CHAPTER 4

- Bipolar Junction Transistor -

FROM: Oxford University Publishing

Microelectronic Circuits by Adel S. Sedra and Kenneth C. Smith
1
4.1. DEVICE STRUCTURE AND PHYSICAL
OPERATION
The simplified structure of BJT consists of three semiconductor
regions:
­ Emitter region (n-type)
­ Base region (p-type)
­ Collector region (n-type)

Type described above is referred to as npn.

­ However, pnp types do exist.

2
4.1.1. SIMPLIFIED STRUCTURE AND MODES OF
OPERATION
Transistor consists of two pn-junctions:
­Emitter-Base junction (EBJ)
­Collector-Base junction (CBJ)
Operating mode depends on biasing.
­Active mode – used for amplification
­Cutoff and saturation modes – used for
switching.

3
 4.1.2. OPERATION OF THE NPN- TRANSISTOR IN THE ACTIVE MODE

Active mode is “most

important.” +
-
Two external voltage
sources are required
for biasing to achieve
it. + -

Current flow in an npn transistor biased to operate in the active mode.

4
CURRENT FLOW

Forward bias on emitter-base junction will cause

current to flow.
This current has two components:
­ electrons injected from emitter into base
­ holes injected from base into emitter.
The current due to electrons is more desirable.
­This is achieved with heavy doping of emitter, light
doping of base.
5
 Diffusion Drift

- + - E +

6
THE COLLECTOR CURRENT
(eq6.3) iC = IS e vBE / VT

- -most
It is observed that - - -diffusing
- - - -electrons
- - - - will
- -reach
---
boundary of collector-base depletion region.A qD n E n p0
saturation
Because collector current:
is more positive S = these electrons
thanIbase,
are swept into collector. W
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Notice that the magnitude of i is independent of v .
C CB
2
AE qD
­ As long as collector is positive, with n
respect to base.
(eq6.4) IS = n i
Saturation current (IS) – W NA
!"""#"""$
­ Typically between 10-12 and 10-18A
ni = intrinsic carrier density
­ Also referred NA=as
to doping
scaleconcentration
current.of base
7
 THE BASE CURRENT

Base current (iB) –

­ ib1 – holes injected from base
region into emitter. b = transistor parameter
!" "#"" $
­ ib2 – holes supplied by external 𝒊𝑪 iC
circuit to replace those 𝜷 = iB =
(eq6.5)
recombined. 𝒊𝑩 b
------------
IS vBE / VT
(eq6.6) iB = e
Small current proportional to iC b

8
THE BASE-COLLECTOR CURRENTS (𝒊𝑪 = 𝜷𝒊𝑩 )

Common-emitter current gain (b.) – is influenced

by two factors (Inversely):
­ width of base region (W)
­ relative doping of base emitter regions (NA/ND)
High Value of b
­ thin base (small W in nano-meters)
­ lightly doped base / heavily doped emitter
(Small NA/ND)

9
 THE EMITTER CURRENT
i
this expression is generated through combination of (6.5) i
B and (6.7)
!"""""""#"""""""$ C

b +1 b +1
(eq6.8/6.9) iE =
b
iC =
b
(
%
I
"S evBE / VT

&" '
)
iC

-----------------------
(eq6.10) iC = a iE iC = b iB
-----------------------
All current which this parameter is reffered to
as common-base current gain
enters transistor must !""
"#"""
$
b a
leave. (eq6.11) a = , (eq6.13) b =
b +1
1 -a
­iE = iC + iB
-----------------------
IS vBE / VT
(eq6.12) iE = e
a 10
RECAPITULATION AND EQUIVALENT-CIRCUIT
MODELS

We can now present a first-order BJT model for

npn transistor in active mode.
Basic relationship in collector current (iC) is related
exponentially to forward-bias voltage (vBE).
­It remains independent of vBC as long as this
junction (CBJ) remains reverse biased.
­vBC < 0.4V

11
Large-signal equivalent-circuit models of the npn BJT operating in the forward
active mode. 12
EXAMPLE 4.1
A npn transistor has IS = 10-15 A
and b = 100, is connected as in
the following figure.

a) Find VBE and VCE and confirm

the active mode operation
𝐼" $!"#$
𝐼! = 𝑒 #
𝛽
𝐼! 10×10'(
𝑉!% = 𝑉& ln = 0.025 ln = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟗𝑽
𝐼" 10 ')*
*𝛽

𝑉+% = 𝑉++ − 𝑅+ 𝐼+ = 𝑉++ − 𝑅+ 𝛽𝐼! = 5 − 3000 100 10×10'( = 𝟐𝐕

13
EXAMPLE 4.1
PAG. 227
A npn transistor has IS = 10-15 A and b
= 100, is connected as in the following
figure.

b) Replace the current source with a

resistance connected from the Base to
the 5V DC supply. What resistance
value is needed to result in the same
operating conditions?

𝑉++ − 𝑉!%
𝑅! =
𝐼!

5 − 0.69
𝑅! = = 𝟒𝟑𝟏 𝒌𝜴
10×10'(

14
Summary
4

15
4.1.3. STRUCTURE OF ACTUAL TRANSISTORS
Here is a more realistic BJT cross-section:

Collector virtually surrounds entire emitter region.

­ This makes it easier for electrons injected into base to be
collected (more difficult to escape).
Device is not symmetrical.
­ As such, emitter and collector cannot be interchanged.
­ Device is uni-directional.
16
 4.1.4. OPERATION IN SATURATION MODE
For BJT to operate in active mode, CBJ must be reverse biased.
­ However, for small values of forward-bias, a pn-junction does not
operate effectively.
As such, active mode operation of npn-transistor may be
maintained for vBC down to approximately 0.4V.
­ Only after this point will the CB “diode” begin to really conduct.
i
EBJ CBJ
ON ON

OFF OFF

0.4 0.5 v 17
4.1.4. OPERATION IN SATURATION MODE
ISC =
collector current !""" " #"""" $
(eq6.14) : iC = IS evBE / VT - ISC evBC / VT
in saturation region %"&" '
this terms
plays bigger
role as vBC
exceeds 0.4V

----------------------------
base current IS
(eq6.15) : iB = evBE / VT + ISC evBC / VT
in saturation region b
----------------------------
iC
(eq6.16) forced b : b forced = £b
iB saturation
%"""""""&"""""""'
As vBC is increased, the value of b is forced lower and lower.
18
 4.2.4. AN ALTERNATIVE FORM OF THE COMMON-EMITTER
CHARACTERISTICS

The Common-Emitter Current Gain The Saturation Voltage VCEsat and

A common way to quantify b is Saturation Resistance
changing base current by DiB and
measuring incremental DiC.

Common-emitter characteristics. A much greater expansion of the saturation

region.
19
A simplified equivalent-circuit model of the saturated
transistor.
0.5 V
C

20
4.1.5. THE PNP TRANSISTOR

Current flow in a pnp transistor biased to operate in the active mode.

21
4.1.5. THE PNP
TRANSISTOR

Two large-signal models for the pnp

transistor operating in the active mode.

22
4.2. CURRENT-VOLTAGE CHARACTERISTICS

Circuit symbols for BJTs. 23

 4.2.1. CIRCUIT SYMBOLS AND CONVENTIONS

Voltage polarities and current flow in transistors biased in the active mode.
24
 4.2.2. GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF TRANSISTOR
CHARACTERISTICS

(left) The iC-vBE characteristic for an npn transistor. (right) Effect of temperature
on the iC-vBE characteristic. Voltage polarities and current flow in transistors
biased in the active mode.
25
 4.2.3. DEPENDENCE OF I C ON COLLECTOR VOLTAGE –
THE EARLY EFFECT

When operated in active region,

practical BJT’s show some
dependence of collector current
on collector voltage.
As such, iC-vCB characteristic is
not “straight”.

26
Large-signal equivalent-circuit models of an npn BJT operating in the active mode
in the common-emitter configuration with the output resistance ro included.
27
EXAMPLE 4.2
PAGE 236
The following transistor has a
b=100 and exhibits a vBE of
0.7V @ iC= 1mA. Design the
circuit so a current of 2mA flows
through the collector and a
voltage of +5V appears at the
collector.

28
 EXAMPLE 4.3
PAGE 244
For the following circuit find the values for VBB that results in the
transistor operating at:
a) Active mode with VCE=5V. Assume VBE=0.7V and b=50

29
 EXAMPLE 4.3
PAGE 244
For the following circuit find the values for VBB
that results in the transistor operating at:
b) At the edge of saturation

30
 EXAMPLE 4.3
PAGE 244
For the following circuit find the values for VBB
that results in the transistor operating at:
c) Deep in saturation with bforced = 10

31
4.3. BJT CIRCUITS AT DC
Solving circuits with BJTs with DC voltages only.
Ø Use the simple models (VBE = 0.7V (active), VCE = 0.2V
(saturated), neglect Early effect)
Ø Steps:
1. Which operation mode?
2. Assume active operation and find all voltages and
currents
3. Check for consistency [For active mode: VBC < 0.4V
(VCB > -0.4V ) for npn or VCB < 0.4V for pnp)
4. If no, then assume saturation mode, find voltages
and currents and check for consistency again
(IC/IB = bforced < b)

32
4.3. BJT CIRCUITS AT DC

33
 BJT – DC ANALYSIS (NPN)
Active VBC = 0.4 V Saturation
VCE = 0.3 V
IE = IB + IC - EDGE - IE = IB + IC
Solve using relation between currents: Solve using relation between voltages

-
N
IC = b IB 𝛽 V
𝛼= .5
IC = a IE 𝛽+1 0 +
+
0.2 V
Confirm by checking: +P -
0.7
VBC < 0.4 V V-
or N
Confirm by checking:
VCE > 0.3 V
bforced = ICs / IBs < bactive
EXAMPLE 4.5
PAGE 250
For the following circuit assume b is at least 50. Find all node
voltage and branch currents.

35
EXAMPLE 4.6
PAGE 252
Find all node voltage and branch currents for the following
circuit

36
EXAMPLE 4.7
PAGE 253
Find all node voltage and branch currents for the following
circuit

37
4.4. APPLYING THE BJT IN AMPLIFIER
DESIGN
The transistor can be seen as a transconductance amplifier
(Voltage Controlled Current Source); or current amplifier
(IC = bIB)
However, we are more commonly interested in voltage
amplification.
How can we convert it to a voltage amplifier? By using
transistor and series resistance
However in a junction, V-I dependence is not linear.
Therefore, it is useful/necessary to model the voltage transfer
characteristic (VTC).
38
4.4.2 Voltage Transfer Characteristic (VTC).

We will show that two things are important to ensure linear gain:
1. Appropriate biasing
2. Appropriate input voltage swing
39
Two things are important to ensure linear gain!
1. Appropriate biasing

Almost Linear
behavior
Appropriate
BIAS point (Q)

Biasing the BJT amplifier at a point Q located on the active-mode

segment of the VTC.
40
Two things are important to ensure linear gain!
2. Appropriate input voltage swing.
(Small-signal model is employed to model the amp’s operation)

Avoid
deformation in
the output

Small enough
to fit in the
linear region

41
4.4.4 SMALL-SIGNAL VOLTAGE GAIN

42
4.4.6 LOCATING THE BIAS POINT Q

Too close to
Too close to
saturation
Vcc (cutoff)

43
4.5. SMALL-SIGNAL OPERATION AND
MODELS

𝑣!" < 10𝑚𝑉

44
4.5.1. THE COLLECTOR CURRENT AND THE
TRANSCONDUCTANCE

45
4.5.2. THE BASE CURRENT AND THE INPUT
RESISTANCE AT THE BASE

The small-signal input resistance between

base and emitter, looking into the base, is
denoted by rπ and is defined as:

46
4.5.3 THE EMITTER CURRENT AND THE INPUT
RESISTANCE AT THE EMITTER

The small-signal resistance between base and

emitter, looking into the emitter, is denoted by re
and is defined as:

47
4.5.3 RELATION BETWEEN rp & rE

48
4.5.4 VOLTAGE GAIN (REVISITED)

49
4.5.6 THE HYBRID-π MODEL

50
4.5.7 THE T MODEL

51
4.5.5 SEPARATING THE SIGNAL AND THE DC
QUANTITIES

DC Component AC Component

52
EXAMPLE 4.14
PAGE 281
a) Determine the voltage Gain in the following circuit:
DC ANALISYS

53
EXAMPLE 4.14
PAGE 281
a) Determine the voltage Gain in the following circuit:
AC ANALISYS

𝑅!
C

54
EXAMPLE 4.14
PAGE 281
b) Determine the maximum amplitude the vi is allowed to have and then find iB(t),
vBE(t), iC(t), and vC(t). with that value:

𝑣./ 10𝑚𝑉
𝑣C- = = = 0.91 𝑉
0.011 0.011
𝑣
A, = 𝑣C- ×𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 0.91 ×3.04 = 2.77 𝑉

𝑣!+ = 0.7 − 𝑉𝑐 − 𝑣
A, = 0.7 − 0.33
= 0.37 < 0.4𝑉 0.33 V

0.7 V

55
EXAMPLE 4.14
PAGE 281
Determine the maximum amplitude the vi is allowed to have and then find iB(t),
vBE(t), iC(t), and vC(t). with that value:

56
EXAMPLE 4.14
PAGE 281
Determine the maximum amplitude the vi is allowed to have and then find iB(t),
vBE(t), iC(t), and vC(t). with that value:

57
EXAMPLE 4.14
PAGE 281
Summary
iC

Small signal
VCE > 0.3V

58
4.5.11 AUGMENTING THE SMALL-SIGNAL MODELS TO
ACCOUNT FOR THE EARLY EFFECT

𝑽𝑨
𝒓𝑶 =
𝑰𝑪

vo = –gmvbe (RC || ro)

59
4.5.12 SUMMARY

60
4.7. BIASING IN BJT AMPLIFIER CIRCUITS
The biasing problem à Establishing a constant DC collector current (IC) à
calculable, predictable, and insensitive to variations in temperature and to
the large variations in the value of β.
Appropriate location of DC bias point (Q) to allow for maximum input/output
signal swing

61
4.7.1 THE CLASSICAL DISCRETE-CIRCUIT BIAS
ARRANGEMENT

IC and in VCE get deeply affected by:

Exponential relationship IC – VBE
Variations in the value of β (IC = βIB)

62
4.7.1 THE CLASSICAL DISCRETE-CIRCUIT BIAS
ARRANGEMENT

Negative
Feedback

Simple design rules: ü VB = 1/3 VCC

ü VCB (or VCE) = 1/3 VCC

ü IC RC = 1/3 VCC
ü R1 ,R2 à Their current is in the range of
IE to 0.1IE
63
 EXAMPLE 4.20
PAGE 317
a) We wish to design the bias for the following amplifier to establish a current IE
=1 mA using a power supply VCC = +12 V. The transistor is specified to have a
nominal b value of 100.

64
EXAMPLE 4.20
PAGE 317
b) The transistor used has β in the range of 50 to 150. Find the variation range of
IE as a percentage

0.94 mA to 1.04 mA, a 10% range

Voltage-divider current equal to IE

0.984 mA to 0.995 mA, a 1.1%

65
4.7.2 A TWO-POWER-SUPPLY VERSION OF THE CLASSICAL
BIAS ARRANGEMENT
−𝑉%% + 𝐼! 𝑅! + 𝑉!% + 𝐼% 𝑅% = 0

Again, we can have stable current if:

66
4.7.3 BIASING USING A COLLECTOR-TO-BASE FEEDBACK RESISTOR

67
4.7.4 BIASING USING A CONSTANT-CURRENT SOURCE

Current mirror

Output current will remain constant as long as:

→ 𝑉+%_45 > 0.3𝑉
68
Basic BJT Amplifier Configurations
Basic characteristics of amplifiers:
• Signal source (vsig)
• Signal resistance (Rsig)
• Input resistance (Rin)
(R seen by the signal)

• Output resistance (Ro)

𝑅"#
(R seen by the Load when Vi = 0V) 𝑣"# = 𝑣$"%
𝑅"# + 𝑅$"%

3 Type of gains:
Ø Open-circuit Gain
Avo = VOC / VI
Ø Gain (Av) [Includes RL]
Av = VO / VI
Ø Overall gain (Gv) [Includes Rsig] 𝑅-7
→ 𝐺6 = 𝐴
Gv = VO / Vsig 𝑅-7 + 𝑅8-9 6
69
 BASIC BJT AMPLIFIER CONFIGURATIONS

The CE amplifier is most widely used.

70
THE COMMON-EMITTER (CE) AMPLIFIER
(a) Common-Emitter Amplifier fed
with a signal vsig from a generator
with a resistance Rsig. (b) The
common-emitter amplifier circuit
with the BJT replaced with its
hybrid-pi model.

71
CHARACTERISTIC PARAMETERS OF THE CE AMPLIFIER

72
CHARACTERISTIC PARAMETERS OF THE CE AMPLIFIER

Three Observations
­The input resistance Rin = rp = b/gm is moderate
to low in value.
­The output resistance Ro = RC is moderate to high
in value.
­The open-circuit voltage gain (Avo) can be high –
making the CE configuration the workhorse in BJT
amplifier design.

73
 CE AMPLIFIER - THE REAL CASE
DC
General = DC + AC

AC

74
EXERCISE 4.52
PAGE 325
Consider the following CE amplifier. Evaluate:
a) Rin (without and with RB taken into account)
b) Ro (without and with ro taken into account,
assume VA = 100V)
c) Avo (without and with ro taken into account)
d) For RL = 5 kW, find Av
e) If Rsig = 5 kW, find the overall voltage gain Gv
f) If the sine-wave vp is to be limited to 5 mV peak,
what is the maximum allowed peak amplitude of
vsig and the corresponding peak amplitude of vo?

75
EXERCISE 4.52
PAGE 325

Rin without and with RB

a)

Ro without and with ro (Assume VA = 100V)

b) 𝑉;
𝑟: = = 101𝑘Ω
𝐼+
76
 EXERCISE 4.52
PAGE 325

Avo (without and with ro)

Av for RL = 5 kW
c) d)

77
 EXERCISE 4.52
PAGE 325

e) Overall voltage gain Gv (Rsig = 5 kW)

𝑅-7
𝐺6 = 𝐴 = −40𝑉/𝑉
𝑅-7 + 𝑅8-9 6

f) Maximum allowed peak amplitude of vsig and the corresponding peak

amplitude of vo (vp is to be limited to 5 mV peak)
𝑅-7
𝑣< = 𝑣8-9 = 5 𝑚𝑉=
𝑅-7 + 𝑅8-9

𝑣8-9 = 15.25 𝑚𝑉= à Maximum to avoid non-linear distortion

𝑣, = |𝐺6 | 𝑣8-9 = 0.61 𝑉= 78

THE CE AMPLIFIER WITH AN EMITTER RESISTANCE

(a) CE amplifier with

Emitter Resistance (bias
details omitted); (b)
Amplifier equivalent
circuit with the BJT
represented by its T
Model.

79
CHARACTERISTIC PARAMETERS OF THE CE AMPLIFIER
WITH EMITTER RESISTANCE
6!
𝑣, = −𝛼𝑖/ 𝑅> = −𝛼 𝑅> ;
?" @A"
BASE
Careful! These
Reflected formulas does not
*(b+1) apply always!
AT EMITTER
(Resistance Reflection Rule)

𝑅#$ 𝑅' ||𝑅(

−𝛼
𝑅#$ + 𝑅%#& 𝑟" + 𝑅"
80
 CHARACTERISTIC PARAMETERS OF THE CE AMPLIFIER
To summarize, including a resistance Re in the emitter of the CE amplifier results in
the following characteristics:
1. The input resistance Rin is increased by the factor (1 + gmRe)
2. The OC voltage gain is reduced by the factor (1 + gmRe)
3. For the same nonlinear distortion, the input signal can be increased by the
factor (1 + gmRe)

4. The overall voltage gain is less dependent on the value of b

81
THE REAL CASE

82
EXERCISE 4.53
PAGE 325
Consider the following CE amplifier. (Rsig = 5 kΩ, RL
= 5 kΩ and b = 100) Evaluate:
a) Find the value of Re that results in Rin equal to
four times the source resistance Rsig
b) For this value of R , find A , A , and G
e vo v v

c) If v is to be limited to 5 mV, what is the

p

maximum value v can have with and without R

sig e

included? Find the corresponding v o

83
 EXERCISE 4.53
PAGE 325

(Rsig = 5 kΩ, RL = 5 kΩ and b = 100) AT EMITTER

a) Re for Rin = 4Rsig Reflected

*(b+1) (Resistance Reflection Rule)

AT BASE

84
 EXERCISE 4.53
PAGE 325

(Rsig = 5 kΩ, RL = 5 kΩ and b = 100)

b) For this value of R , find A , A , and G

e vo v v

𝑅"#
𝐺! = 𝐴 = −9.8𝑉/𝑉
𝑅"# + 𝑅$"% !

4.52 85
 EXERCISE 4.53
PAGE 325

(Rsig = 5 kΩ, RL = 5 kΩ and b = 100)

c) If v = 5 mV, what is the maximum value v can have with and without R
p sig e

included? Find the corresponding v o

𝑟' 𝑅"# 𝑟'

𝑣& = 𝑣" = 𝑣$"% = 5𝑚𝑉
𝑟' + 𝑅' 𝑅"# + 𝑅$"% 𝑟' + 𝑅'
→ 𝑣8-9 = 62.5𝑚𝑉 à Maximum to avoid non-linear distortion
→ 𝑣, = |𝐺6 | 𝑣8-9 = 0.61 𝑉=

86
THE COMMON-BASE (CB) AMPLIFIER

(a) CB amplifier; (b) Amplifier

equivalent circuit with the BJT
represented by its T Model.
87
CHARACTERISTIC PARAMETERS OF THE CB AMPLIFIER

6!
𝑣, = −𝛼𝑖/ 𝑅> = −𝛼 − 𝑅> ;
?"

𝑟" 𝑅' ||𝑅(

𝛼
𝑟" + 𝑅%#& 𝑟"
88
CHARACTERISTIC PARAMETERS OF THE CB AMPLIFIER
Summarizing:
1. The input resistance Rin is very small (re)
2. The OC voltage gain is positive and equal in value to that of the CE amp, but the
overall gain can be low.
3. The overall voltage gain is almost independent on b
4. Because of its very low input resistance, the CB circuit alone is not attractive as a
voltage amplifier except in specialized applications. (E.g., in a coaxial cable
amplifier, to prevent signal reflection, the Rin must be equal to the Rcharacteristic of the
cable, ~50 W to 75 W)

89
EXERCISE 4.45
PAGE 306
A CB amplifier is required to amplify a signal delivered by a coaxial cable having a
characteristic resistance of 50 W.
a) What bias current IC should be utilized to obtain Rin that is matched to the cable
resistance?
b) To obtain an overall voltage gain of Gv of 40 V/V, what should the total resistance
in the collector (i.e., RC||RL) be?

90
EXERCISE 4.45
PAGE 306
A CB amplifier is required to amplify a signal delivered by a coaxial cable having a
characteristic resistance of 50 W.
a) What bias current IC should be utilized to obtain Rin that is matched to the cable
resistance?
𝑉& 𝑉&
𝑅-7 = 𝑟/ = = = 50Ω → 𝐼+ ≃ 0.5𝑚𝐴
𝐼% 𝐼+
𝛼

b) To obtain an overall voltage gain of Gv of 40 V/V, what should the total resistance
in the collector (i.e., RC||RL) be?

𝑅( ||𝑅)
𝐺! = 𝛼 = 40𝑉/𝑉 → 𝑅( ||𝑅) = 4.04𝑘Ω
𝑟' + 𝑅$"%

91
 THE COMMON-COLLECTOR AMPLIFIER OR EMITTER
FOLLOWER

(a) CC amplifier with bias details

omitted; (b) Amplifier equivalent
circuit with the BJT represented by its T
Model (ro omitted)

92
CHARACTERISTIC PARAMETERS OF THE CC
AMPLIFIER
BASE
𝑅#$ 𝑅(
𝐺) =
𝑅#$ + 𝑅%#& 𝑅( + 𝑟"

Reflected
*(b+1)

AT EMITTER
(Resistance Reflection Rule)

93
THE NEED FOR A UNITY-GAIN BUFFER
AMPLIFIER
+
𝑣, = 2𝑚𝑉
-

+
𝑣- = 100𝑚𝑉
-

94
 THE REAL CASE

(Resistance Reflection Rule)

AT BASE

EMITTER
𝑅, [ = 𝑟/
6! DE
𝑅8-9 ||𝑅F Reflected
𝑅,BC [ = 𝑟/ + /(b+1)
6#!$ DE 𝛽+1

95
EXERCISE 4.55
PAGE 329
An emitter follower is used to connect a source with Rsig = 10 kΩ to a load RL =
1 kΩ. The transistor is biased at I = 5 mA, utilizes a resistance RB = 40 kΩ, and
has β = 100.
a) Find Rib, Rin, Gv.
b) If in order to limit nonlinear distortion, the base–emitter signal voltage is
limited to 10 mV peak, what is the corresponding amplitude at the output?
c) What will the overall voltage gain become if RL is changed to 2 kΩ? and to
500 Ω?

+
𝑣./
-

96
EXERCISE 4.55
PAGE 329
An emitter follower is used to connect a source with Rsig = 10 kΩ to a load RL =
1 kΩ. The transistor is biased at I = 5 mA, utilizes a resistance RB = 40 kΩ, and
has β = 100.
a) Find Rib, Rin, Gv.
H%
𝑅-. = 𝛽 + 1 𝑟/ + 𝑅F = 101.5𝑘Ω, where rG = ≃ 5Ω
I&
𝑅-7 = 𝑅-. | 𝑅! = 40𝑘Ω |101.5𝑘Ω = 28.7𝑘Ω

𝑅) 𝑅"# 𝑅)
𝑣* = 𝑣" = 𝑣$"% → 𝐺! = 0.74𝑉/𝑉
𝑅) + 𝑟' 𝑅"# + 𝑅$"% 𝑅) + 𝑟'

b) If in order to limit nonlinear distortion, the base–emitter signal voltage is

limited to 10 mV peak, what is the corresponding amplitude at the output?

𝑟' 𝑅"# 𝑟'

𝑣+' = 10𝑚𝑉, = 𝑣" = 𝑣$"% → 𝑣$"% = 2.7𝑉,
𝑅) + 𝑟' 𝑅"# + 𝑅$"% 𝑅) + 𝑟'
→ 𝑣, = |𝐺6 | 𝑣8-9 = 2 𝑉=
97
EXERCISE 4.55
PAGE 329
An emitter follower is used to connect a source with Rsig = 10 kΩ to a load RL =
1 kΩ. The transistor is biased at I = 5 mA, utilizes a resistance RB = 40 kΩ, and
has β = 100.
c) What will the overall voltage gain become if RL is changed to 2 kΩ? and to
500 Ω?
𝑅"# 𝑅) 𝑅-7 = 𝛽 + 1 𝑟/ + 𝑅F ||𝑅!
𝐺! =
𝑅"# + 𝑅$"% 𝑅) + 𝑟'

For RL = 2kΩ For RL = 500Ω

𝑅-7 = 33.4kΩ 𝑅-7 = 22.42kΩ

→ 𝐺6 = 0.767𝑉/𝑉 → 𝐺6 = 0.69𝑉/𝑉

98
99
 SUMMARY AND COMPARISONS
The CE configuration is one of the best suited for realizing the bulk of the gain
required in an amplifier. Depending on the magnitude of the gain required,
either a single stage o a cascade of two or three stages may be used.
Including a resistor Re at the emitter of the CE stage provides a number of
performance improvements at the expense of gain reduction.
The low input resistance of the CB amplifier makes it useful only in specific
applications.
The emitter follower finds application as a voltage buffer for connecting a high
resistance source to a low-resistance load.

100
GENERAL SUMMARY
Depending on the bias condition on its two junctions, the BJT can operate in one
of three possible modes:
­ cut-off (both junctions reverse biased)
­ active (the EBJ forward-biased and CBJ reversed)
­ saturation (both junctions forward biased)

For amplifier applications, the BJT is operated in the active mode. Switching
applications make use of the cutoff and saturation modes.
A BJT operating in the active mode provides a collector current iC =
ISexp{vBE/VT}. The base current iB = iC/b, and emitter current iE = iC + iB.

101
GENERAL SUMMARY
To ensure operation in the active mode, the collector voltage of an npn-
transistor must be kept higher than approximately 0.4V below the base
voltage. For a pnp-transistor, the collector voltage must be lower than
approximately 0.4V above the base voltage. Otherwise, the CBJ becomes
forward-biased and the transistor will enter saturation.
At a constant collector current, the magnitude of the base emitter voltage
decreases by about 2mV for every 1OC rise in temperature.
The BJT will be at the edge of saturation when |vCE| is reduced to about 0.3V.

102
GENERAL SUMMARY
In the active mode, iC shows a slight dependence on vCE. This phenomenon,
known as the Early Effect, is modeled by ascribing a finite output resistance to
the BJT: ro = |VA|/I’C where VA is the Early Voltage and I’C is the dc collector
current without the Early Effect taken into account.
The dc analysis of transistor circuits is generally simplified by assuming |VBE| =
0.7V.
To operate as a linear amplifier, the BJT is biased in the active region and the
signal vbe is kept small (vbe << VT).
Bias design seeks to establish a dc collector current that is as independent of b
as possible.

103
GENERAL SUMMARY

For small signals, the BJT functions as a linear voltage-controlled

current source with transconductance gm = IC/VT. The input resistance
between base and emitter, looking into the base, is rp = b/gm. The
input resistance between base and emitter, looking into the emitter is
re = 1/gm.
Three basic BJT amplifier configurations were shown. A summary of
their characteristic parameters was provided in Table 4.5.

104