Liberation Psychology as the Path Toward Healing Cultural Soul Wounds

EduardoDuran,JudithFirehammer,andJohnGonzalez
Oppression resulting in soul wounding has afflicted indigenous communities and the counseling profession. Internalized oppression has become part of oppressive practices inflicted on communities served. The authors delineate a liberation psychology that leads toward the psychological and spiritual emancipation of individual clients, communities, and the counseling profession. The most potent weapon in the hands of the oppressor is the mind of the oppressed. StephenBiko(ascitedinWorldCulturalGeography,1998)

Cultureispartofthesoul.Ashumanbeings,weareallpart ofacultureandnotseparatefromit.Whenthesoulorcultureofsomepersonsareoppressed,wearealloppressedand woundedinwaysthatrequirehealingifwearetobecome liberatedfromsuchoppression.Whendiscussingtheseissues, itisimportanttorealizethatwehaveallbeenonbothsidesof theoppression/oppressorcoinatdifferentpointsinourlives. Itisalsoimportanttobecomeawarethataclearpathtoward healingmustbeundertakenbyindividualcounselorsaswell asbythementalhealthprofessionsasawholeifweareto realizenewanduntappeddimensionsofourindividualand collectivehealthandpsychologicalliberation.Intakingthe healing path, counselors will be able to provide individual clientsandtheworldcommunitywithmuch-neededunderstandingofthewaytowardliberationandthefullnessoflife inamannerthatpromotesharmoniousinteractionswithinthe overallwebofthelifeworld. FromtheworkthatwehavebeendoinginIndiancountryfor manyyears,ithasbecomeapparentthatthereareparallelsinthe soul-woundingandsoul-healingprocessesthataremanifestedin theNativecommunityandthecounselingprofession,ofwhich weareapart.Allpeoplehavegonethroughsomeformofhistoricaltraumathatcontinuestocauseconfusionandsufferinginthe present.Ifthehistoricalsoulwoundingisnoteffectivelydealt with,eachperson,aswellasherorhisdescendants,isdoomed toexperienceandperpetuatevariousformsofpsychicandspiritualsufferinginthefuture.Forthesereasons,itisimportantthat counselorsunderstand(a)howhistoryaffectsthepresentmental well-beingofpersonsfrommarginalizedracial/culturalgroups in general and Native communities in particular and (b) how intrusionsbythecounselingprofession,ifnotdonewithcultural competenceandrespect,willpredictablycontributetothesoul sufferingthatisalreadypandemicinsocietiesacrosstheworld. Multicultural scholars have described the various ways thatthementalhealthprofessionshavebeenaninstrument

ofoppressionfromtheirearliestdayswhenthepowerofthe Churchwaspassedontothenewpriestsofthesociety(i.e., mentalhealthprofessionals)whocouldimposetheirwillon peoplefromdiverseculturalgroupsundertheguiseofbeing healers(Duran,2006;Foucault,1967).Thevariousformsof psychologicaloppressionthatcontinuetobeperpetuatedby manywell-meaningandgood-heartedcounselors,psychologists,andsocialworkersareby-productsofbroadereconomic, political,religious,andsocialmechanismsthathavehistoricallybeenusedtocolonizepersonsfromdiversegroupsand backgroundsintheUnitedStates.Operatingfromculturally biasedviewsofmentalhealthandwhatareconsideredtobe appropriateinterventionstrategies,theseprofessionalsperpetuatevariousformsofinjusticeandinstitutionalracismby imposinghelpingparadigmsthatareoftenincongruentwith theworldviews,values,beliefs,andtraditionalpracticesthat havebeenusedtopromotethepsychologicalwell-beingof personsindiversegroups(Constantine&Sue,2006). Similartothosereligiousmissionarieswhoworkedtopromoteandmaintainaparticularworldviewandpoliticalstatus quo, contemporary mental health professionals have been criticized for primarily assisting clients from marginalized anddevaluedgroupstoconformtothesocial,economic,and politicalrealitiesthatcharacterizethedominantgroupinU.S. society(Ivey,DAndrea,Ivey,&Simek-Morgan,2007). Asthesayinggoes,everythingispolitical,andpsychologicalscienceandpracticearenoexceptions.Thefactthat counselorshaveintentionallyandunintentionallyusedtheir professional knowledge and skills to support the existing powerstructureinwaysthatadverselyaffectthelivesofmany personsfromdiverseracial/culturalgroupsisanindictment ofthecounselingprofession(Duran&Duran,1995). This indictment is, in part, linked to the perpetuation of ethnocentric practices in counselor education programs and counselingpracticesinthefield.FromtheperspectiveofNative people,theuseofethnocentricpracticesincounseloreducation programsandcounselingpracticesinadvertentlyresultsinthe woundingofthesoulsofmanyraciallyandculturallydifferent clientsaswellasthosemembersofthecounselingprofession

Eduardo Duran and Judith Firehammer, United Auburn Indian Community, Loomis, California; John Gonzalez, Department of Psychology, University of Alaska Fairbanks. John Gonzalez is now at Psychology Department, Bemidji State University. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Eduardo Duran, United Auburn Indian Community, 3268 Penryn Road, Suite 100, Loomis, CA 95650 (e-mail: soulhealing16@yahoo.com). 2008 by the American Counseling Association. All rights reserved.

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Liberation Psychology Healing Cultural Soul Wounds whohavenotacquiredthepsychologicalliberationorcultural competencethatwouldenablethemtoworkrespectfully,effectively,andethicallywithdiverseclientpopulations. Thepsychologicaloppressionthatensuesfromthesepracticesresultsinvariousformsofinjusticethataretypically inflicted unintentionally by counselors who are genuinely interestedinhelpingclientsfromdiversegroupsandbackgrounds to realize new and untapped dimensions of their humanity. Despite the intention of many good-hearted and well-meaning counselors to help foster the mental health ofclientsfromdiverseracial/culturalgroupsingeneraland NativeAmericansinparticular,acarefulexaminationofthe counselinginterventionscommonlyimplementedbyculturally incompetent practitioners serve very different ends. Ratherthanpromotingthecollectivedignityandpsychologicalliberationofclientsinthesediverseculturalpopulations, Westerncounselinginterventions areinadvertentlyused to promotingthetypesofsocialcontrolandconformitythatare necessary to sustain the existing political/economic/social statusquo(Duran,2006). With this backdrop in mind, this article explores the meaningofthreeinterrelatedconceptsthatareofparticular importance in counseling persons in marginalized cultural groupsingeneralandespeciallywhenworkingwithmembers ofNativecommunitiesinparticular.Thisincludesexamining themeaningandrelevanceofpsychologicalliberation,the soul wound,andsoul healingintheworkcounselorsdo. soulwounds.Tracingthehistoricalfactorsthatcontributed toamovementawayfromaddressingclientsspiritualissues ingeneralandindividualssoulwoundsinparticularexceeds thescopeofthisarticle.However,inourworkwithNative people,wehavecometotheopinionthatmanyindigenous andculturallydiversecommunitieswouldbenefitgreatlyfrom counselingservicesthatintentionallydirectattentiontothese importantaspectsofhumanfunctioning. By addressing issues related to clients spiritual needs andsoulwounds,counselorsarebetterpositionedtofostera greatersenseofpsychologicalhealth,well-being,andpsychologicalliberationamongpersonsingroupsthatcontinuetobe marginalizedandoppressedincontemporarysociety.Todoso, counselorswillneedtoundertakeaseriousself-examination oftheimpactoftheirprivilegedpositioninsocietythatoften leadsthemtoignoremanyofinjusticesthatunderlieclients soulwoundsandpsychologicaldistress. Becausethecounselingprofessionhas,inlargepart,held aprivilegedpositionintheUnitedStates,manycounselors havebeenunawareofandcomplacenttomanyformsofsocial injusticethatcontinuetobeperpetuatedinmarginalizedcommunitiesinthiscountry.Becomingawareofthevariousforms of cultural oppression and social injustices that adversely affectthementalhealthofclientsfromdevaluedgroupsin U.S.societyaswellasthepsychologicaldevelopmentofmany Western-trained mental health practitioners is an essential componentoftheprocessofliberation psychology. Thetheoryofliberationpsychologyisgroundedinmany tenetsofliberation theologythathaveemergedfromgrassroots communitystrugglesinotherpartsoftheworldwhereoppressionreachedanintolerablelevel.Providersofmentalhealth andspiritualguidanceinLatinAmericancountrieshavebeen particularlyvocalinbringingattentiontothelamentationofthe oppressedpoorthroughtheuseofpsychologicalliberationinterventionsinclinicalpracticeaswellasintheorydevelopment and critical pedagogy (Alcoff & Mendieta, 2000; Batstone, Mendieta, Lorentzen, & Hopkins, 1997; Dussel, 1997; Fals Borda,1988;Freire,1972;Gutirrez,1973;Kane2001). TheLatinAmericanliberationprocessisdeeplyinfluenced byFreires(1972)ideaofconscientiziation,essentiallymeaning achangeinconsciousness.Throughagradualtransformation of consciousness via ongoing deconstruction of the life experiencesofoppressedpersons,theentirecommunitythatis adverselyaffectedbysystemicformsofoppressionandinjustice canbegintoliberateitselfand,inthatprocess,liberatetheoppressor(Duran2006).AccordingtoFreire,thetransformation oftheoppressoraswellastheoppressedinvolvesagenuineact oflovethathasprofoundimplicationsfortheworkinwhich counselors are supposed to be engaged within a culturally diversecontemporarysociety. In our work with Native persons, we analyze and help clientsdeconstructtheirculturalhistoryinwaysthatliberatethemfromthetraumaticandoppressiveconditionsthat broughtthemtotheirpresentsituation.Thecounselingprofes-

Psychological Liberation, the Soul Wound, and Soul Healing

Itisinterestingtonotethattherootmetaphorsofthecounselingprofessionalidentityarehistoricallygroundedinwhat hasbeenreferredtoasthe soul.Thetermpsychologyitself literallymeans thestudy ofthesoul.Culturallycompetent counselors, who are knowledgeable of NativeAmerican perspectivesofmentalhealth,knowthattheprimarygoalof psychologicalhelpingisnotonlytoexploreissuesofrelevance toclientssoulsbutalsotohelpthemfindhealingandrelief frompsychopathologyorsoulsuffering. Thepsychologicalhealingtradition,aspracticedintheancient world,didnotshyawayfromsoulhealing.Instead,soulhealing wasthecentralinterestofthepriest/therapisttorestoreharmony totheindividualslife.Thedistantancestorsofthecounseling profession,asexemplifiedinthehealingpracticesoftheAsklepiantraditioninancientGreece,approachedclientsinthefollowingmanner.Thatis,thehealer(counselor)wouldaddressthe individualssoul,asapathtoendsuffering(Duran,2006). Although examples of similar counseling interventions thataddressindividualsspiritualneedsarestillinexistence in most traditional indigenous cultures today (Heilbron & Guttman,2000;Mohatt&EagleElk,2000;Roberts,Harper, Tuttle-EagleBull,&Heideman-Provost,1998),Westerncounselingapproacheshavemovedawayfromaddressingclients

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Duran, Firehammer, & Gonzalez sionhaslimitedthissortofdeconstructiontopersonal(intrapsychic)issues,thusleavingoutthesociohistoricalcontext, whichisofparamountimportancetoclientsmentalhealthand psychologicaldevelopment.InourworkwithNativeAmericancommunities,ithasalsobecomeexceedinglyclearthat thecounselingprofessionsunwillingnesstoaddressclients historicalcontextcontributestothepsychologicaloppression ofindividualclients,theirfamilies,culturalcommunities,as wellasthehelpingprofessionsthemselves. Ifcounselorsweretosimplyproceedwithmentalhealth practices in the fashion that has been prescribed by the counseling profession, marginalized cultural communities willsimplynotbenefitfromsuchculturallybiasedhelping interventions. Unfortunately, professional counselors are toooftentrainedtofurtherpathologizethemembersofsuch communities by refusing to address the historical context, injustices,andsubsequentsoulwoundsthatunderliemuch oftheirpsychologicaldistress.Consequently,NativeAmerican clients are often labeled as resistant when they do not demonstrate an interest in continuing to participate in the counselingprocess. Thecounselingprofessionhasnothadthehumilitytocritically assessthedepthsoftheculturallybiasednatureofitshelping methodsnorthenegativeoutcomesthatcommonlyensuefrom imposing traditionalWestern helping theories and practices among clients from diverse groups and backgrounds (Duran & Duran, 1995). Liberation psychology advocates encourage counselorstodirecttheireffortstowardfosteringaliberation discourseinthehelpingprocesswithclientsaswellasinprofessionalforumsintheprofession.Thissortofdiscoursenecessarily involvesanexplorationofclientsandthecounselingprofessions historicalcontextaswellastheircurrentlifeandprofessional challengesinculturallydiversecounselinginteractions. Advocates of this liberatory approach to helping and professionaldevelopmentemphasizethelatterpointintheir workbecausetheyarekeenlycognizantofthewaysinwhich manyculturallydiversepersonshavetoooftensufferedfrom variousformsofoppressioninthenameoftraditionalWestern counselingandpsychotherapy.Duran(2006)underscoredthis bypointingoutthefollowing:
Liberation discourse involves taking a crucial eye to the processesofcolonizationthathavehadadeepimpactonthe identityofOriginalPeoples;asaresult,anewnarrativeof healingwillemerge.Thementalhealthprofessionhasbeen instrumental in fostering the colonial ideation of Native Peoplesallovertheworld.Iammerelybearingwitnessand bringingawarenesstothisprocess,tochangeit.Byturning a critical eye on our professional activities of healing, we liberateourselvesaswell.(p.1)

In the process of developing liberation psychology in Indian country, we have found early on that much of the availableWesternpsychologicaltheorywasnotusefulandat

timesirrelevantwhenusedamongculturallydiverseclients unless it was retheorized using appropriate cultural metaphors.Forexample,thelabelscounselorsandpsychologists commonlyusetodiagnoseclientsarereallymetaphorsfor describingacondition,andthesemetaphorsusuallydonot allowclientstorelatetotheircondition.Asaresult,theetiologicalexplanationsformanypsychologicaldisorders,such asdepression,havefrequentlybeennotedtobeincongruent withtheclientsworldview,regardlessofherorhiscultural background(Duran,2006). WhenworkingwithNativeclientswhoaredepressed,we havefoundituseful,instead,toprovideaculturallyappropriatemetaphorbysuggestingthatthespiritofsadnessis visitingtheclient.UsingthismetaphorallowstheseNative clientstorelatetotheirpsychologicalconditionfromacultural perspectivethatleadstoseveraldifferentoptionsfortheclient tofindrelieffromthatcondition.Indoingso,aclientwhois depressedisabletoengageinaconversationwithoractively imaginethevisitingspiritcalledsadness.Inthatconversation, thespiritofsadnesscanrevealexistentialmeaningtotheclient andthereforeliberateherorhimfrombeingavictimofthe problemofdepression.Theclientmayneedtofindbalance intherelationshipwiththespiritofsadnessasallindividuals mustdoatdifferenttimesintheirlives.Whentheclienthasa relationshipwiththedisorderinsteadofbeingthedisorder,a newnarrativeemergesthatisliberatingtotheindividualand thecommunityofwhichsheorheisapart. Therecanbecountlessetiologicalexplanationsastowhy thisspiritisvisitingdifferentclients,allofwhichnecessitate takingintoaccounttheclientssociohistoricalcontext.Clients cantracetheproblemtheyareexperiencingtoaplaceinhistorywheretheproblemoriginated.Tosuccessfullyusethis formofliberationcounseling,weencourageclientstomakea tribalgenogramtofindtheirplaceinhistorywherethespecific traumaoccurred.Byfindingthehistoricalplaceofthistrauma, theclientcanstopself-identifyingasadefectiveIndianand experienceagreaterlevelofpsychologicalliberationbymore accuratelyunderstandingthehistorical-contextualgenesisof herorhisexperiencewithdepressionorotherformsofpsychic disorders(Duran,2006). Anotherexampleofsuchliberatoryprocessescomesfrom theNorthernPlainstribes.Ifachildorpersoninthesecultural groupsexperiencessevereabuse/trauma,itisbelievedthatthe individualssoulorspiritwillleavethebody,thusallowing anotherspirittoenter(i.e.,thespiritofsadness).Aspecific setofceremoniesisrequiredtocallbacktheclientsoriginal naturalspirit.Throughthepraxisofconsideringthecultural contextandbecomingknowledgeableastohowthispraxis leadstobetterwaysofunderstandingandworkingwithNative clients,anewtheoryofpsychologicalliberationcounseling forNativepeoplesbeginstoemerge. Furthermore, commenting on the process of liberation counseling,Martin-Baro(1998)pointedoutthatitshouldnt be theories that define the problems of our situation, but

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Liberation Psychology Healing Cultural Soul Wounds rathertheproblemsthatdemand,andsotospeak,selecttheir owntheorization(p.314).Suchanapproachtohelpingis amorerespectfulandeffectivewayofproceedingwiththe workofpsychologicalliberationandmentalhealthcarein multicultural contexts. Moreover, while working in Indian countrywithNativeclients,wequicklylearnedthatbysimply applyingexistingcounselingtheoriesandpracticesaddedto thefeelingsofalienationfeltbyindigenouspeoplestoward mentalhealthprofessionals.Itisimportantforcounselorsto considerwhythishappens. ManyNativepeoplebelievetheyarelivinginalifeworld thathasbeentakenoverbyaforeignmythology.Therefore,if someoneoffershelpusinganoppressivemythologyembedded withinthedominantculturalgroupthathasimposedsomuch historicalsuffering,itseemsonlynaturalthattheindividual orcommunity(subjectedtosuchoppressionandinjustice) wouldberesistanttobeinghelpedinthisway.Thisproblem becomesexacerbatedwhenacounselorofferinghelpfrom theoppressivetheoreticalmythologycontinuestolabeland pathologizethetargetedpersonorcommunitybecauseoftheir reluctancetoacceptthehelpthatisbeingoffered. ThefactthatNativepeoplewereresistanttomentalhealth professionalsinitialinvolvementinIndiancountrybecame therationaleforustoexplorenewnarrativesfortherapyand counselinginourownwork.Inexploringnewhelpingapproachesthatwehopedwouldbemoreculturallycompetent, respectful, effective, and liberating, it became increasingly apparentthateventhemannerinwhichthefieldsofcounseling andpsychologycategorizementalhealthproblemsisculture boundandoppressive.Theculture-boundnatureofthediagnosticnosologyusedbymentalhealthpractitioners,referredto astheDiagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4thed.,textrev.;AmericanPsychiatricAssociation,2000), servestoalienateNativepeopleandpersonsfromotherculturalgroupswhodonotunderstandoracceptaEurocentric worldviewofmentalhealthandpsychopathology. Tobeginthehealingnarrativeforalldiversecommunities,itisimperativethattheissueofhistorybebroughtinto therapeutic ceremonies that are aimed at fostering clients psychological liberation. Once historical honesty becomes anintegralpartofthecounseling/healingceremonysession, thefieldsofcounselingandpsychologywillthemselvesbegin thelong-neededhealingprocessthatenablescounselorsand therapiststorealizenewanduntappedaspectsoftheirpsychologicalliberation.Duran(2006)haswrittenextensively aboutthisimportantissue,noting,
Lack of understanding of the Native epistemological root metaphor (ways of being in the world which include the psychologicalandspiritualworlds)continuestohinderour profession.Historicalnarcissism(thebeliefthatonesown system of thinking must be used to validate other cultural beliefsystems)continuestobeanissueintherelationship betweenNative/OriginalPeopleandthosewhoholdpowerin theacademicandclinicallife-world.Iusethisstronglanguage becausetheNative/Originalpersonisexpectedtofullyunderstandtheworldofthecolonizersimplybecausethecolonizer saysso.Whenitcomestothecolonizermakinganeffortto understandthelife-worldoftheNative/Originalperson,the colonizerbecomesverycreativeinhis/herdefensesinorder topreservehis/herCartesianlife-world.Theintentionofthis bookistoprovideabridgebetweenWesternandTraditional Nativehealingworldsandinthismannerbringhealingtothe historicaltraumathatallpeoplehavesufferedatonetimein theirhistory.(p.7)

Epistemological Hybridity
In developing a template for the work that lies ahead, we recommend that the fields of counseling and psychology implement a mind-set of epistemological hybridity.The epistemologicalhybriditythatwearecallingforisnothing less than the capacity to become enmeshed in the cultural lifeworldofthepersonorcommunityseekinghelp.Becomingenmeshedintheculturallifeworldofthosepersonswith whomcounselorsareplanningtoworkwithinthefutureis averydifferentapproachtoprofessionaldevelopmentthan hasbeencurrentlyimplementedintheprofession.Thisisso becausemuchofwhathasbeendoneintheareaofcrossculturalandmulticulturalcounselingtraininghasbeenladen withpaternalisticattitudes(Duran,2006). Thesepaternalisticattitudescanbestbeillustratedbyan analysis into how mental health professionals are deemed qualifiedtodocross-culturalwork.Typically,itisthoughtthat athree-unitcourseincross-cultural/multiculturalcounseling sufficesinqualifyingcounselorstoworkwithpersonsfrom diversecultures.Giventhecomplexityofculturalissuesinthe counseling/healingprocess,itissuggestedthatthislimited approach to multicultural counseling training needs to be supplementedwithwhatwerefertoasanenmeshing training process(Duran,2006). Thethirdauthorwaspreviouslyinvolvedinimplementing thissortofenmeshingtrainingprocessandwastherebypromotingthesortofepistemologicalhybriditydiscussedearlier inadoctoralcounselingprogram.Inhisformerdoctoraltrainingprogram,allincomingstudentswererequiredtoattenda culturalimmersionexperiencebeforetheirfirstsemester.This experienceinvolvedhavingstudentsinteractandengagein dailyactivitieswithNativeeldersandotherculturalexperts intheNativecommunity. Thebenefitsofthisimmersionexperiencearemanyand probablydifferforeveryone,dependingonherorhispreviouslifeexperiences.Amongthebenefitsreportedbystudents participating in this enmeshing process include debunking stereotypes and establishing important relationships with community members, elders, and traditional healers. Studentsalsoquicklylearnsomeofthebasicculturalrulesof etiquettethatarecriticaltodevelopingpositive,respectful,

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Duran, Firehammer, & Gonzalez andpotentiallyhealingrelationshipswithpersonsintheNativecommunities. Followingthisenmeshingexperience,studentsenrollin their first required doctoral course called NativeWays of Knowing.ThiscourseprovidesahistoricalcontexttoNative issues and challenges students to thoroughly examine the epistemologies of indigenous peoples as they relate to humanbehavior.Boththeimmersion/enmeshingexperience andtheaforementionedcourseareintendedtosetthetone forthestudentsfuturetrainingbecausetheyopenstudents uptotheideaofepistemologicalhybridity,thusguidingthem throughaprocessofliberationfromorthodoxprofessional Westernpracticesasarecommonlytaughtinmostcounselor educationprograms. Asawaytofosterstudentspsychologicalliberationfurther, theyareexposedtoandareencouragedtoengageinintense discussionsduringTalkingCirclesinclassroomsettings.These TalkingCirclesgroupsfocusonmanyoftheissuesoutlined earlierinthisarticleaswellasothermentalhealthissuesthat aregroundedinanindigenousperspective.Studentsareasked toreflectandcommentontheseissuesastheyrelatetotheir professionaldevelopmentandtheworktheywanttodointhe future as they become the next generation of healers. By increasingtheirunderstandingofthewaysofbeingintheNativelifeworld,studentsareabletobeginthejourneytoward becoming more knowledgeable of the context of historical traumaandhowthistraumaaffectsthepresentlivesofNative personsintheUnitedStates. Althoughitisencouragingthatresearchershavebeenableto finallyvalidatethesefindingsempirically,itisunfortunatethat suchknowledgehastakensolongtobescientificallyprovenby WesternresearcherswhentheinsightsgainedfromtheseinvestigativeeffortshavelongbeenunderstoodbyNativepeople.Again, acaseofpaternalismandlackofculturalhybridityisexemplified whenindigenousknowledgemustbevalidatedthroughWestern empiricism.Thelackofvalidationforindigenoustheoryand clinicalmethodscreatesafeelingofhelplessnessinindigenous communitiesandleadstountoldsufferingamongmanypeople inthesecommunitiesatthepresenttime.

Cultural Hybridism as Liberation

Freire(1972)describedthetheoryofliberationasaprocess that,oncesetinmotionbytheoppressed,willhavetheprofoundliberatingandhealingimpactontheoppressoraswellas thosevictimizedbyvariousformsofculturaloppressionand social-politicalinjustices.Inessence,theoriesofpsychologicalliberationandculturalhybridityrepresentatransformationofconsciousnessamongoppressedpersons.Realization ofthisliberatedconsciousnessresultsintheunderstanding that,byremainingoppressed,personsinmarginalizedcultural groupshelptoperpetuateaninsaneanddehumanizingdance ofpsychologicalandspiritualsufferingthatadverselyaffects theoppressoraswellastheoppressedpersons. Insuchadynamicrelationshipbetweentheoppressedand theoppressor,thenegativeenergyofoppressionconsumes thelivesofthehumanbeingsinvolvedandcreatesaninsidiousrealityofself-perpetuatingsuffering.Throughtheuseof counselinginterventionsthatemergefromculturalhybridity, individuals are able to acquire a new historical-contextual awarenessoftheirindividualandcollectivedevelopmentand problems.Thisawarenessresultsintheemergenceofagreater level of consciousness, psychological liberation, and soul healingthatcantransformthehealthandlivesofindividuals victimizedbyvariousformsofsocialinjusticeaswellasthose responsibleforperpetuatingsuchoppression.

Generations of Suffering
PresentlyinIndiancountry,itiswellacceptedthatthehistory ofviolenceandgenocideinflictedontheindigenouspersons ofthislandcontinuestohaveadeepimpactontheindigenous peoplesintheUnitedStates.Thishistoryhasresultedinforms ofintergenerationaltraumathatcontinuestohaveanadverse impactonthementalhealthandpsychologicalwell-beingof manyNativepersons,contributingtomuchofthepsychopathologythatisencounteredinIndiancountry(BraveHeart, 1999;Duran&Duran,1995;Duran,Duran,BraveHeart,& YellowHorse-Davis,1998;Epstein,1979).Slowlybutsurely, mental health care providers and counseling programs are modifyingtreatmentstrategiesinwaysthatreflectagreater understandingandacceptanceoftheintergenerationaltrauma thatcontinuestoaffectpersonsinIndiancountry. Recently,researchershavecollectedempiricaldatathatshed newlightonwhattheNativeAmericancommunityhasknownfor decades;thatis,intergenerational/historicaltraumacontributesto manyofthebehavioralhealthconcernsandproblemsexperienced byNativeindividualsandcommunities(Whitbeck,Adams,Hoyt, &Chen,2004).Reportingontheseissuesfromtheirresearch endeavors,Whitbecketal.pointedoutthatahighprevalenceof historicaltraumaassociatedwithemotionaldistress(anxiety,depression,anger)isroutinelymanifestedinwaysthatunderminetheindividualandcollectivehealthofmanypersonsinIndiancountry. 292

Healing Versus Curing

Healingandcuringareconceptsthatmeritdiscussionwhen exploringissuesrelatedtoliberationpsychology.Withinthe Westernmind-setofcounselingandtherapy,themainintent oftherapeuticinterventionsistheremovalofsymptomsthat isaccomplishedwithinahelpingcontextoftenviewedin contradictoryoradversarialtermsamongpersonsfrommarginalizedculturalgroups.Theadversarialnatureofsuchhelpingisreflectedinthewaysthatmanywell-meaninghelpers declarewaronvarioushuman-socialproblems.Thisincludes butisnotlimitedtothewarondrugs,thewaronpoverty,and thewaronterrorism,tonameafew. Usingthesemetaphorsasaguideintheirwork,mental health professionals identify target populations and define specifictasksandobjectivestoeradicatesocialandpsychologicalproblems.Traditionaltribalworldviewsfindtheafore-

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Liberation Psychology Healing Cultural Soul Wounds mentionedimagesofhelpingtobeforeign,strange,inhumane, andindiscordwithnaturalprocesses.Healinginatraditional Nativeworldviewisprimarilyconcernedwithhelpingindividualslearnhowtheyfitintotheoverallcosmology. Beingaproductivememberofsocietyhasaverydifferent meaningintraditionalindigenouscultures,whicharemainly concernedwiththepersonsrelationshiptotheuniversalcosmologyversuscuringaculturallydefinedpsychologicaldisorder.Fromanindigenousliberationpsychologyperspective, individualscanbeverydepressedandstillhavearelationship withtheirsoulandthewaytheirsoulharmonizeswiththe universallifeforce.WithinWesterncultures,therearerevered artists, scientists, and other highly creative and productive personswhoarerecognizedfortheircontributionstotheworld soulwhiledealingwiththeirmentaldisorders. groups,theuseofthatparticulartheoreticalapproachisnot likelytobeeffectiveorbeneficialforthosepersons.Cognitivebehavioraltherapiesrepresentimportantcounselingapproaches thataresupportedbymuchempiricalresearch.Fromamulticulturalresearchperspective,itisacknowledgedthatthereis meritinusingcognitive-behavioralapproacheswithpersons fromdiverseculturalgroupsingeneralandNativepopulations in particular (McDonald & Gonzalez, 2006; Renfrey, 1992; Trimble,1992).However,fromamulticultural/socialjustice counseling perspective, it is emphasized that such helping strategiesshouldneverbeusedofftheshelf withoutsome culturalmetaphormodification. The potential benefits of cognitive-behavioral counselingapproachesthathavebeenmodifiedtocomplementthe culturalworldviewsofdiverseclientsareunderscoredbythe recognitionthatthesehelpingconceptshavebeenpromotedby manyculturalgroupsforthousandsofyears.Forexample,the BuddhistsystemusestheconceptofVipassana(seeingclearly)meditation(amethodofobservingthemindandthoughts astheymoveacrossthelandscapeofonesconsciousness)to fostermentalhealthandpsychologicalwell-being. SimilarWesterncognitive-behavioraltherapystrategiesare oftenusedwithclientsasawayofhelpingindividualscope moreeffectivelywithstressandalleviatingmentaldisorders. Oneofthecentraldifferencesbetweentheaforementioned BuddhistapproachandWesterncognitive-behavioralcounselingstrategiesisthattheformermethodispracticedtopromote mentalliberationandpsychologicalhealth,whereasthelatter is often aimed at ameliorating symptoms of psychological distressanddisorder. ManyNativeAmericantribessubscribetowhatWestern mentalhealthprofessionalscallcognitive-behavioraltechniquesbyfollowingculturalpreceptsthatencouragethemto watchtheirthoughtssothattheycanchangethosecognitive processes and ensuing behaviors that are not conducive to positiveandliberatingpsychologicaloutcomes.Ifcounselors weretoproceedtousecognitive-behavioralhelpingstrategies in ways that accommodate this and other relevant cultural metaphors(e.g.,byencouragingNativeAmericanclientsto watchtheirthoughts),theyarelikelytoexperienceagreater levelofeffectivenessinfosteringthepsychologicalliberation ofclientsinthisculturalgroupthaniftheyweretousemore orthodoxWesterncognitive-behavioralcounselingapproaches (Duran,2006).

Empirically Tested Healing and the Future Possibilities

Presently, the mental health professions delineate how counseling/therapy/healing is to be delivered in order for counselorstopracticewithinthescopeofwhattheprofession deems appropriate and ethical. Funding sources, including third-partypayersandgovernmentalgrantsourcessupport, have empirically tested best counseling and therapy practices.Thisensuresthatcounselorswilladheretotreatment paradigmsthathavepassedtheWesternempiricaltestwhile disregardingconsiderationsofculturallyappropriateinterventionsthatareaimedatfosteringsoulhealing. Fromamulticultural/socialjusticeperspective,itissuggestedthatsuchanapproachtocounselingislargelydesigned toensurethatclientsbecomeaproductiveandconforming memberofsocietyinwaysthatenhancethecorporatestructuresthatoperatebehindthescene.Thesestructuresrepresent supraordinatesocietalforcesthatsignificantlydictatewhat peopleinthegeneralcitizenryareconditionedtobelieveare appropriatewaysofthinkingandactingintheworld.Although itisnotoftendiscussedinmainstreamprofessionalcounseling andpsychologypublications,thismasspsychologicalconditioningisclearlygroundedinasocial-politicalideologythat promotesgeneralizednotionsofmentalhealthandillness.It is further asserted that this general psychological ideology influencesboththeempiricallytestedinterventionscounselors arerequiredtouse,forreimbursementbythird-partypayers, andtheassumptionsandbeliefsthatunderliethediagnoses counselorsmakeofclientsmentalhealthstatus. Inmakingthesestatements,wearenotsuggestingthatwe areopposedtoempiricallysupportedtherapies.However,we dobelievethatjustbecauseacounselingapproachhasgone throughthefiltersofempiricaltestingdoesnotmakeaparticular helpingtheoryatheoryofchoiceforallorevenmostclients whomcounselorsarecalledupontoserve.Indeed,theefficacy ofmanycounselingtheoriesissupportedbyclinicaltrialsand empiricaltesting.However,ifanempiricallyvalidatedapproach tohelpingisnotculturallyrelevanttoclientsfromdifferent

Moving Beyond Western Scientific Models of Research and Theory Validation

Whenitcomestotestingtheeffectivenessofanewtherapyor counselingintervention,itiscrucialthatthetestingprocessincluderesearchmethodsandwaysofknowingthatcharacterize thediverseclientpopulationsthatwillultimatelybecomethe recipientsofsuchhelpingservices(Allenetal.,2006;Fisher &Ball,2002;Mohatt,Hazel,etal.,2004).Unfortunately,most 293

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Duran, Firehammer, & Gonzalez researchthatisdoneinthisareaisconductedviaWestern scientificmethodsofinquiry.Theseresearchmethodshave historicallyreliedonquantitativemethodsofinvestigationto verifytheeffectivenessofvariousapproachestocounseling andpsychotherapy. Asaresultofadaptingtheseresearchmethodstodetermine thebestpracticesincounseling,counselorsandothersocial scientistshaveacceptedtheideathatifnumbersareinvolved inassessingtheeffectivenessofatheoreticalapproach,there mustbeobjectivityandtruthintheseinterventions.Manypractitionerswhoviewthemselvesasbeingmulticulturalcounseling advocateshavesacrificedtheirsoulsonthe12-stepscientific methodaltar,forgettingthatthereareotherprescribedways ofknowingthelifeworldthattranscendtheWesternresearch methodsthataretaughtingraduateschool. Counselingresearcherswhoareopentoalternativeresearch methods(e.g.,includingusingavarietyofqualitativeresearch modelsthathaveemergedintheprofessionoverthepastdecade)arebetterpositionedtohelpliberatethemselvesandthe professionfromthenarrowandculturallybiasedinformation thatistypicallygeneratedfromquantitativemethodsofinquiry. Bybreakingthechainsthatimprisontheirmindsasaresultof unquestionablyacceptingalogicalpositivistapproachtocounselingresearch,counselingresearchersareabletotranscendinto aworldinwhichtherearenoboundariesastheyusemultiple researchmethodsthathelpuncoverthemultipletruthspersons fromdiverseculturalgroupsembracewhenitcomestodefiningeffectivehelpingstrategiesthatfostertheirconstructions ofmentalhealthandpsychologicalliberation. Counselorscanbegindoingthisbyincludingqualitative methodsinallresearchendeavorsinwhichtheyareinvolved from the evaluation of professional training programs to counselingefficacyandoutcomeresearch.Althoughtheyare notperfect,qualitativeresearchapproachescanyieldinformationthatquantitativeresearchapproachescannotmatch.Ithas alsobeennotedthatqualitativeapproachesaremuchmore congruentwithNativeandindigenouswaysofknowingthan thequantitativeresearchstrategiesthatcontinuetopermeate thefieldsofcounselingandpsychology(Hill,Thompson,& Williams,1997;Mohatt,Rasmus,etal.,2004). Oneexampleofthepositivelessonslearnedfromusing qualitativeresearchmethodstoevaluatetheefficacyofmental healthservicesprovidedtoNativepersonscomesfromthe PeopleAwakeningProject,whichwasimplementedamong indigenous people inAlaska (Mohatt, Hazel, et al., 2004). This project included the recording of clients life stories thatweregatheredinnarrativeformatasawayofidentifying thepathwaystosobrietyandtheprotectivefactorsthathelp Alaska Native people deal with alcohol problems. Further workisbeingconductedbythePeopleAwakeningTeamto developandtestculturallygroundedtherapiesandcounselinginterventionsbasedonempiricallyderivedpathwaysand protectivefactors.Similarmethodsneedtobeusedinother cultural communities and Native tribes as the counseling professionstrivestorealizeagreaterlevelofitsownpsy294 chologicalliberationbymovingbeyondtraditionalformsof empiricalresearchmethodology.

Conclusion
Wehavebrieflydelineatedhelpingprocessesthatencompassa differentapproachtohealingandcounselinginthelifeworld. Soulwoundinghasbeenofferedasapivotalissuethatisasserted tobeattherootofmanyofthepsychologicalproblemsfacing societyandthecounselingprofession.Inordertohealthesoul wound,itissuggestedthatthenotionofsoulhealingneedsto becomeacentralmetaphorthatguidesthedailyactivitiesof counselorsandtherapists.Ifcounselorsremaincourageousin strivingtochangethewaymentalhealthprofessionalshavebeen traditionallytaught,byoperatinginthecounselinglifeworld andbyincludingthenotionofsoulhealing,theywillbeableto createaliberatingpsychologythatwillslowlybegintotransformtheclinicalandresearchareasofthecounselingprofession aswellaspositivelyaffectsocietyatlarge. Inordertomovetowardamorehumanemethodofsoul healingandpsychologicalliberation,counselorswillneedto createacertainlevelofchaosintheexistingarmamentarium of counseling theories, treatment strategies, and research methods.Recognizingthatcounselinginterventionscontinue tobecommonlyimplementedbypractitionerswhoarenot respectfulofnorresponsivetotheworldviews,expectations, values,andneedsofpersonsinculturallydiversecommunities, weurgecounselorstostop,reinvent,andmodifywhatthey havebeentrainedtodoandtodevelopnewhelpingstrategies thatfocusonsoulhealingthroughpsychologicalliberation. Implementationofthesenewmethodsandinterventions mayseemrandomandchaoticforsomepersonsinthecounselingprofessionwhosepsychologicalliberationisconstrained bytheirownculturalhistoryandprofessionaltraining.However,ifthecounselingprofessionisgenuinelycommittedto its own ongoing development and practitioners are willing todemonstratethecouragenecessarytocreatenewclinical and research paradigms that more effectively and respectfullyfosterhealthyhumandevelopmentfromamulticultural perspective,theneedtocreatetemporarychaosintheprofessionwillbeviewedaspositivenecessarystepsinpromoting soulhealingandtheliberationofindividualandcollective psychology.Wehopethatthesuggestionspresentedinthis article,regardingtheneedtofostercounselorsandclients soul healing and psychological liberation, will help other membersofthecounselingprofessionbetterunderstandways inwhichtheycanassistinthetransformationofthemental healthprofessionsinwaysthatstimulateagreaterlevelof humandignityanddevelopmentthroughculturaldiversity.

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