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CHAPTER 1: DRIVING BLINDFOLDED critically is to come to

correct conclusions.
Critical Thinking
● Critical thinking kicks in Good Reasoning
when we evaluate beliefs and ● Minimum criteria - the
actions—when we critique requirements a piece of
them. reasoning must meet if it is
● Critical thinking is thinking worth paying attention to, no
that critiques. matter what the context.
● To critique something is to ● The method used to achieve
evaluate it according to this objective is to evaluate
standards of some sort. So our thinking by the standards
you can think critically of rationality
about anything it makes sense
to evaluate according to Conclusion
standards.
● When we come to a conclusion,
● Reasoning, the thinking that
we have a belief. Concluding
comes into play when we form
involves believing. If you
opinions, make judgments,
conclude that the battery is
arrive at decisions, develop
dead, you believe that the
plans, come to conclusions,
battery is dead.
offer hypotheses, and the
like. Belief
● Critical thinking is
reasoning evaluation. We ● Something you believe.
engage in it when we consider ● It is important to understand
whether reasoning, broadly that beliefs and claims are
construed, passes muster by propositional, which means
the standards of logic and they can be expressed in a
good sense. declarative sentence—a
● The ultimate objective in sentence that is either true
thinking critically is to or false.
come to conclusions that are ● A good bit of muddleheaded
correct and to make decisions thinking can be avoided if
that are wise. Because our you understand that beliefs
decisions reflect our are propositional entities,
conclusions, we can simplify but more on this later.
things by saying that the ● Same as judgments and
purpose of thinking opinions.
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● When we express a belief (or ● Subjective judgments are not

judgment or opinion) in a susceptible to varying
declarative sentence, the degrees of probability. If it
result is a statement or makes no sense to think of a
claim or assertion, and for remark as probable to a
our purposes, these are the greater or lesser extent,
same thing. then it makes no sense to
● Claims can be used for other think of it as something for
purposes than to state which evidence as to its
beliefs, but this is the use probable truth might be
we’re primarily concerned produced.
with. ● The fact that subjective
judgments cannot be mistaken,
Objective Claim are not subject to
probability quantifications
● Characteristic - Whether it and are not the sort of thing
is true or false is for which evidence could be
independent of whether you or given, should not be invoked
anyone else thinks it is true to dismiss any particular
or false. statement as unworthy of
discussion.
Subjective Claim
Fact and Opinion
● A subjective judgment about
something is true if you ● Some opinions are not
think it is true. subjective judgments, because
● Here is an important point. their truth or falsity is
If you think a subjective independent of what people
judgment is true, you can’t think.
be mistaken. ● In this book, “opinion” is
● subjective judgment cannot be just another word for
mistaken, it makes no sense “belief.”
to think of it as probable or ● You can refer to objective
likely, or improbable or opinions as factual opinions
unlikely. or beliefs if you want—but
● It isn’t the sort of thing that doesn’t mean factual
that can be thought of as opinions are all true.
supportable by evidence. ● Factual opinion/belief/claim
● Evidence is something that = an objective
raises the probability a nopinion/belief/claim = an
claim is true. opinion/belief/claim whose
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truth is independent of wrong, then it is morally

whether anyone thinks it’s wrong for you and you don’t
true. need to consider any further
truth.
Relativism ● It is the idea expressed by
Hamlet in the famous passage,
● Truth is relative to the
“There is nothing either good
standards of a given culture.
or bad, but that thinking
● Relativism holds that if your makes it so.”
culture and some other
culture have different Issues
standards of truth or
evidence, there is no ● In the concept of the book,
independent “God’s-eye view” the issue is simply a
by which one culture’s question.
standards can be seen to be ● In many real-life situations,
more correct than the others. it is difficult to identify
● Whatever may be said of this exactly what the issue
as an abstract philosophical is—meaning it is difficult to
doctrine, it cannot possibly identify exactly what claim
mean that an objective is in question.
statement could be made true ● This happens for lots of
by a culture’s thinking that reasons, from purposeful
it is true. If it is obfuscation to ambiguous
universally believed in some terminology to plain
cultures that “water” is not muddleheaded thinking. In his
H2O, then either the people inaugural address, “We have
in that culture are mistaken mistaken unpreparedness to
or their word “water” does embrace it to be a challenge
not refer to water. of the reality and due
concern for making all
Moral subjectivism citizens fit for
participation will give added
● The idea that moral opinions,
strength of citizenship and
such as “Bullfighting is
magnify our achievement.”
morally wrong” or “Jason
President Warren G. Harding.
shouldn’t lie to his
○ This statement is
parents,” are subjective
perfectly meaningless.
judgments. It is the idea, in
● An issue is something you
other words, that if you
don’t know what “it” is.
think bullfighting is morally
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● The point here is merely that thinking, but it is an

if a question is to be taken essential part of it.
seriously, or if you want
others to take it seriously, Cognitive Biases
or if you want others who can
● Were we entirely rational,
think critically to take it
our conclusions would be
seriously, you must have some
grounded in logic and based
idea as to what
on evidence objectively
considerations bear on the
weighed.
answer.
● The unconscious features of
Arguments human psychology affecting
belief formation that have
● Presents consideration for been reasonably well
accepting a claim. established include several
● An argument consists of two that are widely referred to
parts. as cognitive biases.
○ One part gives a reason ● They skew our apprehension of
for accepting the other reality and interfere with
part. The part that our ability to think clearly,
provides the reason is process information
called the premise of accurately, and reason
the argument, though an objectively.
argument may have more ● We tend to evaluate an
than one premise. argument based on whether we
○ The other part is called agree with it rather than on
the conclusion. The the criteria of logic.
conclusion of an argument
is what the premise Belief Bias
supposedly supports or
● The tendency to evaluate
demonstrates.
reasoning by the
● The conclusion of an argument
believability of its
is stating a position on an
conclusion.
issue, and of the premise or
premises as giving reasons for
Confirmation bias
taking that position.
● Evaluating the arguments pro ● This refers to the tendency
and con. Being able to do to attach more weight to
this intelligently may not be evidence that supports our
the sum total of critical viewpoint.
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“There isn’t any hard-and-fast Bandwagon Effect

difference between confirmation bias
and belief bias; they are both ● Another source of skewed
unconscious expressions of the human belief.
tendency to think our side of an ● An unconscious tendency to
issue must be the correct side. align one’s thinking with
Thinking critically means being that of other people. The
especially critical of arguments bandwagon effect is
that support our own points of potentially a powerful source
view.” of cognitive distortion.
● In famous experiments,
● Some cognitive biases involve psychologist Solomon Asch
heuristics, general rules we found that what other people
unconsciously follow in say they see may actually
estimating probabilities. alter what we think we see.
● An example is the availability
heuristic, which involves Negativity bias
unconsciously assigning a
probability to a type of ● the tendency people have to
event on the basis of how weigh negative information
often one thinks of events of more heavily than positive
that type. information when evaluating
○ may explain how easy it is to things.
make the mistake known as ● Negativity bias is hard-wired
generalizing from anecdote, a into us: the brain displays
logical fallacy. more neural activity in
○ Generalizing from anecdote response to negative
happens when one accepts a information than to positive
sweeping generalization based information.
on a single vivid report.
Loss Aversion
False consensus effect
● A corollary (forming a
● refers to the inclination we proposition that follows from
may have to assume that our one already proved.) to
attitudes and those held by negativity bias from
people around us are shared economics is that people
by society at large. generally are more strongly
motivated to avoid a loss
than to accrue again.
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● We find it easier to form ● Experiments suggest that people

negative opinions of people find it extraordinarily easy to
who don’t belong to our club, forge group identities.
church, party, nationality,
or other groups. Overconfidence Effect

In-group bias ● One of several self-deception

biases that may be found in a
● May color perception and variety of contexts.
distort judgment. ● If a person estimates the
● We may well perceive the percentage of his or her correct
members of our own group as answers on a subject, the
exhibiting more variety and estimate will likely err on the
individuality than the high side—at least if the
members of this or that questions are difficult or the
out-group, who we may view as subject matter is unfamiliar.
indistinguishable from one
another and as conforming to Better-than-average illusion
stereotypes.
● The illusion crops up when most of
● We may attribute the
a group rate themselves as better
achievements of members of
than most of the group relative to
our own group to gumption and
some desirable charac- teristics,
hard work and our failures to
such as resourcefulness or driving
bad luck, whereas we may
ability.
attribute their
failures—those of the members
Reasoning
of out-groups—to their
personal shortcomings, while ● It sometimes seems, is used
grudgingly discounting their mainly to justify beliefs we
achievements as mere good already have. And it could be
luck. that many or maybe nearly all
of our beliefs are held by us
Fundamental Attribution Error
simply because they conform
● The tendency to not appreciate to what people we associate
with believe.
that others’ behavior is as
much constrained by events and
How can one aspire to think critically?
circum- stances as our own
would be if we were in their ● The best advice we can offer
position. is to be aware of one’s own
fallibility and the universal
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tendency to give more The concept of knowledge is

credence to arguments that another that philosophers have
support our opinions or contested at a deep, theoretical
harmonize with views level despite a general agreement
prevailing in our social that in everyday life, we
networks. understand well enough what we
● Critical thinkers are mean when we say we know
suspicious of feelings of something.
certainty, whether found in
others or themselves. What Critical Thinking Can and Can’t
● As Charles Darwin said, Do
“ignorance more frequently
● We think critically when we
begets confidence than does
evaluate the reasoning we and
knowledge.”
others use in coming to
○ Supreme confidence in
conclusions.
his or her conclusions
● Critical thinking helps in
is something a critical
spotting bad reasoning about
thinker is not apt to
all things.
feel routinely.
○ He or she remembers that
RECAP
the intensity of
certitude is often ● We think critically when we
inversely proportional evaluate reasoning used in
to the strength of the coming to conclusions.
evidence that gives rise ● Conclusions are beliefs; when
to it. they are expressed using
true-or-false declarative
Truth and Knowledge
sentences, they are claims
(or statements or
● Truth
assertions).
Understand that an objective ● A belief (or opinion or claim
belief or claim is either true or or statement, etc.) whose
false in the normal, commonsense truth is independent of
way. Truth and falsity are whether people think it is
properties of propositional true is objective.
entities such as beliefs, ● An issue is simply a
opinions, judgments, statements, question.
claims, and the like. ● One uses an argument to
establish a position on an
● Knowledge
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issue; the position is the ● Argument: An argument consists of

conclusion of the argument. two parts—one part of which (the
● Evaluation of arguments can premise or premises) is intended
be skewed by emotion, wishful to provide a reason for accepting
thinking, self-interest, the other part (the conclusion)
confirmation bias, and other ● “Argument”: People sometimes use
psychological impediments to this word to refer just to an
objectivity. argument’s premise.
● Claim: When a belief (judgment, ● Arguments and issues: The
opinion) is asserted in a conclusion of an argument states a
declarative sentence, the result position on the issue under
is a claim, statement, or consideration.
assertion. ● Cognitive bias: A feature of human
● Objective claim: A claim psychology that skews belief
expressing a belief whose truth or formation.
falsity does not depend on your or
anyone else’s having it. The ones discussed in this chapter
● Subjective judgment: A belief include the following:
that, because you have it, you
cannot be mistaken about. ● Belief bias: Evaluating
● “Fact vs. opinion”: People reasoning by how believable
sometimes refer to true objective its conclusion is.
claims as “facts,” and use the ● Confirmation bias: A tendency
word “opinion” to designate any to attach more weight to
judgment that is subjective. considerations that support
● “Factual claim”: An objective our views.
claim. Saying that a claim is ● Availability heuristic:
“factual” is not the same as Assigning a probability to an
saying it is true. event based on how easily or
○ A factual claim is simply a claim frequently it is thought of.
whose truth does not depend on ● False consensus effect:
our thinking it is true. Assuming our opinions and
● Moral subjectivism: Moral those held by people around
subjectivism is the idea that us are shared by society at
moral judgments are all subjective large.
judgments. “There is nothing ● Bandwagon effect: The
either good or bad but that tendency to align our beliefs
thinking makes it so.” with those of other people.
● Issue: A question. ● Negativity bias: Attaching
more weight to negative
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information than to positive

information.
● Loss aversion: Being more
strongly motivated to avoid a
loss than to accrue a gain.
● In-group bias: A set of
cognitive biases that make us
view people who belong to our
group differently from people
who don’t.
● Fundamental attribution
error: Having one
understanding of the behavior
of people in the in-group and
another for people not in the
in-group.
● Obedience to authority: A
tendency to comply with
instructions from an
authority.
● Overconfidence effect: A
cognitive bias that leads us
to overestimate what
percentage of our answers on
a subject are correct.
● Better-than-average illusion:
A self-deception cognitive
bias that leads us to
overestimate our own
abilities relative to those
of others.
● Truth: A claim is true if it
is free from error.
● Knowledge: If you believe
something, have an argument
beyond a reasonable doubt
that it is so, and have no
reason to think you are
mistaken, you can claim you
know it.