Chapter III

PROBLEM SOLVING

Source: https://images.app.goo.gl/HcnFQVSC6XPKh3Lb9

Lesson Outline
3.1 Inductive and Deductive Reasoning
3.1.1 Inductive Reasoning
3.1.2 Deductive Reasoning
3.2 Problem Solving Strategies
3.2.1 Polya’s Problem-Solving Strategy
3.2.2 Common Problem-Solving Strategies
3.3 Recreational Problem Solving
3.3.1 Logic Puzzles
3.3.2 KenKen Puzzle
3.3.3 Tower of Hanoi

Lesson Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, you are expected to:
 Use different types of reasoning to justify statements and arguments made
about mathematics and mathematical concepts.
 Solve problems involving problems and recreational problems following
Polya’s Four Steps.
 Organize one’s methods and approaches to proving and solving problems.

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3.1 Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

Making decisions and solving problems play crucial roles to survive in daily life. It
is then important to analyze a given situation based on logical thinking. The process of
logical thinking is called reasoning. There are two types of reasoning to make decisions
and solve problems: inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning.

3.1.1. Inductive Reasoning

Inductive reasoning is the process of reaching a general conclusion by examining

specific examples.

For example, suppose that a teacher gives a surprise quiz every Friday for the first
four weeks of the math class.

At this point, one might make an educated guess or a conjecture (conclusion

formed by using inductive reasoning that may or may not be correct), that the teacher will
give a surprise quiz the next Friday as well.

This is an example of inductive reasoning. By observing certain events for four

specific Fridays, one will arrive at a general conclusion.

Example 1. Use Inductive Reasoning to Predict a Number

Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number in each of the following lists.

a. 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, ?

b. 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, ?

Solution:

a. Each successive number is 5 units larger than the preceding number. Thus, it can be
predicted that the next number in the list is 5 units larger than 25, which is 30.

b. Observe that all the numbers are perfect squares. 1 = 1 2, 4 = 22, 9 = 32, 16 = 42, 25 = 52.
Thus, it can be predicted that the next number to be 36 = 62.

Example 2. Use Inductive Reasoning to Make Conjecture

Use inductive reasoning to make a conjecture out of the following process

Consider the following procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by 10, add 8
to the product, divide the sum by 2, and subtract 4.

Repeat the procedure for several different numbers. Make a conjecture between the
relationship of the size of the resulting number and the size of the original number using
inductive reasoning.

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 Solution:

Suppose we pick 7 as our original number.

Original number: 7

Multiply 7 by 10: 70

Add 8 to the product: 70 + 8 = 78

78
Divide the sum by 2: 2 = 39

Subtract the quotient by 4: 39 – 4 = 35

We started with 7 and the procedure produces 35. Starting with 8 as our original
number, the procedure produces 40. Starting with 10 as our original number and the
procedure produces 50. Starting with 50 as our original number and the procedure
produces 250. In each of these cases, the procedure produces a number that is five times
the original number. It is conjectured that the given procedure produces a number that is
five times the original number.

Example 3. Use Inductive Reasoning to Solve an Application

Use the data in the table and by inductive reasoning, answer the following
questions below.
Earthquake Max. Tsunami
Magnitude Height (meters)
7.5 5
7.6 9
7.7 13
7.8 17
7.9 21
8.0 25
8.1 29
8.2 33
8.3 37
a) If the earthquake magnitude is 8.5, how high (in meters) can the tsunami
be?
b) Can a tsunami occur when the earthquake magnitude is less than 7?
Explain your answer.

Solution:
a. In the table, for every 0.1 increase in earthquake magnitude, the maximum tsunami
height increases by 4 meters. Thus, it is conjectured that the maximum tsunami height for
the earthquake magnitude of 8.5 is 45 meters.

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b. No, because when the earthquake magnitude is 7.4, the maximum tsunami height is
only 1 meter. Hence, a tsunami does not occur when the earthquake magnitude is less
than 7.

Conclusions based on inductive reasoning may not always be true. In other words,
a conjecture formed by using inductive reasoning may be incorrect. While it is not often
easy to prove that a conjecture is true, it is much simpler to prove that one is false. The
method of disproving a statement, that is, to find one specific example that contradicts the
conjecture is known as a counterexample.

Example 4. Finding a Counterexample

Verify that each of the following statement is incorrect by giving a
counterexample.
x
1
a. x
2
b. x  4  x  2
c. A number is divisible by 3 if the last two digits are divisible by 3.

Solution:
0 x
1 1
a. Let x = 0. Then 0 . This implies that x is not true for all x.
b. For x = 1, 12  4  1  4  5 . But x + 2 = 3 when x = 1. Then, 5 3 , implies

that x 2  4  x  2 is a false statement.

c. Pick a few numbers at random whose last two digits are divisible by 3, then divide the
original number by 3, and see if there’s a remainder.
1,527: Last two digits, 27, divisible by 3; 1,527 3 509
11,745: Last two digits, 45, divisible by 3; 11, 745 3 3,915
At this point, one might start to suspect that the conjecture is true, but it is just
two cases, and there are infinitely many possibilities.
2
1,135 3 378
1,136: Last two digits, 36, divisible by 3; 3
This counterexample shows that the conjecture is false.

3.1.2. Deductive Reasoning

The other method of reasoning is called deductive reasoning.

Deductive reasoning is the process of reaching a conclusion by applying general
assumptions, procedures, or principles. It is based on overall rules, NOT specific
examples.

Example 5. Use deductive reasoning to Establish a Conjecture

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 Use deductive reasoning to show that the following procedure produces a number
that is four times the original number.
Procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by 8, add 6 to the product, divide
the sum by 2, and subtract 3.

Solution:
Let n represent the original number
Multiply the number by 8: 8n
Add 6 to the product: 8n + 6
8n  6
4n  3
Divide the sum by 2: 2
Subtract 3: 4n + 3 – 3 = 4n
It started with n and ended with 4n after following the given procedure. This means that
the given procedure produces a number that is four times the original number.

Example 6. Comparing Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

a) The last six times Jose’s team played their archrival in football, they won, so they
know they’re going to win on Saturday. Is it based on inductive or deductive
reasoning?
b) The syllabus states that any final average between 80 and 85% will result in a 1.5.
If Joan gets 79% on the finals, her overall average will be 80.5%, so she’ll get a
1.5. Is it based on inductive or deductive reasoning?

Solution:
a. The conclusion is based on six specific occurrences, not a general rule that needs to be
true, so, it is inductive reasoning.
b. Although it’s about specific person’s grade, the conclusion that Joan will get a 1.5 is
based on a general rule: all scores between 80 and 85% earn a 1.5. This is deductive
reasoning.

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3.2. Problem Solving Strategies

1.2.1. Polya’s Problem-Solving Strategy

Mathematics is all about learning and practicing problem-solving strategies. One

of the recent who outlines a strategy for solving problems is a Hungarian mathematician
named George Polya (1887 – 1985). He provides four basic steps that can be used in
solving problems in any field.

Polya’s Four-Step Problem-Solving Strategy

Step 1 Understand the Problem
To solve a problem, one must first know what is being asked, and
what information or data that is provided. Also, one must see to it
that he or she can state the problem in his or her own words.
Step 2 Devise a Plan
In this step, one must think of various techniques or strategies in
attempting to solve the problem. Some common strategies: making
list, chart or table, drawing a diagram, guess and check (or trial
and error), finding similar problem that previously solved, using
arithmetic or equations, looking for patterns, performing an
experiment, and working backwards.
Step 3 Carry Out the Plan
After planning, try it out. If it doesn’t work, try a different
strategy. Work carefully and keep an accurate record of all the
attempts until the problem is solved.
Step 4 Review the Solution
Check the answer. It is always a good idea to think about whether
the answer is reasonable. Ensure that the solution is consistent
with the facts of the problem. Then, interpret the result in the
context of the problem.

Example 7. The sum of three consecutive integers is 258. Find the integers.

Solution:
Step 1: Understand the Problem

We are looking for three consecutive integers, let

x be the first consecutive integer
x + 1 be the second consecutive integer
x + 2 be the third consecutive integer

Step 2: Devise a Plan

Translate the given statement into symbols.

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 The sum of three consecutive integers is 258.

x + (x + 1) + (x + 2) = 258

Step 3: Carry Out the Plan

Solve the given equation:

x + (x + 1) + (x + 2) = 258

x + x + 1 + x + 2 = 258 Removing the parentheses

3x + 3 = 258 Combine like terms

3x + 3 + (-3) = 258 + (-3) Additive Inverse Property

3x = 255

1 1
3x   255 
3 3 Multiplicative Inverse Property

x = 85

Step 4: Review the Solution

The sum of 85, 86, and 87 makes a result of 258. Therefore, the three
consecutive integers are 85, 86, and 87.

Example 8. Ms. Juana has a total of 25 chickens and carabaos on her farm. How
many of each does she have if all together there are 76 feet?

Solution:
Step 1: Understand the Problem

There are 25 chickens and carabaos in the problem. All together there are
76 feet. Note that chickens have 2 feet and carabaos have 4 feet.

We need to determine how many chickens and how many carabaos Ms.
Juana has on her farm.

Step 2: Devise a Plan

It is a situation where drawing a diagram would be a big help.

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 Step 3: Carry Out the Plan

Make a table reflecting the data in the problem. A table will often reveal
patterns and relationships that suggest how the problem can be solved.

Number of Number of Total

Chickens Carabaos Feet of Feet of Number of
(n) (m) Chickens Carabaos Feet
(2n) (4m) (2n + 4m)
18 7 36 28 64
17 8 34 32 66
As observed, the total number of feet is increasing, thus, we are on the
right direction.
14 11 28 44 72
12 13 24 52 76

Step 4: Review the Solution

12 + 13 = 25 heads

24 + 52 = 76 feet

Therefore, there are 12 chickens and 13 carabao in the farm of Ms. Juana.

1.2.2. Common Problem-Solving Strategies

The following are common problem-solving strategies:

1. Guess (this includes guess and check, guess and improve)
2. Act It Out (act it out and use equipment)
3. Draw (this includes drawing pictures and diagrams)
4. Make a List (this includes making a table)
5. Think (this includes using skills you know already)

Example 9. Solving a Problem Using a Diagram

A farmer is asked to plant eight tomato plants that are 18 inches tall in a straight
line with 2 feet between each plant. How much space is needed between the first plant
and the last one?

Solution:
The key information given is that there will be eight plants in a line, with 2
feet between each, and it asked to find the total distance from the first to
the last.

It is a situation where drawing a diagram would be a big help.

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 The diagram would look like this:

2ʹ 2ʹ 2ʹ 2ʹ 2ʹ 2ʹ 2ʹ
Use the diagram to add up the distances:
2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 = 14 feet.

There are eight plants, but only seven spaces of 2 feet between them.
So, 7 x 2 = 14 feet is right.

Example 10. Solving a Problem Using a List

The UNP Shark basketball team won three out of their last six games. In how
many different orders could they have attained three wins and three losses in six games?

Solution:
There are many different ways. UNP Shark may have won three straight
wins and three losses (WWWLLL), or maybe they lose in the first three
games and won in the last three games (LLLWWW). Also, there are other
several orders.

One can organize a list of all the possibilities making sure that no entry
will be duplicated.

Three Ws must be present in every entry without duplication. The strategy

is to start the list with three consecutive wins. Next in the list are all the
entries starting with two consecutive wins, then next in the list are all the
entries starting with a single win. Following this pattern, consider starting
with three consecutive losses and so on.

WWWLLL LLLWWW
WWLWLL LLWLWW
WWLLWL LLWWLW
WWLLLW LLWWWL
WLLLWW LWWWLL
WLLWLW LWWLWL
WLLWWL LWWLLW
WLWLLW LWLWWL
WLWWLL LWLLWW
WLWLWL LWLWLW

The list is organized and has no duplicated, so there are twenty different
orders in which a basketball team can win exactly three out of six games.

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 Example 11. Solving a Problem Using an Equation
Leonardo da Vinci was a famous artist during the renaissance period. He wrote in
his notebook that “from the top to the bottom of the chin is the sixth part of the face, and
it is the fifty-fourth part of the man.” Suppose the distance from the top to the bottom of
the chin of the person is 1.2 inches. Using Leonardo da Vinci’s measurements, find the
height of the person

Solution:
One needs to find the height of the person in this problem.

Let x be the unknown height of the person. Write an equation satisfying da

Vinci’s measurement.

Let x = height of the person

1
x 1.2
Equation: 54

 1 
 x  54  1.2 54 
Multiply 54 on both sides of the equation:  54 
x = 64.8 inches or 5.4 ft.
Thus, the person is 5.4 ft tall.

The solution is quite simple. One may check it – Leonardo da Vinci’s

measurements to find his/her best friend’s height.

Example 12. Solving a Problem Using Guess and Check

The product of the ages, in years, of three teenagers is 4590. None of the teens are
the same age. What are the ages of the teenagers?

Solution:
There’s a need to determine three distinct counting numbers, from 13 to
19 (possible ages for teenagers), that have a product of 4590.
If the ages are represented by x, y, and z, then xyz = 4590, but this cannot
be able to solve. Notice that 4590 ends in a zero, hence, 4590 has a factor
of 2 and 5, which means that at least one of the numbers must be an even
number and at least one number must have 5 as a factor. The only number
in the list that has 5 as a factor is 15. Thus, 15 is one of the numbers, and
at least one of the other numbers must be an even number. So, in this case,
it can be solved by guessing and checking.

15 x 16 x 18 = 4320 No, this product is too small.

15 x 16 x 19 = 4560 No, this product is too small.

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 15 x 17 x 18 = 4590 Yes, this is the correct product.

The ages of the teenagers are 15, 17, and 18.

Because 15 x 17 x 18 = 4590 and each of the ages represents the age of a

teenager, the solution is correct. None of the numbers 13, 14, 16, and 19 is a
factor (divisor) of 4590, so there are no other solutions.

Example 13. Solving a Problem with NO SOLUTION

The grade in David’s math class will be determined completely by three tests,
each worth 100 points. He scored 78 and 84 on the first two tests, but still hopes to get a
1.0, which would require an average of 93. What’s the minimum score he can get on the
third test?

Solution:
The given is two test scores of 78 and 84 and asked about the average for
three tests. Specifically, it should be at least 93.

Start by seeing what the average would be if David scores 100 on the last
test, then decide how much lower he can go and still have an average of at
least 93.

With a third test score of 100, David’s average would be

78  84  100 262
 87.3
3 3
Even with perfect score, David’s average will be only 87.3, so, it is not
possible for him to get a 1.0

In this case, the answer is already checked as part of the plan, so, there’s
no solution to the problem.

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3.3. Recreational Problem Solving

Recreational math uses games to help students understand many of the concepts
in mathematics. Recreational math goes beyond those games and into puzzles and
brainteasers that require math to solve but are not the typical “learn the formula and
apply” approach. Instead, using math to solve problems is part of the game itself.

3.3.1 Logic Puzzles

Logic puzzles come in all shapes and sizes, but the kind of puzzles we offer here
are most referred to as "logic grid" puzzles. In each puzzle you are given a series of
categories, and an equal number of options within each category. Each option is used
once and only once. Your goal is to figure out which options are linked together based on
a series of given clues. Each puzzle has only one unique solution, and each can be solved
using simple logical processes

Example 14. Logic Puzzles

a. John, Marie, Sandra, and Jack has a different occupation (teacher, writer, driver, or
helper). From the following clues, determine the occupation of each neighbor.
1. Marie gets home from work after the writer but before the helper.
2. Sandra, who is the last to get home from work, is not the teacher.
3. The helper and Sandra leave for work at the same time.
4. The writer lives next door to Jack.

Solution:
From clue 1, Marie is not the writer or helper. In the following chart, write X1 (which
stands for “ruled out by clue 1”) in the Writer and the Helper columns of Marie’s row.

Teacher Writer Driver Helper

John
Marie X1 X1
Sandra
Jack

From clue 2, Sandra is not the teacher. Write X2 (ruled out by clue 2) in the Teacher
column of Sandra’s row. We know from clue 1 that the writer is not the last to get home,
and we know from clue 2 that Sandra is the last to get home; therefore, Sandra is not the
Writer. Write X2 in the Writer column of Sandra’s row.

Teacher Writer Driver Helper

John
Marie X1 X1
Sandra X2 X2
Jack

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From clue 3, Sandra is not the helper. Write X3 for this condition. There are now Xs for
the three of the four occupations in Sandra’s row; therefore, Sandra must be the Driver.
Place a  in that box. Since Sandra is the driver, none of the other three people can be
the driver. Write X3 for these conditions. There are now Xs for three of the four
occupations in Marie’s row; therefore, Marie must be the Teacher. Insert a  to indicate
that Marie is the teacher and write X3 twice to indicate that neither John nor Jack is the
teacher.

Teacher Writer Driver Helper

John X3 X3
Marie  X1 X3 X1
Sandra X2 X2  X3
Jack X3 X3

From clue 4, Jack is not the writer. Write X4 for this condition. See the following table.
Since there are three Xs in the Writer column, John must be the writer. Place  in that
box. Thus, John cannot be the helper. Write X4 in that box. Since there are 3 Xs in the
Helper column, Jack must be the helper. Place a  in that box.

Teacher Writer Driver Helper

John X3  X3 X4
Marie  X1 X3 X1
Sandra X2 X2  X3
Jack X3 X4 X3 

John is the writer, Marie is the teacher, Sandra is the driver, and Jack is the helper.

3.3.2. KenKen Puzzle

KenKen Puzzle is an arithmetic-based logic puzzle that was invented by the

Japanese mathematics teacher Tetsuya Miyamoto in 2004.

Rules:
1. Do not repeat a number in any row or column.
2. The numbers in each heavily outlined sets of squares, called cages, must combine (in
some order) to produce the target number in the top left corner of the cage using the
mathematical operation indicated.
3. Cages with just one square should be filled in with the target number.
4. A number can be repeated within the cage as long as it is not in the same row or
column.

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Example 15. Solve each of the following puzzles.

a. b.
6+ 3x 2x 64x 3

5+ 8+ 9+

2 3÷

Solution:
a. b.

2 1 4 3
2 1 3
1 3 2 4
3 2 1
3 4 1 2
1 3 2
4 2 3 1

3.3.3. Tower of Hanoi

The tower of Hanoi (also called the tower of Brahma or the Lucas tower) was
invented by a French mathematician Édouard Lucas in the 19th century. As you play the
game with more and more disks, you will notice you start to look for patterns. If you try
to explain how you solve the puzzle, you might realize you use one of the following
mathematical concepts:
—Iterative solutions, where the same sequence of instructions is repeated over and over
—Recursive solutions, where you use information from one step to find the next step
—Patterns and translating these in mathematical formulas.

Three simple rules are followed:

1. Only one disk can be moved at a time.

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2. Each move consists of taking the upper disk from one of the stacks and placing it on
top of another stack. In other words, a disk can only be moved if it is the uppermost disk
on a stack.
3. No larger disk may be placed on top of a smaller disk.

Example 16. How many moves will it take to transfer n disks from the left post
to the right post?

Look for a pattern in the number of steps it takes to move just one, two, or three disks.
Number the disks starting with disk 1 on the bottom.

1 disk: 1 move

Move 1: move disk 1 to post C

2 disks: 3 moves
Move 1: move disk 2 to post B
Move 2: move disk 1 to post C
Move 3: move disk 2 to post C

3 disks: 7 moves
Move 1: move disk 3 to post C
Move 2: move disk 2 to post B
Move 3: move disk 3 to post B
Move 4: move disk 1 to post C
Move 5: move disk 3 to post A
Move 6: move disk 2 to post C
Move 7: move disk 3 to post C

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Recursive Pattern
From the moves necessary to transfer one, two, and three disks, we can find a recursive
pattern - a pattern that uses information from one step to find the next step - for moving n
disks from post A to post C:

1. First, transfer n-1 disks from post A to post B. The number of moves will be the
same as those needed to transfer n-1 disks from post A to post C. Call this number
M moves. [As you can see above, with three disks it takes 3 moves to transfer two
disks (n-1) from post A to post C.]
2. Next, transfer disk 1 to post C [1 move].
3. Finally, transfer the remaining n-1 disks from post B to post C. [Again, the
number of moves will be the same as those needed to transfer n-1 disks from post
A to post C, or M moves.]

Therefore, the number of moves needed to transfer n disks from post A to post C
is 2M+1, where M is the number of moves needed to transfer n-1 disks from post A to
post C.

Unfortunately, if we want to know how many moves it will take to transfer 100 disks
from post A to post B, we will first have to find the moves it takes to transfer 99 disks, 98
disks, and so on. Therefore, the recursive pattern will not be much help in finding the
time it would take to transfer all the disks.

However, the recursive pattern can help us generate more numbers to find
an explicit (non-recursive) pattern. Here's how to find the number of moves needed to
transfer larger numbers of disks from post A to post C, remembering that M = the number
of moves needed to transfer n-1 disks from post A to post C:

1. for 1 disk it takes 1 move to transfer 1 disk from post A to post C.

2. for 2 disks, it will take 3 moves: 2M + 1 = 2(1) + 1 = 3
3. for 3 disks, it will take 7 moves: 2M + 1 = 2(3) + 1 = 7
4. for 4 disks, it will take 15 moves: 2M + 1 = 2(7) + 1 = 15

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 5. for 5 disks, it will take 31 moves: 2M + 1 = 2(15) + 1 = 31

B. Explicit Pattern

Number of Disks Number of Moves

1 1
2 3
3 7
4 15
5 31
Powers of two help reveal the pattern:
Number of Disks (n) Number of Moves
1 2^1 - 1 = 2 - 1 = 1
2 2^2 - 1 = 4 - 1 = 3
3 2^3 - 1 = 8 - 1 = 7
4 2^4 - 1 = 16 - 1 = 15
5 2^5 - 1 = 32 - 1 = 31
So, the formula for finding the number of steps it takes to transfer n disks from post A to
post B is 2^n - 1.

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