Mathematics in the Modern

Module
World
 Chapter 3 Problem Solving

Intended Learning Outcomes: At the end of this chapter, the students are expected to:

1. Differentiate inductive and deductive reasoning.

2. Solve problems with the use of the appropriate problem-solving strategies.

3.1 Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

Inductive Reasoning
- a type of reasoning that forms a conclusion based on the examination of
specific examples.
- the conclusion formed by using inductive reasoning is often called a
conjecture, since it may or may not be correct.
- When you examine a list of numbers and predict the next number in the
list according to some pattern you have observed, you are using inductive
reasoning.

Example:
1. Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number in each of the following lists:
a. 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, ?
Solution:
Each successive number is 3 larger than the preceding number. Thus we
predict that the next number in the list is 3 larger than 15, which is 18.
a. 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, ?
Solution:
Get the difference between consecutive numbers.

The first two numbers differ by 2. The second and the third numbers differ
by 3. It appears that the difference between any two numbers is always 1
more than the preceding difference. Since 10 and 15 differ by 5, we predict
that the next number in the list will be 6 larger than 15, which is 21.
2. Consider the following procedure:
 Pick a number. Multiply the number by 8, add 6 to the product, divide the sum by
2, and subtract 3.
Complete the above procedure for several different numbers. Use inductive
reasoning to make a conjecture about the relationship between the size of the
resulting number and the size of the original number.
Solution:
Choose any number as your original number. For this example, 5 is chosen.

Original number: 𝟓
Multiply the number by 8: 𝟓(𝟖) = 𝟒𝟎
Add 6 to the product: 𝟒𝟔 + 𝟔 = 𝟒𝟔
Divide the sum by 2: 𝟒𝟔 ÷ 𝟐 = 𝟐𝟑
Subtract 3: 𝟐𝟑 − 𝟑 = 𝟐𝟎

Then, choose another number, say we let the number 3 as our original
number.

Original number: 𝟑
Multiply the number by 8: 𝟑(𝟖) = 𝟐𝟒
Add 6 to the product: 𝟐𝟒 + 𝟔 = 𝟑𝟎
Divide the sum by 2: 𝟑𝟎 ÷ 𝟐 = 𝟏𝟓
Subtract 3: 𝟏𝟓 − 𝟑 = 𝟏𝟐

We started with 5 and followed the procedure to produce 20. Starting with
3 as our original number produces a final result of 12. Starting with 10 produces a
final result of 40. Starting with 100 produces a final result of 400. In each of these
cases, the resulting number is four times the original number. We conjecture that
following the given procedure produces a number that is four times the original
number.

3. Use the data below and inductive reasoning to answer the following:
a. If a pendulum has a length of 49 units, what is its period?
b. If the length of a pendulum is quadrupled, what happens to its period?

Mathematics in the Modern World

Page 3 of 23
Module

USMKCC-COL-F-050
 Solution:
a. In the table, each pendulum has a period that is the square root of its
length. If we get the square root of a given length, say 1, the result is its
equivalent period which is 1. If we get the square root of a given length,
say 9, the result is its equivalent period which is 3. Thus we conjecture that
a pendulum with a length of 49 units will have a period of 7 heartbeats.

b. In the table, a pendulum with a length of 4 units has a period that is twice
that of a pendulum with a length of 1 unit. A pendulum with a length of
16 units has a period that is twice that of a pendulum with a length of 4
units. It appears that quadrupling the length of a pendulum doubles its
period.

Mathematics in the Modern World

Page 4 of 23
Module

USMKCC-COL-F-050
 Module (GE 4) Name: ____________________________________________
𝑐𝑢𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 Activity No. 7 Program/Year: ____________Date Submitted: ___________

Solve the following and show complete solution/s.

1. Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number in the list:

2, 7, −3, 2, −8, −3, −13, −8, −18, ?

2. Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number in the list:

3⁄ , 5⁄ , 7⁄ , 9⁄ , ?
5 7 9 11

3. A tsunami is a sea wave produced by an underwater earthquake. The height

of a tsunami as it approaches land depends on the velocity of the tsunami. Use
the table below and inductive reasoning to answer each of the following
questions:

a. What happens to the height of a tsunami when its velocity is

doubled?
b. What should be the height of a tsunami if its velocity is 30 feet per
second?

Mathematics in the Modern World

Page 5 of 23
Module

USMKCC-COL-F-050
Deductive Reasoning
- is the process of reaching a conclusion by applying general assumptions,
procedures, or principles.

Example:
1. Use Deductive Reasoning to Establish a Conjecture. Use deductive reasoning to
show that the following procedure produces a number that is four times the
original number.
Procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by 8. Add 6 to the product. Divide
the sum by 2 and subtract 3.

Solution:
Let x be the original number.

Original number: 𝒙
Multiply the number by 8: 𝒙 (𝟖) = 𝟖𝒙
Add 6 to the product: 𝟖𝒙 + 𝟔
𝟖𝒙+𝟔
Divide the sum by 2: = 𝟒𝒙 + 𝟑
𝟐

Subtract 3: 𝟒𝒙 + 𝟑 − 𝟑 = 𝟒𝒙

We started with x and ended with 4x after following the procedure. The procedure
given in this example produces a number that is four times the original number.

Inductive Reasoning vs. Deductive Reasoning

Example:
Determine whether each of the following arguments is an example of inductive reasoning
or deductive reasoning:
a. During the past 10 years, a tree has produced plums every other year. Last year
the tree did not produce plums, so this year the tree will produce plums.
b. All home improvements cost more than the estimate. The contractor estimated
that my home improvement will cost $35,000. Thus my home improvement will
cost more than $35,000.

Mathematics in the Modern World

Page 6 of 23
Module

USMKCC-COL-F-050
Solution:
a. This argument reaches a conclusion based on specific examples (there is a pattern
in which a tree produces plums), so it is an example of inductive reasoning.
b. Because the conclusion is a specific case of a general assumption (All home
improvements cost more than the estimate), this argument is an example of
deductive reasoning.

Mathematics in the Modern World

Page 7 of 23
Module

USMKCC-COL-F-050
 Module (GE 4) Name: ____________________________________________
𝑐𝑢𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 Activity No. 8 Program/Year: ____________Date Submitted: ___________

I. Solve the following and show complete solution/s.

1. Use deductive reasoning to show that the following procedure produces a

number that is three times the original number.
Procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by 6, add 10 to the product,
divide the sum by 2, and subtract 5.

2. Use deductive reasoning to show that the following procedure always

produces a number that is equal to the original number.
Procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by 6 and add 8. Divide the sum
by 2, subtract twice the original number, and subtract 4.

II. Determine whether each of the following arguments is an example of

inductive reasoning or deductive reasoning.

1. All Janet Evanovich novels are worth reading. The novel Twelve Sharp is a Jane
Evanovich novel. Thus Twelve Sharp is worth reading.

2. I know I will win a jackpot on this slot machine in the next 10 tries, because it
has not paid out any during the last 45 tries.

3. Emma enjoyed reading the novel Under the Dome by Stephen King, so she will
enjoy reading her next novel.

Mathematics in the Modern World

Page 8 of 23
Module

USMKCC-COL-F-050
Logic Puzzles
Logic Puzzles can be solved by using deductive reasoning and a chart that enables
us to display the given information in a visual manner.

Example:
Solve a logic puzzle.
Each of four neighbors, Sean, Maria, Sarah, and Brian, has a different occupation (editor,
banker, chef, or dentist). From the following clues, determine the occupation of each
neighbor.
1. Maria gets home from work after the banker but before the dentist.
2. Sarah, who is the last to get home from work, is not the editor.
3. The dentist and Sarah leave for work at the same time.
4. The banker lives next door to Brian.

Solution:
To solve this puzzle, we make a chart.
Editor Banker Chef Dentist

Sean

Maria

Sarah

Brian

From clue 1, Maria is not the banker or the dentist. In the chart, write X1 (which stands
for “ruled out by clue 1”) in the Banker and the Dentist columns of Maria’s row.
Editor Banker Chef Dentist

Sean

Maria X1 X1

Sarah

Brian

Mathematics in the Modern World

Page 9 of 23
Module

USMKCC-COL-F-050
From clue 2, Sarah is not the editor. Write X2 (ruled out by clue 2) in the Editor column of
Sarah’s row. We know from clue 1 that the banker is not the last to get home, and we
know from clue 2 that Sarah is the last to get home; therefore, Sarah is not the banker.
Write X2 in the Banker column of Sarah’s row.
Editor Banker Chef Dentist

Sean

Maria X1 X1

Sarah X2 X2

Brian

From clue 3, Sarah is not the dentist. Write X3 for this condition. There are now Xs for
three of the four occupations in Sarah’s row; therefore, Sarah must be the chef. Place a ✓
in that box. Since Sarah is the chef, none of the other three people can be the chef. Write
X3 for these conditions. There are now Xs for three of the four occupations in Maria’s
row; therefore, Maria must be the editor. Insert a ✓ to indicate that Maria is the editor,
and write X3 twice to indicate that neither Sean nor Brian is the editor.
Editor Banker Chef Dentist

Sean X3 X3

Maria ✓ X1 X3 X1

Sarah X2 X2 X3
✓
Brian X3 X3

From clue 4, Brian is not the banker. Write X4 for this condition. Since there are three Xs
in the Banker column, Sean must be the banker. Place a ✓ in that box. Thus Sean cannot
be the dentist. Write X4 in that box. Since there are 3 Xs in the Dentist column, Brian
must be the dentist. Place ✓ in that box.
Editor Banker Chef Dentist

Sean X3 X3 X4
✓
Maria ✓ X1 X3 X1

Mathematics in the Modern World

Page 10 of 23
Module

USMKCC-COL-F-050
 Sarah X2 X2 X3

Brian X3 X4 X3 ✓

From the chart, Sean is the banker, Maria is the editor, Sarah is the chef, and Brian is the
dentist.

Mathematics in the Modern World

Page 11 of 23
Module

USMKCC-COL-F-050
 Module (GE 4) Name: ____________________________________________
𝑐𝑢𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 Activity No. 9 Program/Year: ____________Date Submitted: ___________

I. Solve the following logic puzzles using deductive reasoning.

1. Brianna, Ryan, Tyler, and Ashley were recently elected as the new class officers
(president, vice president, secretary, treasurer) of the sophomore class at
Summit College. From the following clues, determine which position each
holds.
a. Ashley is younger than the president but older than the treasurer.
b. Brianna and the secretary are both the same age, and they are the
youngest members of the group.
c. Tyler and the secretary are next-door neighbors.

2. Each of the four siblings (Anita, Tony, Maria, and Jose) is given $5000 to invest
in the stock market. Each chooses a different stock. One chooses a utility stock,
another an automotive stock, another a technology stock, and the other an oil
stock. From the following clues, determine which sibling bought which stock.
a. Anita and the owner of the utility stock purchased their shares through
an online brokerage, whereas Tony and the owner of the automotive
stock did not.
b. The gain in value of Maria’s stock is twice the gain in value of the
automotive stock.
c. The technology stock is traded in NASDAQ, whereas the stock that
Tony bought is traded on the New York Stock Exchange.

Mathematics in the Modern World

Page 12 of 23
Module

USMKCC-COL-F-050
3.2 Problem Solving with Patterns

Terms of a Sequence
An ordered list of numbers such as 5, 14, 27, 44, 65, … is called a sequence. The numbers
in a sequence are separated by commas are the terms of the sequence. The three dots
“…” indicate that the sequence continues beyond 65, which is the last written term. It is
customary to use the subscript 𝑎𝑛 to designate the nth term of a sequence.

When we examine a sequence, it is natural to ask:

• What is the next term?
• What formula or rule can be used to generate the terms?

To answer these questions, we often construct a difference table, which shows the
differences between successive terms of a sequence. The following table is a difference
table for the sequence 2, 5, 8, 11, 14, …

Sequence: 2 5 8 11 14 …

First difference: 3 3 3 3 …

The difference in row (1) are called the first differences of the sequence. In this case, the
first differences are all the same. Thus, if we use the above difference table to predict the
next number in the sequence, we predict that 14 + 3 = 17 is the next term of the
sequence. This prediction might be wrong; however, the pattern shown by the first
differences seems to indicate that each successive term is 3 larger than the preceding
term.

The following table is a difference table for the sequence 5, 14, 27, 44, 65, …

Sequence: 5 14 27 44 65 …

First difference: 9 13 17 21 … (1)

Second difference: 4 4 4 … (2)

Mathematics in the Modern World

Page 13 of 23
Module

USMKCC-COL-F-050
In this table, the first differences are not all the same. In such a situation, it is often helpful
to compute the successive differences of the first differences. These are shown in row (2).
The differences of the first differences are called the second difference. The differences
of the second differences are called the third difference.

To predict the next term of a sequence, we often look for a pattern in a row of differences.
Then, work upward. That is, we add 4 to the first difference 21 to produce the next first
difference, 25. We then add this difference to the fifth term, 65, to predict that 90 is the
next term in the sequence. This process can be repeated to predict additional terms of
the sequence.

Example:
1. Use a difference table to predict the next term in the sequence.
2, 7, 24, 59, 118, 207, …
Solution:
Construct a difference table as shown below:

Sequence: 2 7 24 59 118 207 332 …

First differences: 5 17 35 59 89 125 … (1)

Second differences: 12 18 24 30 36 … (2)

Third differences: 6 6 6 6 … (3)

The third differences, shown in row (3), are all the same constant, 6. Extending row (3)
so that it includes an additional 6 enables us to predict that the next second difference
will be 36. Adding 36 to the first difference 89 gives us the next first difference, 125.
Adding 125 to the sixth term 207 yields 332. Using this method of extending the difference
table, we predict that 332 is the next term in the sequence.

nth-Term Formula for a Sequence

In some cases, we can use patterns to predict a formula, called the nth-term
formula, that generates the terms of a sequence. As an example, consider the formula

Mathematics in the Modern World

Page 14 of 23
Module

USMKCC-COL-F-050
𝑎𝑛 = 3𝑛2 + 𝑛. This formula defines a sequence and provides a method for finding any
term of the sequence. For instance, if we replace 𝑛 with 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 𝑎𝑛𝑑 6, then the
formula 𝑎𝑛 = 3𝑛2 + 𝑛 generates the sequence 4, 14, 30, 52, 80, 114.

Example:
Assume the pattern shown by the square tiles in the following figures continues.
a. What is the 𝑛th-term formula for the number of tiles in the 𝑛th figure of the
sequence?
b. How many tiles are in the eighth figure of the sequence?
c. Which figure will consist of exactly 320 tiles?
3𝑛 − 1 = 320
3𝑛 = 321
𝑛 = 107

𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3 𝑎4

Solution:
a. Examine the figures for patterns. Note that the second figure has two tiles on each of
the horizontal sections and one tile between the horizontal sections. The third figure has
three tiles on each horizontal section and two tiles between the horizontal sections. The
fourth figure has four tiles on each horizontal section and three tiles between the
horizontal sections.
Thus the number of tiles in the nth figure is given by two groups of 𝑛 plus a group of 𝑛
less one. That is,
𝑎𝑛 = 2𝑛 + (𝑛 − 1)
𝑎𝑛 = 3𝑛 − 1

b. The number of tiles in the eighth figure of the sequence is 3(8) − 1 = 23.
c. To determine which figure in the sequence will have 320 tiles, we solve the equation
3𝑛 − 1 = 320.
3𝑛 − 1 = 320
3𝑛 = 321 Add 1 to each side

Mathematics in the Modern World

Page 15 of 23
Module

USMKCC-COL-F-050
 𝑛 = 107 Divide each side by 3
The 107th figure is composed of 320 tiles.

3.3 Problem Solving Strategies

Polya’s Four-Step Problem Solving Strategy

George Polya
- is a Hungarian mathematician who made a study of problem solving.
- In his book How to Solve It in 1954, he outlined a strategy for solving
problems from almost any discipline.

Polya’s Four-Step Problem Solving Strategy:

1. Understand the problem
2. Devise a plan
3. Carry out the plan
4. Review the solution
To become good in problem solving, let us examine each step and determine what is
involved.

1. Understand the problem – to be able to solve a problem, one must have a clear
understanding of the problem. In understanding the problem, consider the following
questions:
• Can you restate the problem in your own words?
• Can you determine what is known about these types of problems?
• Is there missing information that, if known, would allow you to solve problems?
• Is there extraneous information that is not needed to solve the problem?
• What is the goal?

2. Devise a plan – use a variety of techniques in attempting to solve a problem. Below are
some frequently used techniques.
• Make a list of the known information.
• Make a list of information that is needed.

Mathematics in the Modern World

Page 16 of 23
Module

USMKCC-COL-F-050
 • Draw a diagram.
• Make an organized list that shows all the possibilities.
• Make a table or a chart.
• Work backwards.
• Try to solve a similar but simpler problem.
• Look for a pattern.
• Write an equation. If necessary, define what each variable represents.
• Perform an experiment.
• Guess at a solution and then check your result.

3. Carry Out the Plan – once a plan is devised, carry it out. In carrying out the plan, always
remember to:
• Work carefully.
• Keep an accurate and neat record of all your attempts.
• Expect that some of your initial plans will not work and that you may have to
devise another plan or modify your existing plan.

4. Review the Solution

• Ensure that the solution is consistent with the facts of the problem.
• Interpret the solution in the context of the problem.
• Ask yourself whether there are generalizations of the solution that could apply to
other problems.

Example:
1. (Solve a Similar but simpler problem)
Consider the map shown below. Allison wishes to walk along the streets from
point A to point B. How many direct routes can Allison take?

Make a Table or an Organized List

Example:
A baseball team won two out of their last four games. In how many different orders could
they have two wins and two losses in four games?

Mathematics in the Modern World

Page 17 of 23
Module

USMKCC-COL-F-050
Solution:
Understand the problem – there are many different orders. The team may have won two
straight games and lost the last two (WWLL). Or maybe they lost the first two games and
won the last two (LLWW). Of course, there are also other possibilities, such as WLWL.

Devise a Plan – Make an organized list of all the possible orders. An organized list is a list
that is produced using a system that ensures that each of the different orders will be listed
once and only once.

Carry Out the Plan – Each entry in the list must contain two W’s and two L’s. Use a strategy
that makes sure each order is considered, with no duplications. One such strategy is to
always write a W first unless doing so will produce too many W’s or a duplicate of one of
the previous orders. If it is not possible to write a W, then and only then write an L first.
This strategy produces six different orders shown below.

1. WWLL (Start with two wins)

2. WLWL (Start with one win)
3. WLLW
4. LWWL (Start with one loss)
5. LWLW
6. LLWW (Start with two losses)

Review the Solution – This is an organized list. The list has no duplicates and considers all
possibilities. Thus, there are six different orders in which a baseball team can win exactly
two out of four games.

Draw a Diagram, Picture or Model

Example:

Four architects are meeting for lunch to discuss preliminary plans for a new performing
arts center on your campus. Each will shake hands with all of the others. Determine the
number of handshakes.

Mathematics in the Modern World

Page 18 of 23
Module

USMKCC-COL-F-050
Solution:
Understand the Problem – We need to determine the number of handshakes that the
four architects made.

Devise a Plan – Make a diagram to show the number of handshakes made by the
architects. Use points to represent the architects (label them A, B, C, and D) and the line
segments that connect those points to represent the handshakes they made.

Carry Out the Plan – Draw the diagram and count the number of line segments in the
diagram.

If we represent the handshakes between A and B by AB, then we see there are six
handshakes; namely AB, AC, AD, BC, BD, and CD.

Review the Solution – The diagram shows the four architects and the number of
handshakes that they made. There are no duplications and considered all possibilities.
Thus, there are six handshakes that the four architects made.

Guess and Check

Example:

Mr. Jones has a total of 25 of chickens and cows in his farm. How many of each does he
have if all together there are 76 feet?

Understand the Problem – We are given in the problem that the total number of chickens
and cows is 25. There are 76 feet all together. Chickens have 2 feet and cows have 4 feet.
We are determining the number of chickens and cows in the farm.

Mathematics in the Modern World

Page 19 of 23
Module

USMKCC-COL-F-050
Devise a Plan – Use guess and check to find the number of chickens and cows in the farm.
Make a table reflecting the problem.

Carry Out the Plan

Number of Number of Total Number

Chickens Cows
Chicken Feet Cow Feet of Feet
15 10 30 40 70
14 11 28 44 72
13 12 26 48 74
12 13 24 52 76

There are 12 chickens and 13 cows in the farm.

Review the Solution – The sum of 12 chickens and 13 cows is 25. The sum of 24 chicken
feet and 52 cow feet is 76. Thus, there are 12 chickens and 13 cows in the farm.

Find a Pattern

Example

Determine the digit 100 places to the right of the decimal point in the decimal
7
representation of 27.

7
Understanding the Problem – Express the fraction 27 as a decimal and look for a pattern

that will enable us to determine the digit 100 places to the right of decimal point.

7
Devise a Plan – The decimal representation of 27 is 0.259259259 … . Since the decimal

representation repeats the digits 259, then the digit located 100 places to the right of the
decimal point is either a 2, a 5, or a 9. Make a table that may help us to see a pattern and
enable us to determine which one of these digits is in the 100th place. Since the decimal
digits repeat every three digits, we will use a table with three columns.

Mathematics in the Modern World

Page 20 of 23
Module

USMKCC-COL-F-050
Carry Out the Plan
Column 1 Column 2 Column 3
Location Digit Location Digit Location Digit
1st 2 2nd 5 3rd 9
4th 2 5th 5 6th 9
7th 2 8th 5 9th 9
10th 2 11th 5 12th 9
13th 2 14th 5 15th 9
. . .
. . .
. . .

Only in column 3 is each of the decimal digit locations evenly divisible by 3. From this
pattern, we can tell that the 99th decimal digit (99 is divisible by 3) must be a 9. Since a 2
always follows after 9 in the pattern, the 100th decimal digit must be 2.

Review the Solution – The table illustrates additional patterns. For instance, if each of the
location in column 1 is divided by 3, the remainder is 1. If each of the location in column
2 is divided by 3, the remainder is 2. Thus, we can find the decimal digit in any location by
dividing the location number by 3 and examining the remainder. So, 100 divided by 3
gives the remainder 1, in which the corresponding digit is 2.

Work Backwards

Example:

In consecutive turns of a Monopoly game, Stacy first paid $800 for a hotel. She then lost
half her money when she landed on Boardwalk. Next, she collected $200 for passing GO.
She then lost half of her remaining money when she landed on Illinois Avenue. Stacy now
has $2500. How much did she have before she purchased the hotel?

Understand the Problem – Determine the amount that Stacy had prior to her $800 hotel
purchase.

Mathematics in the Modern World

Page 21 of 23
Module

USMKCC-COL-F-050
Devise a Plan – Since the end result is given, use the method of working backwards.

Carry Out the Plan

• Stacy must have $5000 prior to landing on Illinois Avenue (2($2 500) = $5 000).
• $4 800 prior to passing GO ($5 000 − $200 = $4 800).
• $9 600 prior to landing on Boardwalk (2($4 800) = $9 600).
• $10 400 prior to her hotel purchase ($9 600 + $800 = $10 400).

Review the Solution – To check our solution, start at $10 400 then proceed through each
transaction.

• $10 400 − $800 = $ 9 600

• $9 600 ÷ 2 = $4 800
• $4 800 + $200 = $5 000
• $5 000 ÷ 2 = $2 500

Thus, Stacy had $10 400 prior to her hotel purchase.

Mathematics in the Modern World

Page 22 of 23
Module

USMKCC-COL-F-050
 Module (GE 4) Name: ____________________________________________
𝑐𝑢𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 Activity No. 10 Program/Year: ____________Date Submitted: ___________

I. Solve the following and show complete solution.

1. Use a difference table to predict the next term in the sequence.

1, 14, 51, 124, 245, 426, …

2. The product of the ages, in years, of three teenagers is 4590. None of the teens
are the same age. What are the ages of the teenagers?

3. The number of ducks and pigs in a field totals 35. The total number of legs
among them is 98. Assuming each duck has exactly two legs and each pig has
exactly four legs, determine how many ducks and how many pigs are in the
field.

Mathematics in the Modern World

Page 23 of 23
Module

USMKCC-COL-F-050