Ethiopian Defence University

College of Engineering
Department of Electronics Engineering

2025 G.C
Topics discussed in this section
i. Formation of Transistor and types of transistors.
ii. Working principle and operation of NPN, PNP
transistors as an amplifier
iii. Modes of operation
iv. Configuration of BJT Transistors
v. Current components of BJT in CE, CB, CC mode &
Basic current amplification parameters of BJT.
vi. Input and Output characteristics of BJT
vii.Purpose of biasing the BJT and methods
Introduction
In this chapter,we study the major three-terminal device the bipolar junction
transistor (BJT).

Three-terminal devices are far more useful than two-terminal ones, such as the
diodes because they can be used in numerous applications, ranging from
signal amplification to the design of digital logic and memory circuits.

The basic principle involved is the use of the voltage between two terminals
to control the current flowing in the third terminal.
In this way, a three-terminal device can be used to realize a controlled
source, is the basis for amplifier design.
Also, in the extreme, the control signal can be used to cause the current in
the third terminal to change from zero to a large value, thus allowing the
device to act as a switch.
The switch is the basis for the realization of the logic inverter, the basic
element of digital circuits.
Classifications of Transistors
 The device in which conduction takes place due to two types of carriers,
electrons and holes is called a Bipolar Device.
 As p-n junctions exist in the construction of the device, it is a junction
device.
 When there is transfer of resistance from input side which is Forward
Biased (low resistance) to output side which is Reverse Biased (high
resistance), it is a Trans Resistor or Transistor Device.
 There are two types of transistors NPN and PNP.
 In NPN Transistor, a p-type Silicon (Si) or Germanium (Ge) is sandwiched
between two layers of n-type silicon.
 The symbol for PNP transistor is as shown in Fig.( a) and for NPN
transistor, is as shown in Fig. (b).
 Fig. Transistor symbols.
 The three sections of a transistor are Emitter, Base and Collector.
 If the arrow mark is towards the base, it is PNP transistor. If it is away then
it is NPN transistor.
 The arrow mark on the emitter specifies the direction of current when the
emitter base junction is forward biased.
 When the PNP transistor is forward biased, holes are injected into the
base. So the holes move from emitter to base.
The conventional current flows in the same direction as holes. So arrow
mark is towards the base for PNP transistor. Similarly for NPN transistor, it
is away.

DC Emitter Current is represented as IE Base Current as IB and Collector

Current as IC.

 These currents are assumed to be positive when the currents flow into the
transistor. VEB refers to Emitter - Base Voltage.

Emitter (E) Voltage being measured with reference to base B. Similarly VCB
and VCE
 Device Structure and Physical Operation
Simplified Structure and Modes of Operation

A simplified structure of the npn

transistor. A simplified structure of
the pnp transistor.
 Structure of BJT Transistor
A transistor consists of two pn junctions formed by sandwiching either p-type
or n-type semiconductor between a pair of opposite types.

Accordingly there are two types of transistors, namely;

i. n-p-n transistor
ii. p-n-p transistor
An n-p-n transistor is composed of two n-type semiconductors separated by a
thin section of p type .

However, a p-n-p transistor is formed by two p-sections separated by a thin

section of n-type.
 Modes of operation
A terminal is connected to each of the three semiconductor regions of the
transistor, with the terminals labeled as:
 Emitter (E),
 Base (B), and
 Collector (C).
The charge carriers of both polarities that is, electrons and holes
participate in the current-conduction process in a bipolar transistor, which
is the reason for the name bipolar.
The emitter is heavily doped so that it can inject a large number of charge
carriers (electrons or holes) into the base. The base is lightly doped and very
thin ; it passes most of the emitter injected charge carriers to the collector. The
collector is moderately doped.
 A BJT can operate in four distinct modes, depending on the biasing of the
emitter-base (VBE) and collector-base (VCB) junctions:
i. Cutoff Mode
ii. Active Mode
iii. Saturation Mode
iv. Reverse-Active Mode

i. Cut-off
 Biasing Conditions:
 Emitter-Base Junction (EBJ): Reverse-biased
 Collector-Base Junction (CBJ): Reverse-biased
Characteristics:
 The BJT behaves like an open switch.
 No significant current flows through the collector-emitter path.
Applications:
 Used in digital circuits to represent the OFF state.
 Useful in power-saving modes in various electronic devices.
ii.Active Mode
 Biasing Conditions:
 Emitter-Base Junction (EBJ): Forward-biased
 Collector-Base Junction (CBJ): Reverse-biased
 Characteristics:
 The BJT acts as a current amplifier.
 The relationship between IC and IB is linear.
  VCE is relatively high.
Applications:
Used in analog circuits for signal amplification.
Found in audio amplifiers, radio frequency amplifiers, and sensor
circuits.
iii.Saturation Mode
Biasing Conditions:
Emitter-Base Junction (EBJ): Forward-biased
Collector-Base Junction (CBJ): Forward-biased
Characteristics:
The BJT behaves like a closed switch.
VCE is very low, close to 0V.
Both IC and IE are high.
Applications:
 Used in digital circuits to represent the ON state.
 Found in switching applications, such as power regulators and motor
drivers.
iv.Reverse-Active Mode (Inverse Active Mode)
Biasing Conditions:
 Emitter-Base Junction (EBJ): Reverse-biased
 Collector-Base Junction (CBJ): Forward-biased
Characteristics:
 The BJT operates with reversed roles of the emitter and collector.
 Performance is poor due to the different doping levels of the emitter and
collector.
 Operation of the NPN Transistor in the Active Mode
 Of the three modes of operation of the BJT, the active mode is the most
important. Therefore, we begin our study of the BJT by considering its
physical operation in the active mode.
Two external voltage sources (shown as batteries) are used to establish the
required bias conditions for active-mode operation.

The voltage VBE causes the p-type base to be higher in potential than the n-
type emitter, thus forward biasing the emitter–base junction.

The collector–base voltage VCB causes the n-type collector to be at a higher

potential than the p-type base, thus reverse biasing the collector–base
junction.

Applying Kirchhoff’s current law to the above figure as if it were a single

node, we obtain: iE = iC+iB
The Emitter Current
Since the current that enters a transistor must leave it, then the emitter
current iE is equal to the sum of the collector current iC and the base current
iB; that is,

iE = iC+iB
Transistor Configuration
There are three leads in a transistor, emitter, base and collector terminals.
However, when a transistor is to be connected in a circuit, we require four
terminals; two for the input and two for the output.
This difficulty is overcome by making one terminal of the transistor
common to both input and output terminals.
 The input is fed between this common terminal and one of the other two
terminals.
 The output is obtained between the common terminal and the remaining
terminal.
Accordingly; a transistor can be connected in a circuit in the following three
ways :
(i) Common base configuration

(ii) Common emitter configuration

(iii) Common collector configuration

Each circuit configuration has specific advantages and disadvantages.

It may be noted here that regardless of circuit connection, the emitter is
always biased in the forward direction, while the collector always has a
reverse bias.
i. Common Base Configuration
In this circuit arrangement, input is applied between emitter and base and
output is taken from collector and base as shown,

 Here, base of the transistor is common to both input and output circuits and
hence the name common base configuration.
 Figure (i), a common base npn transistor circuit is shown whereas
 Figure (ii), shows the common base pnp transistor circuit.
If only D.C. values are considered, then it is clear that current amplification
factor is less than unity.
This value can be increased (but not more than unity) by decreasing the
base current.
This is achieved by making the base thin and doping it lightly.
Practical values of α in commercial transistors range from 0.9 to 0.99.
Expression for collector current

The whole of emitter current does not reach the collector.

It is because a small percentage of it, as a result of electron-hole

combinations occurring in base area, gives rise to base current.
Moreover, as the collector-base junction is reverse biased, therefore, some
leakage current flows due to minority carriers.
 It follows, therefore, that total collector current consists of :
(i) That part of emitter current which reaches the collector terminal i.e. α IE.
(ii) The leakage current I leakage.
This current is due to the movement of minority carriers across base-
collector junction on account of it being reverse biased.

 This is generally much smaller than α IE.

It is clear that if IE = 0 (i.e., emitter circuit is open), a small leakage

current still flows in the collector circuit.

This small leakage current I leakage is abbreviated as ICBO, meaning

collector-base current with emitter open.

The ICBO is indicated in Figure.

Example1.
 In a common base connection, the emitter current is 1mA. If the emitter
circuit is open, the collector current is 50 μA. Find the total collector current.
Given that α = 0.92.
Example 2. For the common base circuit shown below , determine IC and VCB.
Assume the transistor to be of silicon.
Solution. Since the transistor is of silicon, VBE = 0.7V. Applying Kirchhoff’s
voltage law to the emitter-side loop,

we get,
 Characteristics of Common Base Configuration

The complete electrical behavior of a transistor can be described by stating the

interrelation of the various currents and voltages.

 These relationships can be conveniently displayed graphically and the curves

thus obtained are known as the characteristics of transistor.

The most important characteristics of common base connection are input

characteristics and output characteristics.

 Input characteristic.
 It is the curve between emitter current IE and emitter-base voltage VEB at
constant collector-base voltage VCB.
 Graph shows the input characteristics of a typical transistor in CB
arrangement .
The following points may be noted from these characteristics
(i) The emitter current IE increases rapidly with small increase in emitter-base
voltage VEB.
 It means that input resistance is very small.
(ii) The emitter current is almost independent of collector-base voltage VCB.
 This leads to the conclusion that emitter current (and hence
collector current) is almost independent of collector voltage.
Output characteristic.
It is the curve between collector current IC and collector-base voltage VCB
at constant emitter current IE.

Figure shows the output characteristics of a typical transistor in CB arrangement.

The following points may be noted from the characteristics
(i) The collector current IC varies with VCB only at very low voltages (< 1V).
The transistor is never operated in this region as an amplifier.

(ii) When the value of VCB is raised above 1 - 2 V, the collector current becomes
constant as indicated by straight horizontal curves.

It means that now IC is independent of VCB and depends upon IE only.

This is consistent with the theory that the emitter current flows almost entirely
to the collector terminal.
The transistor is always operated in this region as an amplifier.
(iii) A very large change in collector-base voltage produces only a
tiny change in collector current.

This means that output resistance is very high.

ii.Common Emitter Configuration

In this circuit arrangement, input is applied between base and emitter
and output is taken from the collector and emitter.

Here, emitter of the transistor is common to both input and output

circuits and hence the name common emitter Configuration.

Figure (i) shows common emitter npn transistor circuit whereas

Figure (ii) shows common emitter pnp transistor circuit on the next
slide.
Base current amplification factor ( β).
 In common emitter configuration, input current is IB and output current is
IC.
 The ratio of change in collector current (ΔIC) to the change in base current
(ΔIB) is known as base current amplification factor i.e.
  Relation between β and α
A simple relation exists between β and α. This can be derived as follows
Expression for collector current.
In common emitter circuit, IB is the input current and IC is the output current.
 Concept of ICEO.
 In CE configuration, a small collector current flows even when the base
current is zero as shown in figure
 (i). This is the collector cut off current (i.e. the collector current that flows
when base is open) and is denoted by ICEO.
 The value of ICEO is much larger than ICBO. When the base voltage is
applied as shown in Figure(ii), then the various currents are :
Example 1.For a transistor, β = 45 and voltage drop across 1kΩ which is
connected in the collector circuit is 1-volt.Find the base current for common
emitter Configuration.

Solution. Figure shows the required common emitter Configuration.The voltage

drop across RC (= 1 kΩ) is 1volt
Example 2
 An n-p-n transistor at room temperature has its emitter disconnected. A
voltage of 5V is applied between collector and base. With collector positive, a
current of 0.2 μA flows. When the base is disconnected and the same voltage
is applied between collector and emitter, the current is found to be 20 μA.
Find α, IE and IB when collector current is 1mA.
 When the emitter circuit is open the collector-base junction is reverse biased. A
small leakage current ICBO flows due to minority carriers.∴ ICBO = 0.2 μA
 When base is open a small leakage current ICEO flows due to minority carriers.
  Characteristics of Common Emitter Configuration
 The important characteristics of this circuit arrangement are the input
characteristics and output characteristics.

 The input characteristics of a CE Configuration can be determined by the

circuit shown by Keeping VCE constant (say at 10 V), note the base current
IB for various values of VBE
 Input characteristic
 It is the curve between base current IB and base-emitter voltage VBE at
constant collector-emitter voltage VCE.
Then plot the readings obtained on the graph, taking IB along y-axis and VBE
along x-axis. This gives the input characteristic at VCE = 10V.

.
 The following points may be noted from the characteristics
I. The characteristic resembles that of a forward biased diode curve. This
is expected since the base-emitter section of transistor is a diode and it is
forward biased.
II. As compared to CB arrangement, IB increases less rapidly with VBE.
Therefore, input resistance of a CE circuit is higher than that of CB
circuit.
 Input resistance. It is the ratio of change in base-emitter voltage (ΔVBE)
to the change in base current (ΔIB) at constant VCE.
 Output characteristic.
 It is the curve between collector current IC and collector-emitter voltage
VCE at constant base current IB.
The following points may be noted from the characteristics
The collector current IC varies with VCE for VCE between 0 and 1V only.
After this, collector current becomes almost constant and independent of VCE.
This value of VCE up to which collector current IC changes with VCE is
called the knee voltage (Vknee). The transistors are always operated in the
region above knee voltage.
 Above knee voltage, IC is almost constant. However, a small increase in IC

with increasing VCE is caused by the collector depletion layer getting wider an
capturing a few more majority carriers before electron-hole combinations occur
in the base area.

 For any value of VCE above knee voltage, the collector current IC is
approximately equal to β × IB.
Output resistance. It is the ratio of change in collector-emitter voltage
(ΔVCE) to the change in collector current (ΔIC) at constant IB i.e.
iii,Common Collector Configuration
In this circuit arrangement, input is applied between base and collector while
output is taken between the emitter and collector. Here, collector of the
transistor is common to both input and output circuits and hence the name
common collector Configuration.
Figure(i) shows common collector npn transistor circuit whereas
Figure(ii) shows common collector pnp circuit.
 Comparison of Transistor Configuration
 The comparison of various characteristics of the three Configuration is given
below in the tabular form.
 The following points are worth about transistor arrangements
1.Common base Circuit.
 The input resistance (ri) of CB circuit is low because IE is high.
 The output resistance (ro) is high because of reverse voltage at the collector.
 It has no current gain (α < 1) but voltage gain can be high.
 The CB circuit is seldom used.
 The only advantage of CB circuit is that it provides good stability against
increase in temperature.
2.Common Emitter Circuit.
 The input resistance (ri) of a CE circuit is high because of small IB.
 Therefore, ri for a CE circuit is much higher than that of CB circuit.
 The output resistance (ro) of CE circuit is smaller than that of CB circuit.
  The current gain of CE circuit is large because IC is much larger than IB.
 The voltage gain of CE circuit is larger than that of CB circuit.
 The CE circuit is generally used because it has the best combination of
voltage gain and current gain.
 The disadvantage of CE circuit is that the leakage current is amplified in the
circuit, but bias stabilization methods can be used.
3.Common collector Circuit.
 The input resistance (ri) and output resistance (ro) of CC circuit are
respectively high and low as compared to other circuits.
 There is no voltage gain (Av < 1) in a CC circuit.
 This circuit is often used for impedance matching
 Commonly Used Transistor Connection
Out of the three transistor connections, the common emitter circuit is the most
efficient.
It is used in about 90 to 95 per cent of all transistor applications. The main
reasons for the widespread use of this circuit arrangement are
1. High current gain.
In a common emitter connection, IC is the output current and IB is the input
current. In this circuit arrangement, collector current is given by
IC = β IB + ICEO
As the value of β is very large, therefore, the output current IC is much more
than the input current IB. Hence, the current gain in CE arrangement is very
high. It may range from 20 to 500.
2.High voltage and power gain.
Due to high current gain, the common emitter circuit has the highest voltage
and power gain of three transistor configurations. This is the major reason
for using the transistor in this circuit arrangement.
3. Moderate output to input impedance ratio.
In a common emitter circuit, the ratio of output impedance to input
impedance is small (about 50). This makes this circuit arrangement an ideal
one for coupling between various transistor stages. However, in other
configurations, the ratio of output impedance to input impedance is very large
and hence coupling becomes highly inefficient due to gross mismatching.
 Transistor Load Line Analysis
In the transistor circuit analysis, it is generally required to determine the
collector current for various collector-emitter voltages.
One of the methods can be used to plot the output characteristics and
determine the collector current at any desired collector-emitter voltage.
 However, a more convenient method, known as load line method can be
used to solve such problems.
DC load line
 Consider a common emitter npn transistor circuit shown in Figure(i) where
no signal is applied. Therefore, d.c. conditions prevail in the circuit.
The output characteristics of this circuit are shown in Figure(ii).
The value of collector-emitter voltage VCE at any time is given by
VCE = VCC – IC RC

(i) When the collector current IC = 0, then collector-emitter voltage is

maximum and is equal to VCC i.e.

Max. VCE = VCC – IC RC

= VCC (at IC = 0)

This gives the first point B (OB = VCC) on the collector-emitter

voltage axis as shown in Figure (ii)the previous slide.
(ii) When collector-emitter voltage VCE = 0, the collector current is maximum
and is equal to VCC /RC

 This gives the second point A (OA = VCC /RC) on the collector current axis
as shown in Figure(ii).
 By joining these two points, d.c. load line AB is constructed.
 Why load line ? The resistance RC connected to the device is called load or
load resistance for the circuit and, therefore, the line we have just constructed
is called the load line.
 Operating Point
The zero signal values of IC and VCE are known as the operating point.
It is called operating point because the variations of IC and VCE take place
about this point when signal is applied. It is also called quiescent (silent)
point or Q-point because it is the point on IC−VCE characteristic when the
transistor is silent i.e. in the absence of the signal.

Referring to Figure for IB = 5 μA,

the zero signal values are
VCE = OC volts
IC = OD mA
 It follows, therefore, that the zero signal values of IC and VCE (i.e. operating
point) are determined by the point where d.c. load line intersects the proper
base current curve.
Example: Determine the Q point of the transistor circuit shown below. Also
draw the d.c. load line. Given β = 200 and VBE = 0.7V.
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to base-emitter loop, we have,

 Therefore, the Q-point is IC = 39.6 mA and VCE = 6.93V.

D.C. load line. In order to draw the d.c. load line, we need two end points.
 VCE = VCC – IC RC
When IC = 0, VCE = VCC = 20V. This locates the point B of the load line on
the collector-emitter voltage axis as shown in the next Figure.
When VCE = 0, IC = VCC/RC = 20V/330Ω = 60.6 mA.
This locates the point A of the load line on the collector current axis. By
joining these two points, d.c. load line AB is constructed as shown in Figure
Exercise
 Determine the Q point of the transistor circuit shown below. Also draw the
D.C. load line. Given β = 100 and VBE = 0.7V.
 Purpose of biasing the BJT and methods
 Biasing is the process of setting a transistors’ DC operating voltage or
current to ensure proper functioning.
 It allows the transistor to amplify signals without distortion.
 Biasing a Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) is essential to establish the
correct operating point or quiescent point (Q-point) in its various
applications.
 The primary goals of biasing
1. Stability:
 Thermal Stability: Ensures the transistor operates consistently despite of
temperature changes.
 Bias Stability: Maintains a steady operating point (Q-point) regardless of
variations in transistor parameters.
 Stabilization
The collector current in a transistor changes rapidly when
i. The temperature changes,
ii. The transistor is replaced by another of the same type. This is due to
the inherent variations of transistor parameters.

When the temperature changes or the transistor is replaced, the operating point
(i.e. zero signal IC and VCE) also changes.

 However, for faithful amplification, it is essential that operating point

remains fixed.This requires to make the operating point independent of these
variations. This is known as stabilization.
Need for stabilisation.
Stabilisation of the operating point is necessary due to the following reasons
(i) Temperature dependence of IC
(ii) Individual variations
(iii) Thermal runaway
i. Temperature dependence of IC.
 The collector current (IC) for Common emitter circuit is given by:
IC = βIB + ICEO
= βIB + (β+ 1) ICBO
The collector leakage current ICBO is greatly influenced by temperature
changes. A rise of 10°C doubles the collector leakage current which may be
as high as 0.2 mA for low powered germanium transistors.
This requires to stabilise the operating point i.e. to hold IC constant inspite of
temperature variations

ii.Individual variations.
The value of β and VBE are not exactly the same for any two transistors even
of the same type. Further, VBE itself decreases when temperature increases.

 When a transistor is replaced by another of the same type, these variations

change the operating point.

This requires to stabilise the operating point i.e. to hold IC constant

irrespective of individual variations in transistor parameters.
iii .Thermal runaway.

The collector current for a common emitter (CE) configuration is given by

IC = βIB + (β+ 1) ICBO

The collector leakage current ICBO is strongly dependent on temperature.

The flow of collector current produces heat within the transistor. This raises the
transistor temperature and if no stabilisation is done, the collector leakage
current ICBO also increases.
The collector current IC increases by (β+ 1) ICBO.

 This effect is cumulative and in a matter of seconds, the collector current may
become very large, causing the transistor to burn out.
The self-destruction of an unstabilised transistor is known as thermal
runaway.
In order to avoid thermal runaway and consequent destruction of transistor, it
is very essential that operating point is stabilised i.e. IC is kept constant.
2.Preventing Cut-off and Saturation:
 Proper biasing keeps the transistor in the active region, preventing it from
moving into cut off (off state) or saturation (full ON state) during
operation.
3.Signal Amplification:
 Biasing sets the stage for signal amplification, allowing the transistor to
function effectively in amplifying AC signal.
4. Linear Operation:
 Ensures the transistor operates linearly over a range of input signals,
minimizing distortion and ensuring faithful reproduction of the input.
 Methods of Transistor Biasing
 The following are the most commonly used methods of obtaining transistor
biasing from one source of supply (i.e. VCC )
1. Fixed-bias(Base resistor) method
2. Emitter bias method
3. Biasing with collector-feedback resistor
4. Voltage-divider bias
1.Base Resistor Method
 In this method, a high resistance
RB is connected between
 The base and +ve end of supply
for npn transistor and
 The base and -ve end of supply
for pnp transistor.
Stability factor
 Advantages
1.The circuit is simple.
2.Only one resistor RB is required.
3.Biasing conditions are set easily.
4.No loading effect as no resistor is present at base-emitter junction.
 Disadvantages
1.The stabilization is poor as heat development can’t be stopped.
2.The stability factor is very high. So, there are strong chances of thermal run
away.
Example 1. Figure shows biasing with base resistor method.
i. Determine the collector current IC and collector-emitter voltage VCE.
Neglect small base-emitter voltage. Given that β = 50.
ii. If RB in this circuit is changed to 50 kΩ, find the new operating point.

Solution.
 Referring to second circuit and applying Kirchhoff ’s voltage law to the
circuit ABEN, we get:
 When IC = 0, VCE = VCC = 6 V.
 This locates the first point B (OB = 6V) of the load line on
collector-emitter voltage axis as shown
 When VCE = 0, IC = VCC/RC = 6V/2 kΩ = 3 mA.
 This locates the second point A (OA = 3mA) of the load line on the
collector current axis.
 By joining points A and B, d.c. load line AB is constructed
 Operating point Q. As it is a silicon transistor, therefore, VBE =
0.7V.
2. Emitter Bias Circuit
 This circuit differs from base-bias circuit in two important respects.
 First, it uses two separate d.c. voltage sources ; one positive (+ VCC) and
the other negative (– VEE). Normally, the two supply voltages will be
equal. For example, if VCC = + 20V (d.c.), then VEE = – 20V (d.c.).
 Secondly, there is a resistor RE in the emitter circuit.
 Stability of Emitter bias.
 The expression for collector current IC for the emitter bias circuit is given by

 It is clear that IC is dependent on VBE and β, both of which change with

temperature.If RE >> RB/β, then expression for IC becomes
Example 4 Determine the quiescent levels of ICQ and VCEQ for the network
of Figure shown below:
Example 5, For the emitter bias network of shown below determine: IB, IC,
VCE, VC,VE,VB,and VBC.
Example : Calculate the Q-point values (IC and VCE) for this circuit.
Solution:
4.Voltage-divider bias
 The voltage-divider bias circuit is
shown in Figure below. In this
figure,VCC is used as the single
bias source.
 A dc bias voltage at the base of the
transistor can be developed by a
resistive voltage divider consisting
of R1 and R2.
 There are two current paths
between point A and ground: one
through R2 and the other through
the base-emitter junction of the
transistor and RE.
 Thevenin’s Theorem Applied to Voltage-Divider Bias:
 Replace the original circuit of voltage-divider bias circuit shown in Figure
(a) with the thevenin equivalent circuit shown in Figure (b).
 Apply Thevenin’s theorem to the circuit left of point A, with VCC replaced
by a short to ground and the transistor disconnected from the circuit.
The voltage at point A with respect to ground is

and the resistance is

Figure Thevenizing the bias circuit.
END OF CHAPTER -5
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