Acquisition planning
• Organised efforts to spread a linguistic variety by increasing
the number of its users
• Language-in-education planning
Summary

Language planning: deliberate language change.

• introduction of new labels
• reform of spelling systems
• the provision of advice on non-sexist terminology
• the development of national languages and standard dialects
Language planner: develop a policy of language use which will solve
the problems appropriately in particular speech communities.
 References

• Cooper (1989)
• Crystal (2010)
• Eastman (1983)
Resources • Garvin and Mathiot (1956)
• Haugen (1966a)
• Kaplan and Baldauf (2005)
• Rubin and Jernudd (1971)
• Trudgill (2000)