CONCRETE

MORE THAN 100 YEARS

OF DURABILITY
FROM Sika®-1 TO Sika® ViscoCrete®
BENEFIT OF OUR SOLUTION
Founded by Kaspar Winkler in 1910, the name Sika today stands for waterproof and durable
solutions. Beginning with rendering mortar, used for the first time in the waterproofing of
the old Gotthard Railway Tunnel, and extending to entire waterproofing systems for a wide
number of applications, which also currently includes the Gotthard Base Tunnel, the longest
high-speed railway tunnel in the world, Sika products contribute to building success. To seal
durably against penetrating water, while in other instances to protect precious water and
prevent its leakage; two sides of a comprehensive challenge present complex interfaces.
Concrete has shaped Sika’s development sustainably, and since 1910 Sika has made a
notable contribution to the development of concrete as a durable building material!
CONTENT

04 Concrete Technology Guideline

08 Waterproof Concrete Structures

10 Corrosion Resistant Concrete

12 Frost & Freeze / Thaw Resistance Concrete

14 Sulfate Resistant Concrete

16 Fire Resistant Concrete

18 Alkali-Silica-Reaction Resistant Concrete

20 Abrasion Resistant Concrete

22 Chemical Resistant Concrete

24 High Strength Concrete

26 Shrinkage Controlled Concrete

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DURABILITY 3
 CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY
GUIDELINE

CONCRETE IS THE CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL OF THE

CENTURY and it plays a crucial role in all our building and
infrastructure requirements. In today’s world, the use of
concrete is universal and building without it would be
unimaginable.

Concrete is a very durable material when properly formulated, quality

controlled, professionally placed and cured. It is then capable of with-
standing a majority of the demands placed upon it. Concrete building
and infrastructure are exposed to a very wide range of stresses and
strains. It starts at a very early stage with the cement hydration in the
environmental conditions and continues throughout the life span of the
structure. Forces, loads, thermal effects, water, contamination, erosion,
traffic, abrasion, vibration, fatigue and impact all place huge demand on
the concrete’s ability to last. To resist all these factors water reducing
admixtures play a significant role.

Durable concrete stands first and foremost for strength. “The stronger
and more dense the concrete, the greater the resistance to outside attack”.
Strength for durable concrete is often expressed by the water to cement
ratio (w/c) and high strengths can only be achieved with low water con-
tent. A low water content and modified binder composition are therefore
the two most critical factors for a better durable and higher performance
concrete.

Water reduction and porosity

Modern concrete admixtures can reduce water demand in fresh concrete
by 40% without changing the workability. As a result, the pore quantity
in the cement paste can be reduced by 75% by adding a superplasticizer.

Effect on water reduction on concrete quality

Calculation of water content (needed & surplus amount of water)

Mix 1: Initial mix design
Cement content 320 kg/m²
Reference no water reduction 0%
Water content 192 liter 0.60 w/c-ratio
Pore quantity (based on the concrete volume)  7.0%
Pore quantity (based on the cement stone) 24.0%
Mix 2: Optimized water content
Cement content 320 kg/m²
Water reduction by using a WR/HRWR 28%
Water content 138 liter 0.43 w/c-ratio
Pore quantity (based on the concrete volume)  1.7%
Pore quantity (based on the cement stone) 6.9%
Figure 1: Effect of water reduction on pore quantity

CONCRETE
4 MORE THAN 100 YEARS OF DURABILITY
 Water reduction limits in practice
When considering low water content to increase strength and durability,
the performance requirements must be balanced with workability re-
quirements. It is important to remember that the method of placement,
and especially the quality of the aggregates, has a huge influence when
utilizing the water reduction potential to the full.

Effect of minimum water demand for different binder contents

Water reduction limits

Water demand for different binder contents

450
Water in l/m³
400 600 Kg/m³
500 Kg/m³
350 400 Kg/m³
300 300 Kg/m³

250

200

150
Minimum water demand to achieve reasonable workability
100

50

0
0.70 0.60 0.50 0.40 0.30
WIC-ratio

Figure 2: The water reduction potential to increase durability must be compatible with the placing practicalities

Durability and Workability

The influence of water reducers on durability and workability can never be
under estimated. A durable concrete means a low water to binder ratio com-
bined with specially selected constituent materials in the right quantity ad-
justed according to the environmental, ambient conditions and performance
requirements. This must be balanced with the method of application and
workability time which can only be achieved with the right admixture.

Water / Cement ratio determination

Achievable concrete quality
High Good
Quality / Durability

Practical / Feasible

Influencing factors: Influencing factors:

– Quality of binder – Quality of local aggregates
– K nowledge of people – Local conditions (temp/...)
– Quality control – Experiences of worker
concept – On site supervision

Low Bad

0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70

Water / Binder-ratio
Figure 3: Achievable concrete quality

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 CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY
GUIDELINE

Volume paste optimization to achieve concrete durability

Concrete is a mixture of paste and aggregates. The paste is composed
of the binder and water. The paste coats the surface of the aggregates
and through a chemical reaction called hydration; the paste hardens and
gains strength. In some cases the binder is increased in the attempt to
increase performances. In fact this process inevitably increases the ce-
ment paste volume, decreases the filler (aggregate) volume and has little
influence on the strength. It is often more expedient to adapt the paste
volume by reducing the water content. In doing so, this method is more
effective in increasing strength and durability.
To produce a durable concrete care should be taken to select the right
materials in the right proportions suitable for producing and placing. Mix
design guidance is an efficient tool to start the durability process.

Effect of water content and cement quantity on concrete properties:

But concrete with different paste volume but same paste quality we will have “same” mechanical
strengths

W/C = 0.65 W/C = 0.65 W/C = 0.65 W/C = 0.65

1034 kg/m² 600 kg/m² 350 kg/m² 200 kg/m²
40 N/mm² 40 N/mm² 40 N/mm² 40 N/mm²

Concrete with different paste quality will have different mechanical strengths

W/C = 0.75 W/C = 0.65 W/C = 0.55 W/C = 0.45

350 kg/m² 350 kg/m² 350 kg/m² 350 kg/m²
30 N/mm² 40 N/mm² 50 N/mm² 60 N/mm²
Figure 4: Visualization of cement paste according to cement content and w/c-ratio

Complex relationship between water content, fine content and workability

0.80 Binder content
0.75 [kg/m3]
Self Compacting Concrete
“Crane & Bucket” Concrete

Pumped Concrete

0.70 200 250

0.65 300 350
w/c-ratio

0.60 400 450

0.55 500 550
0.50 600 650
700 750
0.45
0.40
0.35
200 225 250 275 300 325 350 375 400 425 450 475 500 525 550 575
Binder Paste [L/m3]
Fine Mortar Paste Sieve curve with low sand content
225 249 273 292 321 345 370 394 418 442 466 490 515 539 568 592
[L/m ]
3
240 253 286 319 332 355 380 404 428 452 476 500 525 349 573 597
Sieve curve with high sand content

Figure 5: Relation between concrete compressive strengths of a specific cement, expressed

in w/c-ratio, and the fine mortar quantity (L/m³) for a required cement content (kg/m³)

CONCRETE
6 MORE THAN 100 YEARS OF DURABILITY
 Minimizing chloride migration
Concrete is often exposed to water and within water there can contain
some aggressive contaminants. Concrete, generally, has low resistance to
aggressive chemical attack in the form of leaching, carbonation, chlorides
and sulfates. These pollutants penetrate the concrete by many different
transport mechanisms including diffusion, capillary suction, permeability,
convection or electro-migration and react with the cement paste or cor-
rode reinforcement. Reducing the water content and modifying the binder
will increase the permeability and improve the chemical resistance.

Effect of water content on chloride migration

Cement content consistent 350 kg/m³; w/c variable
10 100
SIA 262/1
9 90
fcw-91d
Chloride migration coefficient [ x 10 +12 ]

8 80

Compressive strength [MPa]

7 70

6 60

5 50

4 40

3 30

2 20

1 10

0 0
0.58 0.50 0.46 0.42 0.34
WIC-ratio

Figure 6: Concrete tests according to SIA 262/1 Annex B (similar to NT BUILD 492)

Nowadays, pure Portland cement has almost ceased to be used alone for
durable requirements. Instead, the resistance of the cement binder to ex-
ternal attack is greatly increased by the use of specially selected additives
(e.g. fly ash and slags) and performance enhancing admixtures (e.g. water
reducers). The binder to the water content is a very important factor and
is known as the water binder ratio (w/b ratio).

Effect of ground-granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBFS) on chloride migration

Binder content consistent. 350 kg/m³; SCM/OPC variable; w/b eq consistent
10 100
SIA 262/1
9 90
fcw-91d
Chloride migration coefficient [ x 10 +12 ]

8 80
Compressive strength [MPa]

7 70

6 60

5 50

4 40

3 30

2 20

1 10

0 0
0% GGBFS 15% GGBFS 30% GGBFS 60% GGBFS 90% GGBFS
SCM-content

Figure 7: Concrete tests according to SIA 262/1 Annex B (similar to NT BUILD 492)

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DURABILITY 7
 WATERPROOF
CONCRETE STRUCTURES

DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF A WATERTIGHT CONCRETE STRUCTURE is a system approach.

The water-impermeability of a construction is determined by fulfillment of the decisive require-
ments regarding limitation of water permeability through the concrete, the joints, installation parts
as well as cracks. Long lasting, durable watertight constructions are achieved by application of a well
defined, engineered system. All involved parties have to closely interact in order to minimize the
probability of mistakes.

Sika Waterbars are flexible preformed PVC waterstops for the water-proofing of both movement and construction joints which can be sub-jected to low and high water pressure.

CONCRETE MIX DESIGN ADVICE AND RECOMMENDED MEASURES:

Components Description Example formula

Aggregates Any quality aggregates possible All aggregate sizes are possible

Cement Any cement meeting local standards Target cement paste volume as low as possible 350 kg/m³
for the respective placing method

Powder additives Fly ash, ground granulated blast furnace slag Sufficient fines content by adjustment of the binder content

Water content Fresh water and recycling water with requirements Water/cement ratio according to standards with ≤ 0.45
regarding fines content regard to exposition

Concrete Superplasticizer Sika® ViscoCrete® or 0.60 – 1.50%

admixtures Type dependent on placement and early strength SikaPlast® or Sikament®
requirements
Waterproofing agent Sika® WT 1.50%

Installation Careful installation and compaction. Subsequent curing to ensure

requirements high quality (compactness) of surfaces.
Curing compound Sika Antisol®

Joint sealing Sealing of movement joints, penetrations and construc- Sika® Waterbars
tion damage Sikadur® Combiflex®
Sika® Injectoflex System
SikaSwell®

Waterproofing Flexible Waterproofing membrane systems, if required Sikaplan®/SikaProof®

systems with single or double compartment

Referencing Standards, publications

– DIN 1045: Tragwerke aus Beton, Stahlbeton und Spannbeton, Beuth-Verlag, Berlin
– DIN EN 206: Tragwerke aus Beton, Stahlbeton und Spannbeton, Teil 1: Beton – Festlegung, Eigenschaften, Herstellung und Konformität (2001-07), Beuth-Verlag, Berlin
– DAfStb Heft 555 «Erläuterungen zur DAfStb-Richtlinie Wasserundurchlässige Bauwerke aus Beton»
– US Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) CRD- C48-73 “Permeability of Concrete”
– British Standard BS 1881 Part 122

CONCRETE
8 MORE THAN 100 YEARS OF DURABILITY
 Impermeability of concrete against water is determined by
the impermeability of the binder matrix, i.e. capillary poros-
ity. Decisive factors for the capillary porosity are the water/
binder ratio as well as the content and type of pozzolanic or
latent hydraulic materials. A powerful superplasticizer is used
to lower the water/binder ratio. This in turn decreases the
volume of capillary pores within the concrete matrix, while
lending the concrete high workability. These pores are the
potential migratory paths for water through the concrete. The
choice of superplasticizer is important to aid the contractor
on site in concrete placement. Issues such as high consistency
class, retention of consistence, high early strength and good
surface finish may be influencing factors. A water resisting
admixture reacts with the calcium ions in the cement paste
to produce a hydrophobic layer within the capillary pores. This
consequently blocks the pores and provides effective protec-
tion even at 10 bar (100 meters head of water). On arrival at
site the concrete can be pumped or handled in conventional
ways. The concrete should be placed, compacted and cured in Water absorption of concrete under pressure measures the maximum water penetra-
tion in mm after a defined time with a specified pressure. (24 hours with 5 bar according
accordance with good concrete practice.
EN12390-8)
The correct system for jointing (movement joints, construc-
tion joints) is the key to achieving a watertight structure.
Concrete pour sequences and bay sizes need to be considered construction, different joint systems are available. Non-
in order to reduce the risk of plastic shrinkage cracking. As a movement joints are usually sealed using hydrophilic strips
guide, an aspect ratio not exceeding 3:1 is suggested for wall which come in various shapes and sizes and swell on contact
pours in particular. This means that construction joints will with water. The strips often have a protective surface coating
almost inevitably be required within the structure. to reduce the risk of premature swelling should, for example,
Correct design of any joints is essential on the one hand. On rainfall occur prior to casting the concrete.
the other hand proper and careful installation of the jointing Where a structure requires a higher level of protection, more
system is decisive for achieving water tightness of construc- advanced joint systems are available which may offer a combi-
tions. If watertight concrete leaks, then most often this is due nation of hydrophilic elements built into a resin injected hose.
to poor joint construction. In addition other details such as tie This provides an excellent secondary line of defense.
bar holes and service entries need to be considered. Where movement joints are necessary, these can be sealed
Depending on the level of protection against water, i.e. using hypalon strips secured internally or externally using spe-
outside water pressure as well as intended utilization of the cialist epoxy adhesives, or traditional PVC water bars.

70

60
Water penetration e [mm]

50

40 qd
30 qw

20

10
W/C ratio
Air Concrete Water

0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.55 0.60 Wall thickness d

Water penetration under hydrostatic pressure. The water permeability limit for water Immersion and permanent water contact. The water permeability limit for water tightness
tightness is defined as a maximum water penetration into the concrete under a specific is defined as g/m² x hours, where water permeability is smaller than vaporizable volume of
pressure over a defined period. water without pressure over a defined period.

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 CORROSION RESISTANT
CONCRETE

CONCRETE IS AN INGENIOUS BUILDING MATERIAL, also because in combination with reinforcing

steel it exhibits tremendous load-bearing capacity. The combination of steel in concrete has the
advantage that under normal conditions the high pH value of concrete creates a passivating layer of
iron hydroxides on the steel surface which protects it from corrosion. Particularly steel, however, can
be compromised in its durability of performance by the presence of moisture and salt. Projects in
coastal locations in agressive soil conditions or in areas where de-icing agents are used must be
permanently protected against the consequences of steel corrosion.

CONCRETE MIX DESIGN ADVICE AND RECOMMENDED MEASURES:

Components Description Example formula

Aggregates Any quality aggregates possible All aggregate sizes are possible

Cement Any cement meeting local standards Cement replacement UP to > 60% by GGBFS, SF and/or FA

Powder additives Fly ash, ground granulated blast furnace slag, silica fume,
natural pozzolanes

Water content Fresh water and recycling water with requirements Water/cement ratio according to standards < 0.45
regarding fines content with regard to exposition

Concrete Superplasticizer, type dependent on placement and early Sika® ViscoCrete® or  0.60 – 1.50%
admixtures strength requirements SikaPlast® or Sikament® 
Corrosion inhibitor Sika® CNI  13 – 40 kg/m²
Sika® FerroGard®-901  10 – 12 kg/m²

Installation Careful installation and compaction. Subsequent curing to ensure

requirements high quality (compactness) of surfaces.
Curing compound Sika Antisol®

Protective system Surface protection against ingress of chlorides, CO Sika offers a wide range of rigid and flexible solutions to prevent
²
and water the penetration of water
Sika Solution: Sikagard®

Referencing Standards, publications

– A STM C1202 – Standard Test Method for Electrical Indication of Concrete’s Ability to Resist Chloride Ion Penetration
– A CI 222 – Protection of Metals in Concrete Against Corrosion
– A STM C1582 / C1582M – Standard Specification for Admixtures to Inhibit Chloride-Induced Corrosion of Reinforcing Steel in Concrete
“Corrosion Costs and Preventive Strategies in the United States” PUBLICATION NO. FHWA-RD-01-156;
Authors Gerhardus H. Koch, Michiel P.H. Brongers, and Neil G. Thompson, CC Technologies Laboratories, Inc., Dublin, Ohio Y. Paul Virmani U.S. Federal Highway Administration,
Turner-Fairbank Highway Research Center, McLean, Virginia J.H. Payer Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio
– W T Build 492 – Chloride migration coefficient for: Concrete, Mortar and cement

CONCRETE
10 MORE THAN 100 YEARS OF DURABILITY
Standard construction practices ensure that corrosion of steel a) Reference concrete
reinforcements is limited. These practices include observance 0.20

(% by mass of concrete)
15
of minimum concrete quality (water/binder ratio, cement con- 0.15
25
tent, minimum strength) and minimum concrete cover of re-

Chloride
0.10 35
bars. However, in many cases, especially in environments with 45
0.05 55
high levels of chlorides (de-icing salts, contaminated grounds
seawater or even contaminated concrete mix components), 0.00
0 20 40 60 80 100
t (y)
these basic protection procedures prove insufficient.
In order to prevent corrosion or delay its start and thereby ex-
b) Concrete with corrosion inhibitor
tend the life of a structure, four additional steps can be taken
0.20

(% by mass of concrete)
to protect the steel from corrosion: increase concrete quality,
15
utilize corrosion inhibitors increase concrete cover and applica- 0.15
Chloride

25
tion of protective coatings. 0.10
35
Increasing concrete quality means reduction of the number 0.05 45
55
and size of capillary pores. This increases the density in the
0.00
concrete matrix and as a result hinders the transport of chlo- 0 20 40
t (y)
60 80 100

rides or CO 2 into the concrete. Reduction of the water/cement

ratio through application of high range water reducers and use Projected chloride content in the concrete over time for a) the reference concrete, and b)
the concrete with the corrosion inhibiting admixture. Plotted for different cover depths
of supplementary cementitious materials like fly ash or silica
15, 25, 35, 45, and 55 mm as indicated by the numbers on the lines. The dashed blue lines
fume or natural pozzolans represent opportunities in concrete represent the estimated chloride threshold values.
technology to better the mix design.
When choosing improved concrete quality to protect against
corrosion, extra attention must be given to proper placement, Integrated corrosion current [µA x d]

curing of concrete and shrinkage potential of the concrete mix, 24000

as small cracks can allow chlorides or CO 2 to penetrate to the
20000
reinforcing steel regardless of the density of the concrete mix. without Sika® FerroGard®
Corrosion inhibitors are added to the concrete mix during the 16000
batching process. Inhibitors do not significantly influence the
12000
density of concrete or impact the ingress of chlorides or CO 2, with Sika® FerroGard®
but act directly on the corrosion process. Corrosion inhibitors 8000

are defined in a number of ways. On one hand either as an ad- 4000

mixture which will extend the time before corrosion initiates,
or as one which reduces the corrosion rate of the embedded
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 Days [d]
steel, or both, in concrete containing chlorides.
The Sika Research Department in Zurich tested the anticorrosive effect of Sika® FerroG-
By another definition a corrosion inhibitor must reduce the ard® on cracked concrete beams. The specimens were produced in accordance with ASTM
corrosion rate and the corroded area of rebars in concrete con- G 109 and were cyclically treated with road salts. Periodic measurement of the corrosion
taining chlorides. current confirms the protective effect of Sika® FerroGard®.

The main products used as corrosion inhibitors today are

either calcium nitrite based products or aminoester organic
corrosion inhibitors.
Protective coatings are used to reduce the ingress of chlo-
rides or carbon dioxide. Coatings can be applied according to
two basic options, either to the surface of the concrete or to
the steel rebars themselves before they are embedded in the
concrete.

Damage to concrete structure due to insufficient concrete cover and low concrete quality

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 FROST & FREEZE /
THAW RESISTANT CONCRETE

DE-ICING SALT ATTACKS CONCRETE SURFACES, one of the most damaging strains for concrete
structures, though underestimated for decades also due to the periodically extreme quantities of
de-icing salt applied. Through appropriate structural technique and observance of basic technological
measures pertinent to concrete, the building material can demonstrate permanently high resistance
to frost and to the strain which de-icing salt represents.

CONCRETE MIX DESIGN ADVICE AND RECOMMENDED MEASURES:

Components Description Example formula

Aggregates Any quality aggregates possible All aggregate sizes are possible

Cement Any cement meeting local standards Target cement paste volume as low as possible for
Pure Portland cement for highest resistance the respective placing method

Powder additives For increased compactness Sikafume® up to max. 4%

Water content Clean mixing water, free of fines Water/cement ratio according to  < 0.45
standards with regard to exposition

Concrete Superplasticizer Sika® ViscoCrete® or 0.60 – 1.50%

admixtures Dosing dependent on formula (superplasticizer and air en- SikaPlast® or Sikament®
trainer must be adapted to each other)

Air entrainer (mixing time approx. 90 sec.) Sika® Control Aer® dosing: 0.10 – 0.80%
Required quantity of air entrainer is highly dependent on Air void content with
cement and the fines portion in sand - max. particle diameter 32 mm approx. 3.0 – 5.0%
- max. particle diameter 16 mm approx. 4.0 – 6.0%

Installation Frost resistant concrete should only be transported in Careful installation and compaction.
requirements ready mix trucks, and should be mixed again thoroughly Subsequent curing to ensure high quality (compactness) of surfaces
(approx. 30 sec./m³) before unloading. Standard air void
measurement should follow.
Curing compound Sika Antisol®
Referencing Standards, publications
– Merkblatt für die Herstellung und Verarbeitung von Luftporenbeton, Forschungsgesellschaft für Straßen-und Verkehrswesen (FGSV) 2004
– A CI 306R – Cold Weather Concreting
– A CI 201.2R – Guide to Durable Concrete, Chapter 1 – Freezing and Thawing of Concrete
– A STM C 457 – Standard Test Method for Microscopical Determination of Parameters of the Air-Void System in Hardened Concrete
– A STM C666 / C666M – Standard Test Method for Resistance of Concrete to Rapid Freezing and Thawing

CONCRETE
12 MORE THAN 100 YEARS OF DURABILITY
 Especially in the areas of road and runway construction, but A widely employed method of testing concrete’s frost and de-icing salt resistance consists of
successive freezing and thawing in a water bath, with subsequent measurement of the diffe-
also for structures particularly burdened by exposure to spray
rence in weight before and after the test.
and drizzle such as retaining walls, roadway galleries, bridges
or the portals of tunnels, as well as on buildings themselves,
extremely cold temperatures impose high strains on the con-
crete structure due to freezing water.
In the areas of concrete near to its surface, water is drawn into
the concrete as a result of capillary action. If the water freezes,
it increases its volume in the formation of ice by roughly 10%.
This means that high pressure develops in these water-filled Practically no surface weathering Very severe surface weathering
voids. Depending on the mechanical properties of concrete
(transfer of tensile forces), this pressure can result in minimal
changes in volume or in fine cracks in the concrete
microstructure. An isolated occurrence of strain could be con-
sidered insignificant, but temperature fluctuations throughout
a cool-weather season and over an extended number of years
recur numberless times. Tiny cracks can thus lead to surface
spalling, while the zone of attack shifts farther into the con-
crete until reinforcement zones are also eventually affected.
De-icing agents are very often employed to prevent ice forma-
tion on sidewalks or road surfaces. These agents effect rapid
melting of ice on concrete surfaces, a process which extracts
considerable heat from the concrete within a very short time Scattered de-icing agent considerably intensifies the reaction upon freezing of water and leads
period. This means that in areas of the concrete near the sur- to substantially greater damage in areas of concrete close to the surface.

face, the temperature plunges by more than 10°C within 1 – 2

minutes. The use of de-icing agents results in even greater absorbed without generating internal stresses. These artifi-
stress peaks when the water freezes. cially introduced voids, created during the concrete manufac-
From the standpoint of concrete technology, this strain can be turing process with air entrainer, must be as fine, closed and
met with two primary measures, though each in itself is insuf- spherical as possible, with a size of 0.02 – 0.3 mm in diameter.
ficient. On one hand, the water content of concrete with high Voids of a size outside this range do not contribute to the
resistance to frost and de-icing salt exposure should be kept frost resistance of the concrete. The quantity of voids intro-
as low as possible. This strongly reduces the amount of free duced, measured by means of the air pressure meter test, is
water in the concrete structure. In addition, the residual water dependent on the quantity of cement paste (15 – 20% of the
always present in concrete must be provided with space for cement paste volume) and accounts in relation to the concrete
expansion, so that upon freezing the increase in volume can be for 4 – 6% of volume, measured before installation.

D C B
4 -44
-40
-36
3 -32
-28
Reduction E-Modulus (%)

-24
Length change in %

-20
2 -16
-12
-8
1 -4
-0
-4
A -8
0 -12
-16 Artificially introduced air voids, caused by an air entrainer, generate space for expansion in
-0.5
0 50 100 200 300 360 400 the concrete structure to allow for the roughly 10% increase in volume when water freezes
Resistance range AOB = high (WF-L > 80 %) Rating: to become ice.
BOC = middle (WF-L = 80-25 %) High WF-L = 94 % In test BE II according to D-R 400, the test prisms are subject to alternating loads between
COD = low (WF-L < 25 %) +20°C and -20°C, the change in length is measured and judged between three ranges of
durability (low / middle / high). Calculation according to ASTM C666.

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DURABILITY 13
 SULFATE RESISTANT
CONCRETE

PARTICULARLY IN UNDERGROUND CONSTRUCTION, concrete structures are exposed alongside

loads and wear of decade-long use to influences emerging from the subgrade such as permanent
mechanical stresses and aggressive water. Concrete is nevertheless characterized by its outstanding
durability. Solutions containing sulfates, such as in natural or polluted groundwater, represent a
considerable deteriorating impact on concrete. This can eventually lead to loss of strength, expan-
sion, spalling of surface layers and ultimately to disintegration.

CONCRETE MIX DESIGN ADVICE AND RECOMMENDED MEASURES:

Components Description Example formula

Aggregates Any quality aggregates possible All aggregate sizes are possible

Cement Compliance with EN 206 with moderate to high sulfate Target cement paste volume as low as possible for
resistance ASTM C-150 sulfate resistant cements the respective placing method

Powder additives Fly ash, ground granulated blast furnace slag, silica fume, Sikafume® 4.0 – 8.0%
natural pozzolanes

Water content Water/cement ratio 

Compliance with EN 206, depending on exposition class XA1  < 0.55
XA2  < 0.50
XA3  < 0.45
Compliance with ASTM, depending on exposure class Moderate Typ 2  < 0.50
Severe Typ 5  < 0.45
Very severe Typ 5  < 0.40

Concrete Superplasticizer Sika® ViscoCrete® or 0.60 – 1.50%

admixtures Type dependent on placement and early strength SikaPlast® or Sikament®
requirements

Installation Careful installation and compaction.

requirements Subsequent curing to ensure high quality (compactness) of surfaces
Curing compound Sika Antisol®

Protective system/ Concrete’s resistance to chemicals is highly limited. Special curing of precast tunnel segments immediately after
Special curing system Appropriate coatings can durably protect the concrete demolding with Sikagard®
surface against exposure
Referencing Standards, publications
– DIN EN 206: Tragwerke aus Beton, Stahlbeton und Spannbeton, Teil 1: Beton – Festlegung, Eigenschaften, Herstellung und Konformität, Beuth-Verlag, Berlin
– A CI 201.2R – 08 Guide to Durable Concrete, Chapter 2 – Chemical attack
– A STM C 452 – Standard Test Method for Potential Expansion of Portland-Cement Mortars Exposed to Sulfate
– A STM C 1012 – Standard Test Method for Length Change of Hydraulic-Cement Mortars Exposed to a Sulfate Solution

CONCRETE
14 MORE THAN 100 YEARS OF DURABILITY
The intended life cycle of a concrete structure is ensured by a
suitable concrete mix design that is adapted to the expected
exposition to various impacts. Sulfate contained in water re-
acts with the tricalcium aluminate (C3 A) in the cement to form
ettringite (also thaumasite under certain conditions), which
leads to increases in volume. This volume increase results in
high internal pressure in the concrete structure which induces
cracking and spalling. Such attack is classified among types
of chemical attack under which standard concrete designed
without dedicated measures can experience significant dam-
ages. Field experience demonstrates that loss of adhesion and Classic form of sulfate attack associated with ettringite or gypsum formation. Flurry of
strength are usually more severe than concrete damage result- ettringite rods grown in mature cement pastes subjected to external sulfate solutions.

ing from expansion and cracking.

Sulfate resistance of concrete is determined by the sulfate
resistance of the cement matrix as well as its ability to with-
stand diffusion of sulfate ions through the matrix. Concrete
intended to be sulfate-resistant should therefore be character-
ized by high impermeability as well as compressive strength
on the one hand. In addition, cements with low C3 A and Al2 O3
content should be used. Doing so reduces the potential for any
deteriorating reactions. In addition the inclusion of silica fume
is favorable, since this contributes to higher density of the ce-
ment matrix in conjunction with enhanced bonding between
Ettringite cores forming into aged cement pastes. Right picture is a 2 years old paste sub-
the cement matrix and aggregates, and thus leading to higher jected to sulfate attack. One clearly sees the ettringite cores forming within the C-S-H.
compressive strength.
Sulfate attack is designated as exposure class chemical attack
according to EN 206-1. Therefore the exposition class is deter-
mined by the expected sulfate content in the water contacting
the concrete. Depending on the exposition class, a minimum
cement content in combination with a maximum water/ce-
ment ratio is required, as well as a mandatory utilization of
cement with high sulfate resistance.
In tunneling, durability is of decisive importance and sulfate
attack is a constantly occurring and challenging phenomenon.
This is especially true in the case of production of precast
tunnel lining segments for TBM and rock support applied by
sprayed concrete. In excavations in which high sulfate attack
is anticipated, it is difficult to fulfill all technical requirements
unless appropriate measures regarding the concrete mix design Concrete deterioration due to sulphate attack before & after the load shows a strong in-
crease in length because of the spalling attack. First cracks have appeared in sample.
are also taken. For sprayed concrete the use of alkali free accel-
erators is mandatory to achieve adequate sulfate resistance.
The industrialized, swift production of tunnel lining segments
requires production cycles of only a few hours, with a maxi-
mum temperature development of 60°C in the concrete.
This is very difficult with conventional sulfate resistant ce-
ments, due to the fact that these cements exhibit slow
strength development. A concrete mix containing silica fume
and a superplasticizer fulfills both criteria, productivity and
sulfate resistance, but this system is very sensitive to proper
curing due to crack formation. With the application of a water-
based epoxy emulsion immediately after formwork release of
Immediately following curing in a steam channel, the concrete surface of tunnel lining seg-
the segments, micro-crack free concrete can be produced. ments is coated with water-based epoxy emulsion that is absorbed even into the smallest
pores, thereby generating a sealed, protective coating.

WATERPROOFING
CONCRETE
BASEMENT WATERPROOFING
MORE
WITH
THAN
Sikaplan®
100 YEARS
SHEET
OFMEMBRANES
DURABILITY 15
 FIRE RESISTANT
CONCRETE

THE DANGER OF FIRE IS PRESENT ALWAYS AND EVERYWHERE. The imminent danger de-
pends upon actual exposure, and naturally differs if the threatened construction is a pedestrian
subway, a roadway tunnel or a subterranean garage in a skyscraper. Concrete is the load-bearing
material in nearly all built structures and is therefore at high risk, since the entire structure would
collapse upon its material failure. Concrete must therefore, independent of the danger scenario, be
properly formulated or protected by external measures, in order to hinder failure at high tempera-
ture in case of fire.

CONCRETE MIX DESIGN ADVICE AND RECOMMENDED MEASURES:

Components Description Example formula

Aggregates Aggregates of the carbonate type – limestone, dolomite, All aggregate sizes are possible
limerock, tend to perform better in a fire as they calcine.
Types containing silica perform less well.

Cement Any cement meeting local standards Target cement paste volume as low as possible
for the respective placing method

Water content Fresh water and recycling water with requirements Water/cement ratio according to  < 0.48
regarding fines content standards with regard to exposition
Sika® ViscoCrete® or 0.60 – 1.20%
Concrete Superplasticizer, type dependent on placement and early SikaPlast® or Sikament®
admixtures strength requirements Sika® Fiber PPM 1.5 – 2.0 kg/³
Polymer or polypropylene monofilament fibres

Installation Careful installation and compaction. Subsequent curing to ensure

requirements high quality (compactness) of surfaces.

Passive protection of Sprayed-applied lightweight mortars Sikacrete®-F

the concrete

Referencing Standards, publications

– ZTV-ING Teil 5: Tunnelbau
– ACI 216 - Code Requirements for Determining Fire Resistance of Concrete and Masonry Construction Assemblies
– ASTM E119 - Standard Test Methods for Fire Tests of Building Construction and Materials
– ÖVBB Merkblatt, Schutzschichten für den erhöhten Brandschutz für unterirdische Verkehrsbauwerke, 2006
– VDV-Förderkreis, Fire Protection in vehicules and tunnels for public transport, 2005

CONCRETE
16 MORE THAN 100 YEARS OF DURABILITY
Concrete is a construction material manufactured from non- 1 2
combustible components such as cement, aggregates and
water. The thermal conductivity of concrete is approximately
1.5 to 3.0 W/m°C, making concrete suitable as a protective fire
shield to withstand the effects of direct heat before underly-
ing steel softens to the point of potential structural collapse.
Fire resistance is defined as the ability of a structure to fulfill
its required functions (load bearing function and/or separat-
ing function) for a specified fire exposure and a specified
period (integrity). Fire resistance applies to building elements 3 4
and not the material itself, but the properties of the mate- Fire exposure trials for concrete containing various aggregates. Surface spalling and sintering,
rial affect the performance of the element of which it forms and a range of temperature developments at differing depths can thereby be compared.
1 Gneis Fuseo surface No spalling
a part (Eurocode 2). The time vs. temperature models relate 2 Limestone 1 Disintegration 17 mm spalling
to the type of fuel being consumed, the volume of fuel, the 3 Granite Fuse surface 25 mm spalling
effects of ventilation and the fire location. In most cases fire 4 Limestone 2 Disintegration 14 mm spalling

temperature increases rapidly in minutes, leading to the onset

of explosive spalling as the moisture inherent in the concrete
converts to steam and expands. The most severe fire scenario
modeled is the RWS fire curve from the Netherlands and rep-
resents a very large hydrocarbon fire inside a tunnel.
There are various options available to improve the fire resis-
tance of concrete. Most concretes contain either Portland
cement or Portland blended cement which begins degrading in < 250°C
important properties above 300°C and starts to lose struc- < 380°C
tural performance above 600°C. Of course the depth of the
weakened concrete zone can range from a few millimeters to If a soffit requires protection, the use of wire mesh reinforcement is recommended.
many centimeters depending on the duration of the fire and Fire curves
the peak temperatures experienced. High alumina cement 1400
used to protect refractory linings reaching temperatures of
1200
1600°C has the best possible performance in a fire and pro-
vides excellent performance above 1000°C. 1000
Temperature [°C]

The choice of aggregate will influence the thermal stresses 800

that develop during the heating of a concrete structure to a
600
large extent. Aggregates of the carbonate type such as lime- ISO 834
ZTV-Tunnel (D)
stone, dolomite or limerock tend to perform better in a fire as 400
RWS (NL)
they calcine when heated, liberating CO . This process requires
² 200
Hc inc
heat, so the reaction absorbs some of the fire’s exothermic
0
energy. Aggregates containing silica tend to behave less well 0 30 60 90 120 150
in a fire. Time [min]
Polymer or polypropylene monofilament fibers can signifi- These fire exposure rating curves all simulate the temperature profile of a tunnel fire. The
cantly contribute to the reduction of explosive spalling and example of the RWS curve defines the maximum exposure which can be expected in the
thus improve the “fire resistance” of the concrete. In a fire, worst case scenario: Defined as a fire of a tank truck with a load capacity of 50m³ which is
90% full of liquid hydrocarbon fuel (petrol).
these fibers melt at around 160°C, creating channels which al-
low the resulting water vapor to escape, minimizing pore pres-
sures and the risk of spalling.
Under conditions in which the risk of structural collapse is un-
acceptable, designers examine other ways to protect the con-
crete from the effects of fire. Alternatives range from local
thickening of the concrete, cladding using heat shields coated
with intumescent paint, use of protective board systems and
spray-applied lightweight mortars. The purpose of these pas- Hagerbach Test Gallery (VSH) Switzerland
sive fire protection systems depends on the type of tunnel as In special furnace chambers fire trajectories can be replicated, panels tested and subse-
well as the form being protected. quently evaluated. Temperature development is measured at various depths and recorded.

WATERPROOFING
CONCRETE
BASEMENT WATERPROOFING
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WITH
THAN
Sikaplan®
100 YEARS
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OFMEMBRANES
DURABILITY 17
 ALKALI-SILICA-REACTION
RESISTANT CONCRETE

AGGREGATES CONSTITUTE a major portion of concrete. Their influence on the fresh and hardened
concrete is considerable. To save costs and energy, concrete producers target the use of the most
proximal sources of aggregates. Sources of high quality aggregates are gradually dwindling in num-
ber, as a result of which the building and construction materials industry and builders of major
infrastructure projects seek solutions for the use of aggregates with lower quality. The Alkali Silica
Reaction (ASR), which can occur with aggregates, presents a particular challenge and can affect the
durability of concrete.

CONCRETE MIX DESIGN ADVICE AND RECOMMENDED MEASURES:

Components Description Example formula

Aggregates The ASR potential of aggregates should be previously All aggregate sizes are possible
determined

Cement Preferably cements with ground granulated blast furnace Target cement paste volume as low as possible
slag or fly ash content for the respective placing method

Powder additives Silica fume, fly ash or ground granulated blast furnace slag Sikafume® 3.0% – 6.0%

Water content Clean mixing water, free of fines Water/cement ratio according to  < 0.48
standards with regard to exposition

Concrete Superplasticizer Sika® ViscoCrete® or 0.60 – 1.20%

admixtures Type dependent on placement and early strength SikaPlast® or Sikament®
requirements
Special admixtures limiting ASR SikaControl®-ASR 2.0 – 10.0 kg/m³
Shotcrete accelerator in case of shotcrete Sigunit®-AF 3.0% – 6.0%

Installation Careful installation and compaction.

requirements Subsequent curing to ensure high quality (compactness) of surfaces
Curing compound Sika Antisol®

Protective system Beside free alkalines and reactive aggregates, the concrete Sika offers a wide range of rigid and flexible solutions to prevent
must contain moisture for ASR to occur. If a structure is the penetration of water.
exposed to water the concrete surface needs to be pro- Sika Solution: Sikagard®, SikaPlan®
tected.

Referencing Standards, publications

– ASTM C 1260 – Standard test method for potential alkali reactivity of aggregates (mortar-bar method), ASTM Standards in Building Codes 681–85.
– ASTM C 1293 – Standard test method for concrete aggregates by determination of length change of concrete due to alkali-silica, ASTM Standards in Building Codes 686–691.
– AFNOR P18-594 Granulats: Méthodes d’essais de réactivité aux alcalis, Association Française de Normalisation, Paris, France.
– AFNOR P18-454 Béton: Réactivité d’une formule de béton vis-à-vis de l’alcali- réaction (essaie de performance). Association Française de Normalisation, Paris, France.

CONCRETE
18 MORE THAN 100 YEARS OF DURABILITY
Major infrastructure projects such as dams, roadways or
airport runways require enormous quantities of aggregates,
sought in closest proximity to construction sites. Some aggre-
gates can exhibit an increased or high risk of ASR. Alkali Silica
Reaction is a chemical reaction which occurs between the
amorphous silica in the aggregate and the pore solution (alka-
lis) of the cement matrix. The reaction results in an increase
in concrete volume, causing cracking and spalling when the
generated forces exceed the tensile strength of the concrete.
Essential conditions for occurrence of ASR are moisture within
the concrete, a high alkaline content in the pore solution and
reactive aggregates. Selection of the correct concrete mix
design is critical for avoidance of ASR. Choice of the right so-
lutions can prevent damages resulting from ASR even if highly Amorphous silica spots within the aggregate have reacted with alkali ions and formed a gel
reactive aggregates are used. that expanded upon ingress of water. The aggregate has subse-quently swelled and cracked
while the amorphous region (black cracked masses) expanded.
Cement clinker contributes the greatest proportion of alkaline
material. The higher the cement content is, the more alkaline
the mix will be. Blended cements introduce a lower alkaline
content. A low water/cement ratio is considered the central
factor for achievement of dense, watertight concrete. Dense
concrete slows the diffusion of free alkalines and the migra-
tion of water to aggregates. For ASR to accur it requires ag-
gregates particularly sensitive to alkalines, such as siliceous
limestone, sandy limestone, limestone, gneisses and strongly
deformed quartzite. Porous, cracked, weathered or crushed
aggregates are more reactive than those with dense structure
and rounded surfaces. Pozzolanic additives such as fly ash,
granulated blast furnace slag or silica fume react with and
consume hydroxyl (alkaline) ions during hydration. This reac-
tion lowers the pH value of the pore solution, suppressing the
occurrence of ASR. Pozzolanic additives differ in shape and
reactivity depending on their source, but generally their effect
is more homogeneous if added to the cement grinding process
as opposed to the concrete mix. There remains however some © EMPA © EMPA
dispute regarding the efficiency of additives in lowering the
speed of ASR. The increase in volume due to the strain The appearance of ASR damage can be
resulting from ASR becomes perceptible by assessed very well on the drying concrete
Admixtures such as traditional accelerators for shotcrete may
measurement of a change in length of test surface of this bridge pylon. Damage can
introduce considerable quantities of alkalines, greatly increas- specimens. Ordinarily the specimens are appear within years or only after decades.
ing the reactivity of the pore solution. In case of aggregates stored under intensified conditions (tem-
perature, humidity, applied load) in order to
considered sensitive, alkaline-free accelerator should be used.
accelerate the reaction.
Experience has shown that inclusion of special admixtures can
hem the ASR reaction, thus preventing expansion. A further
possible solution is proposed with the addition of an air en-
trainment agent to create artificial expansion room (air voids)
for the reaction products. If the possible occurrence of ASR
represents a major concern, reaction trials are suggested to
define the ASR potential.

Sulfate damage is often only visible after decades. Precise clarification of risk is therefore
necessary in order to estimate the potential of aggregates for ASR damage reliably.

WATERPROOFING
CONCRETE
BASEMENT WATERPROOFING
MORE
WITH
THAN
Sikaplan®
100 YEARS
SHEET
OFMEMBRANES
DURABILITY 19
 ABRASION RESISTANT
CONCRETE

AWE-INSPIRING GORGES AND VALLEYS are nature’s testimony to the undeniable strength of
water. Primarily in technical hydraulic engineering, but also in traffic zones with high loads or hard
rolling bodies, concrete surfaces experience considerable and at times extremely abrasive pressure.
The mechanisms of damage thereby depend centrally on the type of burden. Whether the surface is
exposed to rolling, rubbing or percussive influences differentiates the possible patterns of damage
as well as any preventive measures substantially.

CONCRETE MIX DESIGN ADVICE AND RECOMMENDED MEASURES:

Components Description Example formula

Aggregates Aggregates employed must be as hard as possible All aggregate sizes are possible

Cement Any cement meeting local standards Target cement paste volume as low as possible for
the respective placing method

Powder additives Silica fume for enhanced compactness Sikafume® up to max. 8%

Water content Clean mixing water, free of fines Water/cement ratio according to  < 0.45
standards with regard to exposition

Concrete Superplasticizer Sika® ViscoCrete® or 0.80 – 1.60%

admixtures Type dependent on placement and early strength SikaPlast® or Sikament®
requirements
Steel fibers Sika® Fiber Force 4 – 8 kg/m³

Installation Careful installation and compaction.

requirements Subsequent curing to ensure high quality (compactness) of surfaces

Curing compound Sika Antisol®

Surface coating Scattering material for surface hardening Sikafloor® 0.3 – 1.5 mm

Protective coating

Referencing Standards, publications

– DAfStb-Richtlinie „Betonbau beim Umgang mit wassergefährdenden Stoffen (2004)
– Betonabrasion im Wasserbau; Dr. Frank Jacobs; TFB Technische Forschung & Beratung für Zement und Beton, Wildegg Schweiz; TEC21 2004
– ACI 201.2R – 08 Guide to Durable Concrete, Chapter 8 – ABRASION
– ASTM C 779 - Standard Test Method for Abrasion Resistance of Horizontal Concrete Surfaces
– ASTM C 1138 - Standard Test Method for Abrasion Resistance of Concrete (Underwater Method)

CONCRETE
20 MORE THAN 100 YEARS OF DURABILITY
Over the course of decades and even centuries, exposure to
abrasion can yield the most varied experiences with dam-
age patterns. Above all the difference between rolling loads
in roadway traffic, heavy traffic including steel wheels or
exposure to water, with or without the additional transport of
sediment, must be considered. In traffic zones the intensity,
weight and the type of wheels are decisive for the overall load.
In the case of abrasion by water, it is the velocity of flow, the
quantity and type of sediment that are crucial.
In order to boost concrete’s abrasion resistance, in most cases
provision for hard surfaces is the proper dimensioning ap- Concrete roadways and other publicly accessible areas, especially those experiencing high
volumes of traffic or concentrated loads, are subject alongside high mechanical burdens also
proach. If, however, handling the exposure involves percussive
to strong abrasion, often presenting the risk of a smooth, slick surface.
or bumping assault, then in addition the adsorptive capacity
of the surface plays a role, which can stand in contradiction to
surface hardness. The most critical basic principle in the con-
cept is the expert installation of the concrete (prevention of a
rising up of fines to the surface due to excessive vibration) and
excellent curing, so that the desired concrete properties can
emerge above all in areas close to the surface. Furthermore,
the surface should offer the lowest resistance possible to
abrasive attack. Surfaces that are as level as possible provide
the smallest potential for attack.
Ascertaining damage patterns is rather straightforward, and
is carried out by assessing the abrasion of the surface, the
Particularly in whitewater, concrete surfaces are subject to massive additional strains by
condition of the cement laitance skin and of aggregates near rubble, sharp edges and abrasion, as well as possible temperature stresses due to frost
to the surface. exposure.
Concrete with enhanced or high abrasion resistance should
demonstrate a target compressive strength of roughly 50
MPa. The surface can be considerably enhanced against grind-
ing abrasion through the use of micro silica and/or surface
hardener scattered on the surface. In order to boost resis-
tance against percussive or striking attack, the toughness and
flexural strength of the concrete must be improved. This can
be achieved with the use of fiber reinforcements in the mix.
Improving the general working capacity of concrete can be ac-
complished by mixing in synthetic polymers to strengthen the
hardened cement paste matrix, which furthermore enhances
adhesion (entanglement) with aggregates. Finally there must Due to continuous exposure, the cement film is eroded in an initial step, and thereafter larg-
be additional differentiation between transport distances and er and larger aggregates are rubbed, knocked or washed out of the hardened cement paste
areas that are built to facilitate the dissipation of energy. In
these areas, the use of high strength, steel-fiber-reinforced
concrete with a strength above 80 MPa and corresponding
flexural strength is recommended.
In construction the design of edges must be given particular
attention. Whether this concerns dilatation joints in roadway
surfaces or tearing edges in hydraulic construction, these
must usually be handled specially; construction in concrete
alone is normally insufficient. Special joint profiles must be
incorporated, often made of steel.

Industrial flooring surfaces also experience strong abrasion due to constantly rolling and
striking loads in the same places. Hard concrete coatings and special dispersants can en-
hance the flooring grip and minimize wear.

WATERPROOFING
CONCRETE
BASEMENT WATERPROOFING
MORE
WITH
THAN
Sikaplan®
100 YEARS
SHEET
OFMEMBRANES
DURABILITY 21
 CHEMICAL RESISTANT
CONCRETE

WATER IS THE SOURCE OF ALL LIFE as well as a scarce commodity. Clean drinking water should
therefore be protected against contamination, while waste water must be treated before being
released into a discharge system. The waste water itself as well as the treatment measures under-
taken represent an exposure to chemically and microbiological for concrete surfaces. Through sen-
sible planning and proper concrete design concepts, the surfaces can be designed for durability.
Concrete’s resistance to chemical and microbiological attack is nevertheless limited, so that surface
protection systems must be foreseen in case of heavy exposure.

CONCRETE MIX DESIGN ADVICE AND RECOMMENDED MEASURES:

Components Description Example formula

Aggregates Any quality Aggregates possible All aggregate sizes are possible

Cement Sulfate resistant cements Target cement paste volume as low as possible
Cements with high proportion of calcium carbonate for the respective placing method
Cements containing silica fume

Powder additives Silica fume, fly ash or ground granulated blast furnace slag Sikafume® 3.0 – 6.0%

Water content Clean mixing water, free of fines Water/cement ratio according to  < 0.45
standards with regard to exposition

Concrete Superplasticizer Sika® ViscoCrete® or 0.80 – 1.60%

admixtures Type dependent on placement and early strength SikaPlast® or Sikament®
requirements

Special admixtures Sika Control MIC 1 – 4%

limitting MIC

Installation Careful installation and compaction.

requirements Subsequent curing to ensure high quality (compactness) of surfaces

Curing compound Sika Antisol®

Protective system The chemical resistance of concrete is limited. If exposure Sika offers a wide range of solutions to prevent the penetration of
limits are exceeded, concrete surfaces can be durably pro- chemicals.
tected with coatings. Sika Solution: Sikagard®, Sikafloor® & Sikalastic®

Referencing Standards, publications

– ACI 201.2R – 08 Guide to Durable Concrete, Chapter 6 - Chemical attack
– ASTM C 88 - Standard Test Method for Soundness of Aggregates by Use of Sodium Sulfate or Magnesium Sulfate
– Cemsuisse Leaflet MB 01 Concrete erosion in biological basins in wastewater treatment facilities June 2010
– Chemischer Widerstand: DAfStb-Richtlinie „Betonbau beim Umgang mit wassergefährdenden Stoffen (2004)

CONCRETE
22 MORE THAN 100 YEARS OF DURABILITY
Water has its greatest significance in its employment for ir-
rigation and as drinking water. Alongside these applications,
water is used in industry, in agriculture, as a means of trans-
port and in a multitude of other ways in daily life. Water and
other fluids are pumped through pipelines and stored in tanks;
this holds true for clean as well as for waste water. Concrete’s
interface with water occurs mainly in such capacities as me-
dium of conduit or storage. Usually the tanks used for storage
of drinking water and for purification of wastewater, and
often also the transmission pipelines are made of concrete.
Above all in wastewater treatment in settling basins, aera-
tion basins (organic substance decomposition), the nitrifica- Heavy leaching and damage to the structural concrete are observed particularly in the water
tion and denitrification (aluminum and nitrate conversion) or splash zone of biological treatment basins.

even in subsequent cleaning, concrete is an important building

material. The challenge thereby is to design these concrete
structures to withstand exposure to diverse chemicals and at
the same time to withstand concomitant mechanical stresses.
The chemically and microbiologically resistant concrete formu-
la and the expert treatment and cleaning of the basin must be
adapted to one another, or in locations where the resistance of
the concrete is insufficient, must be supplemented by means
of appropriate protective coatings.
Chemical resistance in this case signifies resistance to corro-
sion and erosion of concrete. Alongside known types of spall-
ing attack such as frost (with and without de-icing agents),
ASR (alkali silicate reaction), sulfate exposure and mechanical Epoxy resin-based protective coatings are applied over the entire surface following
surface abrasion, in wastewater treatment facilities particu- reprofiling of the concrete surface with sulfate-resistant repair mortar enhanced with
synthetic material.
larly, chemical and solvent aggression is also prevalent. The
water treated in such facilities, however, varies too greatly to
describe the attack on concrete surfaces as uniform. Decisive
in addition to the general quality of the water is also its hard-
ness (°fh). On one hand the surface of the concrete is attacked sulfate attack
by a cocktail of chemicals, while on the other mechanical
stress (e.g. high pressure cleaning) also occurs at the surface.
Thereby fines are washed out that have already been dis-
solved but remained adhered within the concrete structure. original length
This entire process is additionally accelerated by softened
Picture: BetonSuisse Merkblatt
water (hardness < 15°fh or 8.4°dH) and the reduction of the pH
value on the surface of the concrete (e.g. in biofilm). The con- Sulfate driven attack is caused primarily by sulfates dissolved in water. By reacting with the
crete design, curing and foremost the cleaning of the surface hardened cement matrix, an increase in volume is induced which damages the structure.

must be adapted to the respective exposure.

While for resistance to mechanical cleaning a hard and com-
pact concrete surface is considered optimal, chemical cleans-
ing is best tolerated by concrete with a high calcite content.
Concrete’s chemical resistance is limited. If exposure limits
are exceeded, concrete surfaces can only be durably protected acid attack
with appropriate coatings.

Picture: BetonSuisse Merkblatt

Acidic solvent attacks which dissolve calcium compounds out of the hardened cement
matrix can be caused by acids, exchangeable salts, vegetable or animal fats or oils. Degra-
dation of the concrete usually occurs very slowly.

WATERPROOFING
CONCRETE
BASEMENT WATERPROOFING
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Sikaplan®
100 YEARS
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OFMEMBRANES
DURABILITY 23
 HIGH STRENGTH
CONCRETE

HIGH STRENGTH AND ULTRA HIGH STRENGTH CONCRETE are not just cutting edge technologies
for scientific research, but also continue to find new applications in praxis. Whether in dealing with
the slenderness of building components (e.g. design) or dimensioning under extreme conditions (e.g.
earthquake stresses), high and highest material properties (compressive and flexural strength,
elasticity and ductility) are finding entry in concrete technology. Durability and high strength of
concrete are thereby inter-dependent.

CONCRETE MIX DESIGN ADVICE AND RECOMMENDED MEASURES:

Components Description Example formula

Aggregates Exceptional concrete strength can be achieved using high Well distributed grading curve with low amount of fines
strength, crushed aggregates

Cement Utilization of higher cement content and high grade Partly cement replacement by GGBFS or FA

Powder additives Increased bond between aggregates and cement matrix- Sikafume® 5.0 –10.0%
silica fume

Water content Clean mixing water, free of fines Water/cement ratio according to  < 0.38
standards with regard to exposition

Concrete Superplasticizer Sika® ViscoCrete® 1.0 – 4.0%

admixtures Type according to target flowability and slumplife
Fibers Sika® Fiber (Steel) up to > 150 kg/m³

Installation Thorough curing which starts as early as possible and is Careful installation and compaction.
requirements extended to two days for interior elements or three days Subsequent curing to ensure high quality (compactness) of surfaces
for exterior elements, especially when silica fume is used
Curing compound Sika® Antisol®
Referencing Standards, publications
– ACI 211.4R - Guide for Selecting Proportions for High-Strength Concrete Using Portland Cement and Other Cementitious Materials
– Technische Universität München, Hochfester Beton, 2004

CONCRETE
24 MORE THAN 100 YEARS OF DURABILITY
In concrete technology high strength concrete (HSC) usually At compressive strengths above 150 Mpa
is defined by its compressive strength between 60 and 120 one is no longer concerned with com-
monplace concrete. Stone aggregates are
MPa after 28 days. Designated as ultra high strength concrete replaced for example by fine aggregates of
(UHSC) in contrast are concretes with compressive strength ceramic origin, and the entire binder matrix
far above 150 MPa. High strength concretes are characterized is only slightly reminiscent of classical con-
crete. Shown in the illustration is the flow
by increased compressive, tensile as well as flexural strength, behavior of a UHPC of 200 MPa.
as well as their ductility in combination with enhanced dura-
bility. Dense cement and binder matrix with extremely low
permeability are factors which improve the strength of hard-
ened concrete. Furthermore, high strength concrete exhibits
significantly increased bonding between the binder matrix
and aggregates. Higher density binder matrix is achieved by
employing low water/binder ratios. Bonding between the
matrix and aggregates is enhanced through utilization of poz-
zolanic materials. Total shrinkage of such concrete is equal to
that of normal concrete, whereas chemical shrinkage values
are higher, among lower-drying shrinkage values. Creep defor- Highly stressed building components such as columns and beams are made of high strength
mation is reduced. concrete. High resistance to external influences also makes high strength concrete an ideal
protective coating for exposed construction elements.
Challenges are stretched along the entire production process.
Special formulas with high concentrations of known materi-
als (cements, additives or fibers) and other new materials constructions designed with prestressed concrete require
previously unknown in concrete (ceramic aggregates) must be increased compressive strength. This in particular facilitates
manufactured in improved mixing facilities and placed as self- construction of bridges with wide spans and slender dimen-
compacting mixtures. Concrete admixtures have not only the sions.
task of an extraordinary reduction of water; the flowability of Structures which must withstand certain severe exposures
such “tough” mixtures is also a great challenge. require application of high strength concrete, examples being
High strength concrete offers a wide range of application elements subject to high mechanical and chemical loading
possibilities due to its versatile technical characteristics. such as industrial floors, traffic areas, offshore structures or
Its primary application field today is in the precast concrete sewage treatment plants.
business. It is particularly suitable for compression elements Furthermore high strength concrete is required in construc-
such as highly loaded columns and walls in high rise buildings, tion of special engineering structures like hydropower plants,
especially in areas vulnerable to earthquake. Moreover bridge cooling towers or chimneys.

Cement content kg/m3 400 450 600 650

500 550 700 750
0.50

0.45
Self Compacting Concrete
W/C ratio

0.40

0.35

0.30

0.25

0.20

0.15
200 225 250 275 300 325 350 375 400 425 450
Binder Paste

Fine Mortar Paste Sieve curve with low sand content High strength and above all ultra high strength concrete are practically always also fiber-
reinforced. Depending on the requirements, synthetic and/or steel fibers are thereby em-
225 249 273 292 321 345 370 394 418 442 466 ployed in large quantity. The high flexural strength of UHPC can be achieved in this way.
L/m3
240 253 286 319 332 355 380 404 428 452 476
Of central significance for achievement of high mechanical material properties is the tar-
geted determination of a concept of fines and the cement paste volume. Only in this way can
Sieve curve with high sand content
the highest possible packing density be achieved.
 SHRINKAGE CONTROLLED
CONCRETE

PREVENTION OF CRACKS contributes to the durability of concrete structures, because cracks

promote the ingress of water and pollutants. Current construction codes specify limits for the width
of cracks depending on environmental conditions in which a structure is built and its intended service
life. A main reason for cracks in concrete is due to shrinkage related deformation in early age con-
crete. These cracks not only compromise aesthetic appearance, but can decrease durability as well as
serviceability of a concrete element. There are different types of shrinkage and with the right
measures the various phenomena can be controlled.

CONCRETE MIX DESIGN ADVICE AND RECOMMENDED MEASURES:

Components Description Example formula

Aggregates Large volume of aggregates can reduce drying shrinkage All aggregate sizes are possible

Cement Preferably binders with reduced portland clincker content Target cement paste volume as low as possible for the
respective placing method

Water content Low water content is favorable to reduce plastic shrinkage Water/cement ratio  < 0.45
and drying shrinkage.
At water/cement ratios lower than 0.4 autogenous shrink-
age can occur

Concrete Superplasticizer Sika® ViscoCrete® or 0.80 – 1.50%

admixtures Type dependent on placement and early strength SikaPlast® or Sikament®
requirements
Shrinkage reducing agent Sika® Control 0.5 – 1.5%
Polypropylene short fibers can reduce effects of plastic Sika® Fiber PPM 1 – 3 kg/m³
shrinkage
Steel fibers to ensure even distribution of cracking Sika® Fiber Steel 20 – 40 kg/m³
Synthetic fibers for crack bridging by high deformation Sika® Fiber Force 4 – 8 kg/m³

Installation Curing that starts as early as possible and is maintained Careful installation and compaction.
requirements and for a sufficient period of time has significant influence on Subsequent curing to ensure high quality (compactness) of
curing plastic and drying shrinkage surfaces
Curing compound Sika® Antisol®

Referencing Standards, publications

– Aïtcin, P.C et Al, Integrated view of shrinkage deformation, Concrete International, September, 1997.
– Al-Manaseer, Akthem et Al, conclusions of the ACI-RILEM Workshop on Creep and Shrinkage in Concrete Structures, ACI Concrete International, March, 1999.
– Helene, Paulo R.L, Carbonatación del Concreto y corrosión del acero de refuerzo. Asocreto, Memorias de la Reunión del Concreto, Cartagena, Septiembre 2000.
– Neville, Adams, Tecnología del concreto, IMCYC, México, 1984. Book 2.
– ACI 223R – Standard Practice for the Use of Shrinkage-Compensating Concrete

CONCRETE
26 MORE THAN 100 YEARS OF DURABILITY
The prevention of shrinkage cracks demands consideration
of several factors starting with suitable structural design,
specification of the concrete and ends with good construction
practice including correct concrete installation, compaction
and thorough curing. The identification of different concrete
shrinkage types leads to introduction of appropriate actions
with regard to concrete technology. Concrete shrinkage types
include chemical shrinkage, plastic shrinkage, autogenous
shrinkage, drying shrinkage and carbonation shrinkage. The
most important types with the most severe impact are chem-
ical shrinkage, plastic shrinkage and drying shrinkage. Immediate coverage or curing of concrete surfaces exposed to the elements is the most
In the case of chemical shrinkage, hydration products built crucial step for protection of such surfaces.

up during the hydration process occupy lower volume than Days

the total volume of individual raw materials. This results in a

0
0

0
0
0

0
0
0

0
0
0
0

0
0

0
0
0

0
60
90
30

0
54
36

45
27

48

72
18

30

60

66
42

69
24

33

39

63
12
15

21

51

57
0.000
decrease of overall concrete element dimensions as long as
the concrete is still soft. After setting of the concrete, this -0.100 Measuring 2 Years
volume decrease leads to small pores and cracks. An effective Shrinkage-reduction: 36%
Dry shrinkage [parts per thousand]

-0.200 Shrinkage-reduction: 22%

measure is recompaction of the concrete.
Shrinkage-reduction: 10%
Plastic shrinkage exhibits itself through a decrease in volume -0.300
caused by evaporation of water, leading to concrete contrac-
-0.400
tion in all directions. The major portion of shrinkage at early
ages is in the horizontal plane, mainly in the surface in contact -0.500
with the air. This is one of the most common and important
types of shrinkage. Influencing factors are relative humidity, -0.600
2.0% SikaControl®-40
temperature and ambient wind. More severe drying conditions -0.700
1.5% SikaControl®-40
1.0% SikaControl®-40 Conditions:
increase the shrinkage value. Shrinkage deformation doubles Reference 23 °C / 50% r. h.
at 1 m/s wind speed and is five times higher at wind speeds of -0.800

3 m/s. Plastic shrinkage can be controlled by initiating curing Shrinkage behavior of concrete containing shrinkage-reducing admixtures, measured
as early as possible as well as restriction of the water content 2 years to complete abatement of shrinkage due to drying.

of the concrete mix.

Autogenous shrinkage is a change of volume that occurs after
the initial setting of concrete due to hydration, since this
process requires water and therefore reduces the internal free
water. This has the same effect as a water loss caused by sur-
face evaporation; the concrete shrinks. Concrete mixes having
a water/cement ratio larger than 0.4 are not affected by this
phenomenon. This kind of shrinkage is gaining importance
with utilization of high strength concrete types with very low
water/ cement ratios.
Drying shrinkage in hardened concrete is usually caused by
evaporation of water through existing capillary pores in the
hydrated cement paste. The loss of water is a progressive
process that tends to stabilize with time, depending on the Cracks due to plastic shrinkage in a concrete pavement caused by insufficient surface pro-
dimensions of the structural element. tection prior to premature drying.
The main influencing factors are the concrete element dimen- Interlaboratory comparison
sions, the relative ambient humidity and the water/cement from experiments at
ratio. Possible measures include a reduction of cement paste the Federal Institute of
Technology Zurich to de-
volume and application of shrinkage reducing admixture. termine the performance
of shrinkage-reducing
concrete admixtures.

WATERPROOFING
CONCRETE
BASEMENT WATERPROOFING
MORE
WITH
THAN
Sikaplan®
100 YEARS
SHEET
OFMEMBRANES
DURABILITY 27
GLOBAL BUT LOCAL PARTNERSHIP

FOR MORE CONCRETE INFORMATION:

WE ARE SIKA
Sika is a specialty chemicals company with a leading position in the
development and production of systems and products for bonding,
sealing, damping, reinforcing and protecting in the building sector
and the motor vehicle industry. Sika's product lines feature concrete
admixtures, mortars, sealants and adhesives, structural strengthening
systems, flooring as well as roofing and waterproofing systems.

Our most current General Sales Conditions shall apply.

Please consult the Data Sheet prior to any use and processing.

SIKA INDIA PVT. LTD. Contact

501 & 502, B Wing, Tel: +91 22 6270 4038
Lotus Corporate Park, Fax: +91 22 6270 4039
Off. Western Express Highway, Email: info.india@in.sika.com
Goregaon East, Mumbai - 400063 Website: ind.sika.com