PHY101–GENERALPHYSI

CSI
(
MECHANICS)

2016/
17SESSI
ON

Aj
i
boy
e,Y.
,BadmusO.
G.,
&Al
ao
O.A
Cour
seOut l
ine
• Measur ementi nPhysi
cs
• SpaceandTi me
• UnitsandDi mension
• Kinemat ics
• Fundament alLawsofMechani
cs
• Stati
csandDy namics
• Wor kandEner gy
• Conserv ati
onl aws

WORKPLAN
Week1
Week2
Week3
Week4
Week5
Week6
Week7
Week8
Week9
Week10
Week11
Week13
Week14
Week15 REVI
SION

Page1of2
1.
0 MEASUREMENT

Physics is a sci
ence based upon exactmeasurementofphy sicalquanti
ti
es.
Thereforeitis essent
ialthatstudentf i
rstbecomes fami
li
arwitht he v
ari
ous
methods ofmeasur ementand t he unit
si n which t
hese measurements are
expressed.

Auniti
sav al
uequanti
tyormagni
tudei
nter
msofwhi
chot
herv
alues,
quant
it
iesor
magnit
udesareexpr
essed.

1.
1 FUNDAMENTALQUANTI
TIESANDUNI
TS

Af undament alquanti
tyal
soknownasbasequant it
yisaquantit
ywhi chcannotbe
expressed int erms ofany ot herphy si
calquantit
y.The unitsi n whi
ch the
fundament alquanti
ti
esaremeasur edarecalledfundamentalunit
s.Inmechanics
(studyoftheef f
ectsofext
ernal
forcesonbodiesatrestorinmotion),
thequanti
ti
es
l
engt h,massandt imearechosenasf undamental
quantit
ies.

Fundamental Fundamental Uni

tSy
mbol
Quanti
ty Unit
Lengt
h Meter m
Mass Kil
ogram kg
Ti
me Second S

1.
2 SYSTEM OFUNI
TS

Thefol
l
owingsystemsofunitshav ebeeninuse–
(i
) TheFr enchorC.G.S( Cent
imeter,
Gr amme, Second)Sy
stem;
(i
i
) TheBr it
ishorF.P.S(Foot,
Pound, Second)System;
(i
i
i) TheM.K.S(Met r
e,Kil
ogram,Second)Sy stem;and
(i
v) TheS.I
.(Int
ernati
onalSystem ofUnits)
.

1.
3 THEI
NTERNATI
ONALSYSTEM OFUNI
TS(
S.I
.)

TheS.I
.ist
helat
estversi
onoft
hesy stem ofuni
tsandonl
ysystem l
i
kelytobeused
al
lovertheworl
d.Thissyst
em consistsofsevenbaseorfundamentaluni
tsfr
om

Page2of3
PHY 101-Mechani csPHY 101– Mechani csPHY 101– Mechani csPHY 101–
MechanicsPHY 101 – Mechani csPHY 101 – Mechani csPHY 101 –
MechanicsPHY 101 – Mechani csPHY 101 – Mechani csPHY 101 –
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1 0re,
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cpsowePr.
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c sl
Put
ion: 101 – Mechani
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a i
me
nicn s
si
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(a)Dimensi onofVel ocity= = =[ LT-1]
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cs
me nP
siHY
onoft 1
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me T]Mechani csPHY 101 –
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mens 1i
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onosPfHY
mass 1×0D1i
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nsi Me
on ofcah
c an
celi
c
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aP
tiHY
on 101 –
MechanicsPHY =[M]1
×[0
L1
T ]=
-
2 –[MLMeTc
-2
]hani csPHY 101 - Mechani cs PHY 101 –
MechanicsPHY 101 – Mechani csPHY 101 – Mechani csPHY 101 –
MechanicsPHY 101 – Mechani csPHY 101 – Mechani csPHY 101 –
MechanicsPHY 101 – Mechani csPHY 101 – Mechani csPHY Pa 103o
ge 1f4–
MechanicsPHY 101 – Mechani csPHY 101 – Mechani csPHY 101 –
MechanicsPHY 101 – Mechani csPHY 101 – Mechani csPHY 101 –
MechanicsPHY 101 – Mechani csPHY 101 - Mechani cs PHY 101 –
 Dimensi ce [
onofFor MLT-2]
(
d)Di
mensi
onofPr
essur
e= = =[
ML-1T-2]
Di
mensi
onofArea [
L]
2

St
udent
stoat
tempt(
e)and(
f).

Example2:Deducethedimensi
onalf
ormul
afor(
a)modul
usofel
ast
ici
ty(
Ƴ),
and(
b)
coef
fi
cientofv
iscosi
ty(
η).

Solut
ion:
Stress For ce Area
(a)Ƴ= =
St
rain Changei
nl engt h Ori
ginall
engt
h
Di
mensi
onoffor ce×Dimensionofl h [
engt MLT-2]
×[L]
= = =[
ML-1T-2]
Di
mensi
onofAr ea×Di mensionoflengt
h [
L]
2
×[
L]

(
b)t
hecoef
fi
cientofv
iscosi
ty(
η)ofal
i
qui
disdef
inedast
angent
ial
for
cer
equi
red
peruni
tareat
omai ntai nunitvel
ocitygradi
entbet weent wolayer
soft
he
li
qui
dunit
di
stanceapart
.
F 1
η=
A(dV dx)
Dimensi onofFor ce×Dimensi onofdistance
Di
mensionofη=
dimensi onofArea×Di mensi onofVelocit
y
[
MLT ]
-2
×[L] [MLT ]
2 -2
= 2 1 = 1 =[ ML-1T-1]
[L]×[LT ] [
-
LT ]
3 -

1.
4 USESOFDI
MENSI
ONALEQUATI
ONS

a) Tocheckt
( hehomogeneityofader i
vedphy
sicalequat
ion(
i.
e.t
ocheckt
he
cor
rect
nessofaphy
sicalequat
ion)
.

Example3:
Showthatthefol
l
owingrelati
onfort
heti
meper i
odofabodyexecuti
ngsimple
harmonicmoti
oniscor
rect.
l
T=2π
g
wherelandgarethedi
splacementandaccel
erat
ionduet
ogravi
tyrespect
ivel
y.

Page4of5
 Sol
uti
on:

Fort her el
ati
onto becorr
ect,t
hedi mensionofL. H.S mustbeequalto
di
mensi onofR.H.S
Di
mensionofL.
H. S=M0L0T1orT
12
[Di
mensionofl] [
L]12
[
L]12
Dimensi
onofR.
H.S= 12= 12= 12 -
[
Dimensionofg] [LT-2] [
L] T1
1
= -1 =T
T
SinceDimensionofL.H.
S=Di mensi
onofR. H.S,therelati
onisdimensi
onal
l
y
correct
.

b) Toder
( ivear
elat
ionshi
pbet
weendi
ff
erentphy
sicalquant
it
ies.

Exampl e4:
I
fthef requencyfofastret
chedstringdependsuponthel engt
hlofthest
ri
ng,
thet ensi
onT i nthestri
ngandt hemassperuni tlengthλoft hest
ri
ng.
Establi
shar el
ati
onfort
hefrequencyusingtheconceptofdimension.

Sol
uti
on:
x yz
f∝lTλ … (1)
x yz
f=klTλ … ( 2)
x y z
[
Dimensi ]=[
onoff Dimensi onofl ]×[ Dimensi onofT]×[ Di onofλ]
mensi
y
[
M0L0T-1]=[L] x
×[MLT-2]×[ ML-1]
z

y
+z x+y
[M] [
L][
0 0 -
T]1
=[ M] [L] -z[ -
T]2y

Equat i
ngt hepower s
y+z=0 … ( 3)
x+y- z=0 … ( 4)
-
2y=- 1 … ( 5)
1
fr
om equation( 5), y= … ( 6)
2
substi
tuting( 6)into(3),wehav e
1
+z=0
2
1
z=- … ( 7)
2
substitutng(
i 6)and( 7)i nto( 4)

Page5of6
 ()
1 1
x+ -- =0
2 2
x=-1 … ( 8)
subst
it
utng(
i 6)(
,7)and(8)into(2)
,wehav
e
1 12 -
- 12
f=klT λ
1T
f=k …(*)
lλ
Equat
ion(*)i
st her
equi
redrel
ati
on.

c) Toder
( ivet
heuni
tofaPhy
sicalQuant
it
y

Exampl
e5:

Thevi
scousdragFbetweentwolayer
sofliqui
dwithsurf
aceareaofcont
actA
i
naregionofvel
oci
tygradi
entdvdxisgivenby
F=ηAdvdx
wher
eηisthecoeff
ici
entofvi
scosi
tyoft
hel i
qui
d.Obtai
ntheunitf
orη.

Sol
uti
on:

F=ηAdvdx
Makingηthesubj ectoft hef or
mul a
F 1
η=
Advdx
Dimensionoffor ce= [ MLT-2]
Dimensi
onofsur facear ea=[ L2]
Dimensionofv elocity=[ LT-1]
Dimensi
onofdi spl acement=[ L]
Di
[MLT ]
-
2
[
L] MLT 2 -
2
onofη= 2 -1 = 3 -1 =ML-1T-1
mensi
[
L][LT ] LT
∴Unitofη=kgm-1s-1

1.
5 LI
MITATI
ONSOFDI
MENSI
ONALANALYSI
S

(
i) Themet
hoddoesnotpr
ovi
deanyi
nfor
mat
ionaboutt
hemagni
tudeof

Page6of7
 dimensionlessv ari
ablesanddimensionl
essconst ant
s.
(
ii
) Themet hodcannotbeusedi fthequantit
iesdependuponmorethant
hree-
dimensional quantit
ies:M,
LandT.
(
ii
i) Themet hodi snotappl i
cableifther el
ationshi
pinvol
vest
ri
gonometri
c,
exponentialandl ogari
thmicfunct
ions.

EXERCISE
1)Show ont hebasisofdi mensi onalanalysi
st hatthefollowingr el
ati
onsar e
corr
ect:
2 2
a.v- u =2aS,wher eui st he ini
tialvel
ocity,visf inalveloci
ty,a i s
accel
erati
onofthebodyandSi sthedistancemov ed.
b.ρ=3g 4r G whereρ i sthe densi ty ofearth,G i st he gravi
tational
constant
,ristheradiusoftheearthandgi saccel
erat i
onduet ograv i
ty.
2)Thespeedofsoundvi namedi um dependsoni tswav elengthλ,they oung
modulusE,andt hedensityρ,oft hemedi um.Uset hemet hodofdi mensi onal
anal
ysistoder i
veaf ormul afort hespeedofsoundi namedi um.(Unitf or
-
1 -2
YoungModul usE: kgm s)
2.
0 VECTORS

Phy
sical
quant
it
iescangener
all
ybecl
assi
fi
edas(
i)Scal
arsand(
ii
)Vect
ors.

Scalar
sar ephysicalquant
iti
eswhi chpossessonl ymagnit
udeandnodir
ecti
onin
space.Examplesar emass,ti
me, t
emper at
ure,vol
ume,speedet
c.Ontheot
herhand,
Vectorsarephysicalquanti
ti
eswhi chhavebothmagni t
udeanddir
ecti
oninspace.
Examplesareforce,vel
ocit
y,accel
erati
on,etc.

2.
1 RESOLUTI
ONOFVECTORS

Page7of8
Atwodi mensionalvectorcanber epr
esentedast hesum oftwov ector
s.Consi
der
⃗
fi
gur
eAabov e,t
hev orA canbeexpr
ect essedas
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ̂ ̂
A =Ax+ AyorA =Ax i+Ay j … 2.1
⃗ ⃗ ⃗̂ ̂
Vect
ors Ax and Ay arecalledvectorcomponent sofA.iandj ar eunitvect
ors
al
ongt hexaxi sandyaxi srespecti
vel
y.A uni tvect
orisav ectorthathasa
magnit
udeofexact l
y1andspeci fyaparti
culardi
rect
ion.

⃗
Letθbet
heangl
ewhi
cht
hev orA makeswi
ect tht
heposi
ti
vex-
axi
s,t
henwehav
e

Ax=AcosθandAy=Asinθ … 2. 2

Magni
tudeofv
ect
⃗
||
orA= A =A= A2
x
+A2
y … 2.
3
Ay
tanθ= … 2.4
Ax

⃗
I
nthreedi
mensi
ons,av orAcanbeexpr
ect essedas
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂
A =Ax+ Ay+ AzorA =Ax i+Ay j+Azk … 2.
5
Her
e, t
hemagni
tudei
sexpressedas
⃗
||
A =A= A2 x
+A2
y+A2z
… 2.
6

Page8of9
2.
2 ADDI
TION/
SUBTRACTI
ONOFVECTORSBYCOMPONENTS

Exampl
e:
I
⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ ⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂
fA =2i+3j+4kand B = i+4j+5k.Fi
ndt
hemagni
t
⃗ ⃗
udeof A+B and ( )
( )
⃗⃗
A-B.

Sol
uti
on:
(⃗A+⃗B)=(2̂i+3̂j+4̂k)+(̂i+4̂j+5̂k)=3̂i+7̂j+9̂k
(⃗A-⃗B)=(2̂i+3̂j+4̂k)(
- i+4j+5k)= i-j-k
̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂

Hencet
hei
rmagni
tudeswi
l
lbe
| |
⃗ ⃗
A+B = (
3)2
+(
7)2
+(9)
2
= 139
| |
⃗⃗
A-B=(1)2
+(
-1)2
+(1)
- 2
=3

2.
3 MULTI
PLI
CATI
ONOFVECTORS

(
i) DotPr
oductorScal
arPr
oduct

Thescal
arproductoftwov ect
orsi
sdefi
nedast heproductofthemagni
tude
oft
wov ect
orsandthecosineofthesmal
lerangl
ebetweent hem.
⃗⃗ ⃗ ⃗
A. | || |
B = A B cosθ=ABcosθ=S
whereSi
sascalarquanti
ty.

Exampl
e:
⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂
Fi
nd t he angle between t he two v ect
ors A =3i+4j+5k an
⃗ ̂ ̂
B =3i+4j-
̂
5k.
Sol
uti
on:
⃗⃗ ⃗ ⃗
A. | || |
B = A B cosθ
⃗⃗
A. B =AxBx+AyBy+AzBz=3×3+4×4+5(5)=0
-

Page9of10
 |⃗A|= 3+4+5 = 50
2 2 2

|⃗B|= 3+4+(-5)= 50
2 2 2

⃗⃗
A.B 0
cosθ= = =0
| || |
⃗ ⃗
A B
o
50× 50
θ=90

(
ii
) Cr
ossPr
oductorVect
orpr
oduct

Thev ectorpr oductoftwov ectorsisdefi

nedasav ectorhavingamagni t
ude
equaltot hepr oductofthemagni tudesofthetwov ectorsandt hesineofthe
angle between t hem and i si nt he di
rect
ion per pendicul
art ot he pl
ane
⃗ ⃗
contai
ningt het wovectors.Thusi fA andB ar et wov ectors,
t henthei
rvector
⃗ ⃗ ⃗
product(orcr ossproduct),writenasA×B,
t i
sav ectorC def inedas
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
| || |
C =A×B = A B si nθn
whereθ ist he angle between t he two vectors and n i st he unitvector
⃗ ⃗
perpendicul
art otheplaneofv ectorsA andB.

Page10of11
3.
0 KI
NEMATI
CS

Kinemat
icsi
sthest
udyofthemot
ionofobj
ectswit
houtref
err
ingt
owhatcauses
themoti
on.Moti
oni
sachangei
nposi
ti
oni
nat i
meinter
val
.

3.
1 MOTI
ONI
NONEDI
MENSI
ON/
MOTI
ONALONGASTRAI
GHTLI
NE

Ast
raightl
i
nemotionorone-
dimensi
onal
moti
oncoul
deitherbev
ert
ical
(li
ket
hatof
af
all
ingbody)
,hor
izont
al,
orsl
anted,
buti
tmustbest
rai
ght.

3.
1.1POSI
TIONANDDI
SPLACEMENT

Thepositionofanobj ecti
nspaceisi t
slocati
onr elati
vetosomer eferencepoi
nt,
oftentheori
gin( orzeropoint
).Forexample,aparticlemightbelocatedatx=5m,
whi chmeanst hepositionoft
heparti
cleis5m inposi ti
vedir
ecti
onfrom theori
gin.
Meanwhi l
e,thedisplacementisthechangefrom oneposi t
ionx1toanotherposi
ti
on
x2.Iti
sgiv
enas
∆x=x2- x1 … ( 3.1)

3.
1.2AVERAGEVELOCI
TYANDAVERAGESPEED

Theaveragevel
ocit
yisther ati
ooft hedi spl
acement∆xt hatoccur
sdur i
nga
par
ti
cul
artimei
nter
val∆tt
othati nterval.Itisavectorquant
it
yandisexpressedas:
∆x x2- x1
v g= = …. ( 3.2)
av
∆t t -t
2 1
or
∆y y -y
2 1
v = = …. ( 3.2)
avg
∆t t -t
2 1

Theaver
agespeedistheratioofthetotaldi
stancecoveredbyapar
ti
cl
etot
het
ime.
I
tisascal
arandisexpressedas:
total
distance
Savg= … ( 3.3)
∆t

3.
1.3I
NSTANTANEOUSVELOCI
TYANDSPEED

Theinst
antaneousvel
oci
tydescr
ibeshowf
astapar
ti
cl
eismov
ingatagi
veni
nst
ant
.
I
tisexpressedas:

Page11of12
 ∆x dx
v= l
i
m = … ( 3.4)
∆t→0 ∆t d t
Speedist
hemagnitudeofi
nstant
aneousveloci
ty;t
hatis,
speedisvel
oci
tythathas
noindi
cat
ionofdir
ecti
oneit
herinwor dsorv i
aanalgebrai
csign.Forexample,a
vel
oci
tyof+5m/sor-5m/si
sassociat
edwithaspeedof5m/ s.

Example6:
3
Theposit
ionofaparti
clemovingonanxaxisi
sgivenbyx=7.8+9.2t-
2.1t,wi
thx
i
nmet er
sandti nseconds.Whatisi
tsv
eloci
tyatt=3.5s?I
sthev
eloci
tyconst
ant
,
orisi
tconti
nuousl
ychanging?

Sol
uti
on:
dx d(
7.8+9.2t
-2.
1t3
) 2
v= = =0+9. (
2-3)
( 1)
2. t
dt dt
2
v=9. 2- 3t
6. (*)

Att=3.
5s,
68m
v=9.2- 3(
6. 5)
3. 2
=-
s
nceeqn(
si *)invol
vest
,thev
eloci
tyvdependsont i
me(
t)andsoi
scont
inuousl
y
changi
ng.

3.
1.4ACCELERATI
ON

Whenapar ti
cle’
sv el
ocitychanges, theparti
cl eissaidtoundergoaccel
er at
ion.The
averageaccel erati
onaavgov erat imei nt
erval∆ti s
∆v v- v
aavg= = 2 1 … 3. 5
∆t t -
t
2 1
wher et hepar ti
clehasv elocit
yv 1
at t
ime t1
andthenv el
oci
tyv2
att
imet 2
.The
i
nst antaneousaccel erati
on( orsimpl yacceler ati
on)isthederi
vat
iveofvelocit
ywith
respectt oti
me:
dv
a= … 3. 6
dt
Equat i
on3.6canal sobewr it
tenas
a= (
d
dt
v)=()d dx d2x
= 2 … 3.
dtdt dt
7
I
nwor ds,theaccel er
ationofapar ticleatanyi nst
antisthesecondderi
v ati
veofits
positi
onx( t)withrespectt otime.
Page12of13
Example7:
3
Aparti
cle’sposit
ionont
hex-axi
sisgiv
enbyx=4-27t+t ,wi
thxi
nmet er
sandti
n
seconds.(a)findthepart
icl
e’
sv el
oci
tyf
unct
ionv
(t)andaccel
erat
iona(t
).(
b)I
s
ther
eev erati
mewhenv=0?

Sol
uti
on:
dx d
(
a) v= = ( 4-27t 3
+t)=- 2
27+3t
dt dt
dv d
a= = ( 27+3t
- 2
)=6t
dt dt
2
(
b) 0=-27+3t
2 2 7
t = =9
3
t=3s

3.
2 MOTI
ONI
NTWOANDTHREEDI
MENSI
ONS

Theconceptofposi
ti
on,vel
oci
tyandaccel
erat
ionf
ormoti
onal
ongast
rai
ghtl
i
nei
s
si
mil
artothattwoandthr
eedimensi
on,butmorecompl
ex.

3.
2.1Posi
ti
onandDi
spl
acement

⃗
Thepositi
onv ector r isusedtospeci
fytheposi
ti
onofapart
icl
einspace.I
tis
gener
all
yexpressedint heuni
tvect
ornot
ati
onas
⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂
r=xi+yj+zk … (
3.8)
̂ ̂ ̂ ⃗
wherexi,yjandzk ar ethevect
orcomponent
sof r,andt
hecoeff
ici
entsx,y
,
andzareitsscalarcomponents.

Page13of14
I
fapar
ti
clemovesfr
om poi
nt1topoint2dur
ingacertai
nti
meinter
val
,theposi
ti
on
⃗ ⃗
v
ect
orchangesf
rom r1t
o r2,t
henthepar
ti
cl
e’sdi
splacementi
s
⃗ ⃗ ⃗
∆ r= r2-r1 … (3.
9)

Exampl
e8:
⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂
Theposi
ti
onvect
orofapar
ti
clei
sini
ti
aly r1=(
l -3m)i+(2m)j+(5m)kandthen
⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ ⃗
l
at s r2=(
eri 9m)i+( 2m)j+( 8m)k.Whatist hepar
ti
cl
e’
sdi
spl
acement∆ r
⃗ ⃗
fom r1t
r o r2?

Sol
uti
on:
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂
∆ r= r2-r1=[
9-(
-3)
] i+[2-
2]j +[8-
5]k
⃗ ̂ ̂
∆ r=(
12m)i+( 3m)k

Example9:
Ar abbi
trunsacr ossaparki
nglot
.Thecoordi
natesoftherabbi
tasaf unct
ionof
2 2
ti
metar e:x=-0.3t+7.2t+28andy=0. 22t-9.
1t+30wi t
htinsecondsandxand
⃗
yinmet er
s.Att=15s, whati
stherabbi
t’
sposit
ionv orri
ect nuni
tvect
ornotati
on
andasamagni tudeandanangle?

Sol
uti
on:
Page14of15
 ⃗ ̂ ̂
r=xi+yj
Att=15s
x=- 0.3(15)2
+7. 2(15)+28=68. 5m
y=0. 22(15)-2
9.1( 15)+30=- 57m
⃗ ̂ ̂
∴ r=( 68.5m)i+( 57m)j
-
⃗
Themagnit
udeoftheposit
ionv ect orri s
2 2
r= x+y = ( 68. 5)2
+( 57)
- 2
=89.11m
⃗
eofri
Theangl s
θ=t
y
an-1 =t
x
an-1( )
-57
68.5
=- 39.
76
o

3.
2.1Av
erageVel
oci
tyandI
nst
ant
aneousVel
oci
ty

⃗
I
fapar t
icl
emov esthroughadi acement∆ r i
spl nati
mei
nterval∆t,then i
ts
⃗
aver
ageveloci
tyvavgi
s
⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂
⃗ ∆ r ∆xi+∆yj+∆zk ∆x̂ ∆ŷ ∆ẑ
vavg= = = i+ j+ k … 3.10
∆t ∆t ∆t ∆t ∆t

When we speak ofthe v

eloci
tyofa particl
e,we usual
lymean t
he par
ti
cl
e’
s
⃗
i
nst
antaneousvel
ociyv.I
t tisexpr
essedas
⃗
⃗ dr dx̂ dŷ dẑ ̂ ̂ ̂
v= = i+ j+ k=v i+ v j+v k … 3. 11
dt dt dt dt x y z

Exampl
e10:
⃗
Fi
ndthev
eloci
tyv att
imet=15soft
her
abbi
tinexampl
e9i
nuni
tvect
ornot
ati
on
andasamagnit
udeandangl
e.

Sol
uti
on:
Thecomponent
soft
hev
eloci
tyar
evx
andv
y

Page15of16
 dx d d
v = = ( x)= ( -0.3t2
+7.2t +28)=- 0.
6t+7. 2
x
dt dt dt
Att=15s, vx
=-0.6(15)+7. 2=- 1.8m/ s
dy d d
vy= = (y)= ( 0.22t 2
-9.1t+30)=0. 44t -
9.1
dt dt dt
Att=15s, v
y=0 .44(15) -9.1=- 2.5m/ s
⃗ ̂ ̂
v=v x
i + vyj
⃗ ̂ ̂
v=( -
1.8m/ s)i+( -2.5m/ s)j
⃗ 2 2
Magni
tudeofv=v= v +v = (
x y
-1.8)2
+(-2.5)2
=3.08m/
s

θ=tan-1 ()
v
v
y

x
=t ( )
an-1
-
-
2.
1.
5
8
=54. 25
o

3.
2.2Av
erageAccel
erat
ionandI
nst
ant
aneousAccel
erat
ion

⃗ ⃗
Theaverageacceler
ati
onisdefinedast hechangei
nvel
oci
tyf
rom v1 t
o v2 i
na
ti
meinterv
al∆t.I
tismathemati
callyexpr
essedas
⃗ ⃗ ⃗
⃗ v2-v1 ∆v
aavg= = … 3.12
∆t ∆t

⃗
Thei
nstantaneousaccel
erat
ion a (oracceler
ation)i
st heli
mitofav
eragev
eloci
ty
as∆tapproacheszer
o.Iti
sexpressedmat hemat i
call
yas
⃗ ⃗
⃗ ∆v dv
a=l i
m = … 3. 13
→0 ∆t d
∆t t
Wenotethat
⃗
⃗ dv d ⃗
a= () (
= v= v
dt dt
d ̂ ̂ ̂
dt x
i+vyj +vz
k )
⃗ dv ̂ dv y
̂ dv ̂
a = x i+ j+ zk
dt dt dt
⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂
a =ax i+ay j+azk

Page16of17
3.
2.3Const
antAccel
erat
ion

I
nmanyt y
pesofmot i
on,theaccel er
ati
oni sei therconst
antorapproxi
matelyso.
Thef
oll
owingequat
ionsdescr i
bethemot ionofapar t
icl
ewithconst
antaccel
erat
ion:
s/n Equat i
on
1. v=v o
+at
2. 1 2
s=v t+ at
o
2
2 2
3. v =v o
+2as
4. 1
s= ( v+v )
t
2 o
5. 1 2
s=v t- at
2
Note t hat these equat i
ons are only
appl
icableifaccel
erationi sconstant.

EXERCISE:
Adriv
erspottedapoli
cecarandhebrakedfr
om aspeedof100km/ htoaspeedof
80km/hdur i
ngadispl
acementof88m,ataconstantaccel
erat
ion.(
a)Whatist
hat
accel
erat
ion?(b)Howmucht i
meisrequi
redfort
hegivendecreasei
nspeed.

Exampl
e11:
⃗
Fi
ndtheaccel
erat
ion a att
imet=15soft
her
abbi
tinexampl
e10i
nuni
tvect
or
not
ati
onandasamagni t
udeandangl
e.

Sol
uti
on:
dv d d
ax= x = ( v)= ( -
0.6t+7.2)=- 0.6ms-2
dt dt x
dt
dv d d
= ( )
y
ay= v = ( 0.44t-9.1)=0. 44ms-2
dt dt y
dt
⃗ ̂ ̂
a =( -
0.6ms-2)i+( 0.44ms-2)j
⃗
magni
tudeofa =a= ( -
0.6)2
+(0.44)2
=0. 74ms-2

θ=t
ay
an-1 =t
ax
an-1 ( )
0.
-
44
0.6
=-36.25
o

Page17of18
EXERCI
SE
⃗ ̂ ̂
Aparti
clewithv el
ociy vo=-
t 2i+4ji nmeterspersecondatt=0under goesa
⃗ o
const
antacceleraton a ofmagni
i tudea=3ms-2 atanangleθ=130 f r
om the
⃗
posi
ti
vedirecti
onoft hexaxis.Whatistheparti
cl
e’
sv el
oci
ty v att=5s,inuni
t
vect
ornotati
onandasamagni t
udeandanangle?
⃗ ̂ ̂ o
Ans:v=- 12i+16j( s)
m/ , v=19m s, θ=127
3.3 PROJECTI LEMOTI ON

⃗
Aproject
il
eisaparti
clewhi
chmovesinaver
ti
calpl
anewi t
hsomei ni
ti
alvel
oci
tyvo
⃗
butitsaccel
erati
onisalwaysthefreef
allaccel
erat
ion g whichisdownwar d.
Exampleofapr oj
ect
il
eisagolfbal
l
.Themot i
onofapr oject
il
eiscal
ledproj
ect
ile
motion.

Consi
dert
hef
igur
ebel
ow.

Whenanobj
ectispr oj
ect
edatanangletothehor i
zontal
,asshowni
nfi
gur
eabov
e,
t
hefol
l
owingshouldbenoted:
(
i) thehori
zontalcomponentofthevel
oci
tyvox
isconst
ant;
(
ii
) thevert
ical
componentoft hevel
oci
tyvoychanges;

Page18of19
(
ii
i) thever
ticalcomponentoft
hev
eloci
tyi
szeroatt
hehi
ghestpoi
nt;
(
iv) theverti
calaccel
erati
onay=-
gt hr
oughoutt
hemoti
on,whilethehor
izont
al
accel
erati
onaxiszero.

I
npr oj
ect
il
emot ion,thehor
izont
almotionandt
hevert
icalmot
ionar
eindependent
ofeachother
;thatis,
neit
hermotionaf
fectst
heot
her
.

Verti
calmoti
on:
Ini
ti
alvel
ocit
yv oy=vo
si
nθ,accelerat i
onay=- g
LetHbet hemaxi mum heightreached.Atmaxi mum hei ghtvy=0.
2 2
Using v y=v oy+2 ayH
0=( vo
sinθ)+2(
2
g)
- H
2 2
0=v o
si nθ- 2gH
2 2
vsi nθ
H= o … 3. 14
2g
Lettheti
met akent oreachthemaxi mum hei ghtbet .
Using v y=v oy+a yt
0=v o
sinθ+( -g)t
0=v o
sinθ- gt
vsi nθ
t= o … 3. 15
g
Whent heobjectlandedont hegr ound, thev er t
icaldispl
acementH=0.LetTbet
he
tot
altimeoffli
ght .
1 2
Usi ng Hy=v t+ ayt
oy
2
1
0=v sin θT+ (-g)T2
o
2
Div
idingt hr oughbyt ,wehav e
1
0=v sinθ- gT
o
2
gT
=v si nθ
2 o

2vsi nθ
T= o =2t … 3. 16
g

Hori
zontalMot
ion:
I
nit
ialv
eloci
tyv
ox
=v o
cosθ=const
ant
,ax=0

Page19of20
Toobtaintherange(hor
izontaldisplacement )oft
hepr oj
ect
il
e,weuse
1 2
x-xo=v t+ axt
ox
2
TherangeRoft heproj
ecti
leis
1 2
R=v T+ at
ox
2x
Sinceax=0,then
R=v ox
T
R=( vo
co s(
θ )
2vo
si
g )
nθ

v(
2
2sinθcosθ)
R= o
g
recall,2sinθcosθ=si n2θ
2
vsin2θ
R= o .. 3. 17
g
2
v o o
Themax imum valueofRis o andi toccur swhensi n2θ=1,or2θ=90,∴ θ=45.
g
o
Theref
orethemaxi mum rangei sobt ai
nedi ftheobjecti
sproject
edatanangl
e45
tothehori
zontal
.

Example12:
Apirateshi
pi s560m from ami l
it
aryisl
andbase.Ami li
tarycannon(largegunon
wheels)l
ocatedatsealevelf
iresball
satini
ti
al speedvo
=82m/ s.(
a)Atwhatangl eθ
fr
om thehorizont
almustabal lbefi
redtohittheship?(b)Howf arshouldthepi
rate
shi
pbef rom thecannonifi
tistobebey ondthemaxi mum r angeofthecannonballs?

Sol
uti
on:
2
v sin2θ
(
a) R= o
g
gR
sin2θ= 2
vo

2θ=si () (
gR
n-1 2 =si
v
o
n-1
9.8×560
82 2

o
)
n-10.
=si 816=54.
68
o

54.68
θ=
2
o
θ=27. 34

Page20of21
 2
v sin2θ
(
b) R= o
g
o
TherangeRismaxi mum atθ=45
o
822×sin(2×45)
R=
9.8
R=686m
∴Theshi
pshoul
dbebeyond686m ( i
.e.R>686m)
fort
heshi
ptobesaf
e.

Exampl e13:
o
Aprojecti
leshotatanangleof60 abovethehorizontalst
ri
kesabui
ldi
ng25m away
atapoi nt16m abovethepointofproject
ion.Fi
ndt hemagnitudeanddi
rect
ionof
theveloci
tyoftheproj
ect
il
easitstri
kesthebuil
ding.

Sol
uti
on:

Hor
izont
almot
ion
1 2
ngx=v
Usi t+ axt
ox
2
r
ecal
lax=0,v ox
=v
o
cosθ
x=vo
cosθt
Page21of22
 x 25 50
t= = =
vo
cosθ vo
×cos60 vo
Ver
ti
cal
mot
ion
1 2
Usingy=v t+ ayt
oy
2
recallay=- g,voy=v o
si
nθ
1 2
y=v sinθt - gt
o
2
16=vo
×sin60× ()
o 5 0 1
vo
- ×9.
2
502
8× 2
v
o
12,250
16=43. 3- 2
vo
vo
=2 1.18 m/s
50 50
Now,t= = =2.36s
vo
21.
18
o
vox
=v
o
cosθ=21.18×cos60 =10. 59m/s
o
voy=v
o
si
nθ=21.18×sin60 =18. 34m/s
Usi
ngv=vo
+at
vx
=v ox
+axt=10.59+( 0)t=10.
59m/s
vy=v oy+a yt=18.34+(-
9.8)×2.
36=-4.
79m/s
2 2
v= v+v = (
x y
10. 59)2
+(
-4.79)
2
=11.
62m/
s

θ=tan-1
-
( )
4.
10.
79
59
=- 330
24.

EXERCI
SE
o
1. Aprojecti
leleavesthegroundatanangl eof60 tot
hehor
izontal
.It
ski
net
ic
energyisE.Negl ect
ingai
rresi
stance,f
indinter
msofEitskineti
cener
gyat
1
thehighestpointoft
hemot i
on.(
Answer: E)
4
o
2. Anobj ectisreleasedfrom anaeroplanewhichisdivi
ngatanangleof30
from t
hehor i
zontalwit
haspeedof50m/ s.I
ftheplanei
satahei
ghtof4000m
from t
hegroundwhent heobjecti
srel
eased,fi
nd
(a) t hevel
ocityoftheobjectwhenithit
stheground.
(b) t heti
met akenfortheobjectt
oreachtheground.

Page22of23
Page23of24
4.
0 DYNAMI
CS

Dynamicsisabr anchofmechanicswhichdealswiththeforcesthatgiveri
seto
motion.Justaskinematicsdescr
ibeshow object
smov ewi thoutdescr
ibi
ngthe
for
cet hatcausedt hemot i
on,Newton’
sl awsofmot i
onar et hefoundat
ionof
dynamicswhichdescri
besthemoti
onandf orcer
esponsi
blef
ort hemoti
on.

4.
1 FORCE

For
ceisthatwhichchangesthevelocit
yofanobj
ect
.Forcei
sav ectorquant
it
y.An
ext
ernal
forcei
sonewhi chl
iesoutsideoft
hesyst
em bei
ngconsi
dered.

4.
1.1TYPESOFFORCES

Cont
actFor
cei
st hati
nwhichoneobjecthastobei
ncontactwit
hanot hert
oexer
t
afor
ceonit
.Apushorpul
lonanobjectareexampl
esofcontactf
orce.

⃗
onT i
Tensi sthef
orceonast
ri
ngorchai
ntendi
ngt
ost
ret
chi
t.

⃗
Normalf
orce FNi
sthef
orcewhi
chact
sper
pendi
cul
art
oasur
facewhi
chsuppor
ts
anobj
ect
.

⃗
WeightWofanobj
ectisthefor
cewit
hwhi chgr
avit
ypul
lsdownwar
duponi
t.I
tis
⃗ ⃗
gi
venasW =m g.I
tisequalt
othegr
avit
ati
onalf
orceont
hebody.

⃗
Frict
ionalf
orce fi
stheforceonabodywhenthebodysl
idesorat
tempt
stosli
de
alongasur f
aceandisalwayspar
all
elt
othesur
faceanddir
ect
edsoastooppose
themot i
onofthebody.

Ot
her import
ant for
ces include gr
avi
tat
ional f
orce or si
mpl
y gr
avi
ty,
el
ect
romagnet
icf
orce,
nucl
earforce.

4.
1.2NETFORCE

Thenetforceist
hev
ect
orsum ofal
lfor
cev
ect
orst
hatactonanobj
ect
.Iti
s
expr
essedas:
Page24of25
 n
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
Fnet= ∑ i
=1
Fi= F1+ F2+…+ Fn … 4.
1

I
nCar
tesi
ancomponent
s,t
henetf orcearegi venby
n
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
∑
Fnet,x= Fi,x=F1,x+F2,x+…+Fn,x
i
=1
n
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
Fnet,y=∑ i
=1
Fi,y=F1,y+F2,y+…+Fn,y … 4.
2
n
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
Fnet,z= ∑
i
=1
Fi,z=F1,z+F2,z+…+Fn,z

4.
2 NEWTON’
SLAWSOFMOTI
ON

4.
2.1Newt
on’
sFi
rstLaw

⃗
Ifnonetforceact
sonabody(i.
e.Fnet=0)
,thent
hebody’
sveloci
tycannotchange;
thatis,t
hebodycannotaccel
erat
e.Ifi
twasmoving,i
twil
lremaininmot i
onina
strai
ghtli
newitht
hesameconstantvel
oci
ty.

4.
2.2Newt
on’
sSecondLaw

⃗
Ifanetext er
nalfor ce,Fnetact
sonanobj ectwit
hmassm,thef
orcewil
lcausean
⃗
accelerat
ion,a,i nt hesamedi r
ect
ionast hefor
ce.Mat
hemat
ical
l
y,thelaw i
s
expressedas:
⃗ ⃗
Fnet=m a … 4. 3
Whichmaybewr it teninCart
esiancomponentsas
⃗ ⃗ ⃗
Fnet,x=max, Fnet,y=may, Fnet,z=maz … 4. 4

4.
2.3Newt
on’
sThi
rdLaw

Thef orcest
hattwoint
eract
ingobjectsexer
toneachot
herar
eal
way
sexact
ly
equalinmagnit
udeandopposit
eindir
ecti
on:
⃗ ⃗
F1→2=-F2→1 … 4. 5

Page25of26
Exampl
e14:
Three f
orces t
hat act on a part
icl
e are giv
⃗
en by F1= 20i-(
̂ ̂ ̂
36j+73k N,)
⃗
(
F2= -
̂ ̂ ̂
17i+21j- ) ⃗
46k Nand F3= -( )
̂
12k N.Findt heirr
esul
tant(
net)vect
or.Al
so
fi
ndthemagnit
udeofther
esul
tantt
ot wosi
gnif
icantfigur
es.

Sol
uti
on:
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
Fnet= F1+ F2+ F3
⃗
[ ( )]
̂
Fnet,x= 20i+-
̂
17i N=3iN
̂
⃗
[
Fnet,y= - ] ̂ ̂
36j+21jN=-
̂
15jN
⃗
[
Fnet,z= 73k- ]
̂ ̂ ̂
46k- 12kN=15kN
̂

⃗
[ ]
̂ ̂
Fnet= 3i- 15j+15kN
̂

⃗
| |
F= Fnet = 32+( -15)2
+152 = 459=21N

Exampl e15:
Fivecoplanarfor
cesactonanobj ectasshowni nt hefi
gur
ebelow.Fi
ndthe
resul
tantoft he f
orces.The magnit
ude ofthe f
orces ar
e:F1=15N,F2=19N,
F3=22N, F4=11N,F5=16N.

Sol
uti
on:

Page26of27
 ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
Fnet= F1+ F2+ F3+ F4+ F5
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ o
̂ o
̂
F1= F1,x+ F1,y=F1cos60 i+F1si n60 j
⃗ ⃗ ̂ ̂
F2= F2,x i=F2 i
⃗ ⃗ ̂ ̂
F3=-F3,y j=- F3 j
⃗ ⃗ ̂ ⃗ ̂ o
̂ o
̂
F4=-F4,x i-F4,y j=-F4cos30 i-F4sin30 j
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ o o
F5=-F5,x+ F5,y=- F5cos45 +F5sin45

⃗ o
̂ o
̂ ̂ ̂
F1=15cos60 i+15si n60 j=7. 5i+12.99j
⃗ ̂
F2=19i
⃗ ̂
F3=- 22j
⃗ o
̂ o
̂ ̂ ̂
F4=-11cos30 i- 11si
n30 j=- 9.53i- 5j
5.
⃗ o o
̂ ̂
F5=-16cos45 +16si n45 =- 31i+11.
11. 31j

⃗ ̂ ̂
Fnet,x=(7.5+19-
9.53-
11.31)iN=5. 66iN
⃗ ̂ ̂
Fnet,y=(12.99-
22-
5.5+11.31)jN=- 2jN
3.
⃗
Fnet= ( 66)
5. 2
+(
-3.2)
2
=6.
5N

Example16:
Amassof55kgwassuspendedwi
tht
wor
opesasshowni
nthef
igur
ebel
ow.What
o
i
sthetensi
onineachr
opei
fθ=45?

Page27of28
Sol
uti
on:

⃗
∑
Fnet=
⃗
()
⃗
Fi=M a =M(
0)=0
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ̂
∑
Fx=T1x+ T2x=( -2cosθ)i=0
T1cosθT
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ̂
∑ W =[
Fy=T1y+ T2y- T1si
nθ+T2si 55(
nθ- 9. ]j=0
8)
Not
e,bot
hropessupportt
hel
oadequal
l
y
⃗ ⃗ ⃗
T1=T2=T
Tcosθ-Tcosθ=0
Tsi
nθ+Tsi nθ-539=0
2Tsinθ=539=0
539
T=
2×si
n45
T=381N

Exampl
e17:

Page28of29
Acor dhol
dsstat
ionar
yabl ockofmassm =15kgonaf ricti
onlesspl anethatis
o ⃗
i
ncli eθ=27.(
nedatangl a)
Whatisthemagni tudeofthetensi on T ont heblock
⃗
fr
om thecor
dandt henormalf ceN ont
or heblockfrom t
hepl ane?(b)Ifthecordis
cut,
sothatt
hebodysli
desdownt heplane,cal
culat
etheaccelerati
onoft hebody.

Sol
uti
on:

(
a) Thef
reebodydi
agr
am i
ssket
chedas

⃗ ⃗
Wenot
efr
om Newt s2ndl
on’ aw,Fnet=m a
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
T +N + Fg=m a … (
1)
⃗
a =0 (si
ncetheforcesar
einequili
bri
um)
⃗ ⃗ ⃗
T +N + Fg=0 … (2)
solv
ingi
nthecart
esi
ancoordinat
es,wehave
Page29of30
x: T+0- Fgsi
nθ=0
T=Fgsi nθ=mgsi nθ
o
T=15×9. 8×si
n27 =66. 74N
y
: 0+N- Fgcosθ=0
N=Fgcosθ=mgcosθ
o
N=15×9. 8×cos27
N=130. 98N

⃗
(
b)Cut
ti
ngt
hecor
dremov
esf
orceT f
rom t
hebl
ock,
sot
hatt
hebl
ocksl
i
desal
ongx
axi
s
∴equat
ion(
2)becomes
0+0-Fgsi
nθ=ma
-mgsi
nθ=ma
a=-gsi
nθ
o
a=-9.
8×sin27
a=-4.45m/ s2

5.
0 KI
NETI
CENERGY,
WORK,
ANDPOWER

5.
1 KI NETICENERGY
Thekinet
icenergyKisenergyassoci
atedwit
hthestat
eofmoti
onofapart
icl
eand
i
sdefinedas:
1 2
K= mv … 5. 1
2
wherem,isthemassoft heparti
cleandvisthespeedoft
hepart
icl
ewhi
chiswel
l
bel
owt hespeedofl
ight
.It
sS.I.uni
tisthej
oul
e(J).

Exampl
e18:
Acarofmass1310kgbei ngdri
venataspeedli
mitof24.6m/ shasaki
net
icener
gy
of:
1 2 1
Kcar= mv = ( (
1310) 6)
24. 2
0×105J
=4.
2 2

5.2 WORK
WorkW istheener
gytr
ansf
err
edt
oorfr
om anobj
ectbymeansofaforceacti
ngon
theobj
ect.Ener
gytr
ansf
err
edtot
heobj
ecti
sposi
ti
vework,andener
gytransf
err
ed

Page30of31
f
rom t
heobj
ecti
snegat
ivewor
k.I
tisascal
arquant
it
y.

Theworkdonebyaf orcecanbedefinedastheproductofthemagnit
udeofthe
di
spl
acementandthecomponentoft heforcei
nthedirect
ionoft
hedispl
acement
.
Theuni
tofworki
nS.I.istheJoul
e(J)
.

Consi
dert
hef
igur
ebel
ow.

Wor
kcanbeexpr
essedmat
hemat
ical
lyas
W =Fxcosφ … (5.2)
or
⃗⃗
W = F.x … (5.3)
⃗ ⃗
Equat
ion( 3)i
5. sespeci
all
yusef
ulf
orcal
cul
ati
ngt kwhen F and x ar
hewor egi
ven
i
nunitvect
ornot
ati
ons.

Consi
dert
hef
igur
ebel
ow.

I
faf
orcedi
spl
acest
hepar
ti
clet
hroughadi
stancedr
,thent
hewor
kdonedW byt
he

Page31of32
f
orcedi
s
⃗ ⃗
dW = F.
dr … ( 5.
4)
Thetot
alworkdonebyt
hef or
ceinmovi
ngthepar
ti
cl
efrom i
nit
ialpoi
ntit
ofi
nal
poi
ntfwil
lbe
⃗ ⃗
∫ ∫
f f
W = F. dr= Fdrcosθ … (5.
5)
i i

5.
3 WORK-
KINETI
CENERGYTHEOREM

Thewor k-kineti
cenergyt
heor
em st
atesthat“
whenabodyi
sact
eduponbyaf
orce
orresul
t antf orce,t
heworkdonebyt heforcei
sequalt
othechangei
nki
neti
c
energyoft hebody .”

Pr
oof
:
⃗ ⃗
∫ ∫
f f
W = F.
dr= Fdr
cosθ
i i
⃗ ⃗
ceFi
For si
nthedi
rect
ionofdi acementdr,∴ θ=0
spl

∫ ∫
f f
W = Fdr= madr
i i

m( ) m( )dr
dv dvdr
W =∫ dr=∫
f f

dt i drdt i
dv
W =∫ dr=∫ dv=m∫
f f f
m v mv v
dv
dr
i i i

[] [ ]
2 2
v v v 2f
W =m =m f-i
2i 22
1 21 2
W = mv - mv … ( 5.
6)
2 f2 i
W =Kf-
Ki
W =∆K … (5.
7)

5.
4 POWER

Page32of33
Poweri
stherateofdoi
ngwor k.I
fanamountofwor
k∆W isdoneinasmalli
nter
val
oft
ime∆t,t
hepowerPi s
∆W dW
P= lim = … (5.
8)
∆t→0 ∆t dt
Poweri
sascalarquant
it
yandi t
suniti
sJ/swhi
chi
salsocal
l
edthewatt(
W) .

Foraconst
antf
orce
⃗
dW ⃗ dr ⃗ ⃗
P= = F. = F.v (
5.9)
dt dt
⃗
⃗ dr
si
ncetheinst
ant
aneousv
eloci
tyv=
dt
⃗ ⃗
fFact
I satanangl
eθto v,then
⃗⃗
P= F.v=Fv cosθ … ( 5.
10)

Exampl
e19:
A body moves wit
hv el
oci
t
⃗ (̂ ̂ ̂
y v= 5i+2j- )
3k m/s underthe i
nfl
uence ofa
const
antfor
⃗
( ̂ ̂ ̂
ce F = 4i+3j- )
2k N.Deter
mine(
a)t
heinstant
aneouspower;
(b)t
he
⃗ ⃗
angl
ebetweenFand v.

Sol
uti
on:
⃗⃗
(
a) Power= F.
V
(̂ ̂ ̂
= 4i+3j- )( ̂ ̂ ̂
2k .5i+2j- )
3k =20+6+6=32W
(
b) P=FVcosθ
θ=cos-1
P
[]
Fv
⃗
||
F= F = 42+32+( -2)
2
= 29
⃗
||
V= v = 52+22+( -3)2
= 38
θ=cos-1
P
[] [
Fv
=cos-1
32
29× 38]=15.
43
o

Page33of34
Exampl
e20:
⃗ ̂
Acr at
eslidesacr
ossanoi l
ypar kinglotthr
oughadi acementd =(
spl 3m)iwhi
- l
ea
⃗ ̂ ̂
steady wind pushes againstt he crate wi
thaf orce F =(2N)i+( -6N)j.(a)
Calcul
atet heworkdonebyt hewi nd,(b)i
fthecr
atehasaki net
icener
gyof10Jat
⃗ ⃗
thebeginningofthedi
splacementd, whati
stheki
neti
cenergyattheendofd?

Sol
uti
on:
(
⃗⃗
a) W = F. (̂ ̂
d = 2i-6j.-)( ) (
̂ ̂ ̂
3i = 2i-
6j.-
̂ ̂
)(
3i+0j =-
6J )
(b) W =∆K=Kf- ki
Kf=W +Ki=-
6+10=4J

EXERCI
SE
A constant f
⃗
(
̂ ̂ ̂
ce F = 5i+3j-
or )
2k N moves a par t
icl
e f r
om posi t
ion
⃗ (̂̂ ̂
)
r1= 2i-j+4k m t oaposi
t
⃗ (
̂ ̂ ̂
)
on r2= 3i+5j+k m.Cal
i cul
atetheworkdoneby
t
hef
orce.[Ans=29J]

Page34of35
6.
0 POTENTI
ALENERGY

Potent
ialenergyUistheenergythatcanbeassociatedwi
ththeconfi
gur
ati
on(
or
ar
rangement )ofasy
stem ofobj
ectsthatexer
tsf
orcesononeanot
her.

Consi
derat
enni
sbal
lthr
ownupwar
dasshowni
nfi
gur
e6.
1bel
ow.

Asthebal listhr
ownupwar d,thegrav
itat
ionalforcedoesnegati
veworkoni tby
decreasingit
skinet
icenergy.Asthebal ldescends,thegrav
itat
ionalf
orcedoes
posi
t i
vewor konitbyincr
easingitskinet
icenergy .Thust
hechangei npotent
ial
energyisdefi
nedtoequalt
henegati
veofwor kdone.Thatis
∆U=-W … ( 6.1)
Recallthat
xf

∫
W = F(
x)
xi
dx
xf

∫
∴ ∆U=- F(
x)
xi
dx … (
6.2)

6.1 GRAVI TATI

ONALPOTENTI ALENERGY
Gravi
tat
ionalpot
enti
alener
gyi sthepotent
ialener
gyassoci
atedwi
thasy
stem
consi
sti
ngofEarthandanearbypart
icl
e.
y y y

∫ ∫ ∫
f f f

∆U=- F(
y)dy=- (
- dy=mg dy=mg[
mg) y]y
y =mg(
y y)
-
f i
f

i
y
i
y
i
y
i

∆U=mg∆y … (
6.3)
Usual
l
y,r
efer
encepoi
nty
i
ist
akenaszer
o.
∆U=mgy … (
6.4)

Page35of36
Example21:
A massof2kghangs5m abov etheground.Whatisthegravi
tat
ionalpot
ent
ial
energyofthemass-
eart
hsyst
em at(i
)theground,(
ii
)aheightof3m abovethe
ground,
and(i
ii
)ahei
ghtof6m.

Solut
ion:
() U=mg(
i y-y)=2×9.
f i
8×( 0)=98J
5-
()U=mg(
i
i yy)=2×9.
-
f i
8×(
5-3)=39.
2J
(i
i
i)U=mg( yy)=2×9.
-
f i
8×(
5-6)=-
19.
6J

6.2 ELASTI CPOTENTIALENERGY

Elasti
cpotenti
alener
gyist heenergyassoci
atedwit
hthestat
eofcompressi
onor
extensionofanelast
icobject
.Foraspr i
ngthatexer
tsafor
cef=-kxwhenitsfr
ee
endhasdi spl
acementx,t
heel ast
icpot
enti
ali
s
xf xf xf

∫ ∫
∆U=- Fdx=- (
xi
-kx)
dx=k xdx
xi
∫
xi

[]
2 xf
x 1 1 2
=k = kx2- kx … (
6.5)
2x 2 f 2 i
i

6.
3 CONSERVATI ONOFMECHANI CALENERGY
Wer ecallfr
om equat i
on( 5.
7)
W =∆K … (6.6)
Also,wer ecal
l f
rom equat i
on(6.1)
W =-∆U … ( 6.7)
Combi ningequations(6.5)and( 6.
6)
∆K=-∆U
K2-K1=-(
U2-U1)
Rearranging
K2+U2=K1+U1 … ( 6.8)
I
nwor ds,

( sum ofK.
anystat
EandP.
eofasy
Ef
st
or t
em
= )(
hesum ofK.
otherstat
EandP.
eoft
Ef
hesystem )
orany

Equation(6.8)istheconser vat
ionofmechanicalenergyequat
ion.

Thepr
inci
pleofconser
vat
ionofmechani
calener
gyst
atest :I
hat nani
sol
ated

Page36of37
sy
stem,thekineti
cenergyandpot enti
alenergycanchange,butt
hei
rsum,t
he
mechani
calener
gyEmecoft
hesy st
em cannotchange.Thati
s
∆Emec=∆K+∆U=0 … ( 9)
6.

7.
0 CENTEROFMASS

Thecenterofmassofabodyorasy st
em ofbodi
esist
hepointthatmovesas
thoughallofthemasseswer
econcent
rat
edthereandal
lext
ernalfor
ceswere
appli
edt
here.

Wedefinetheposit
ionofthecent erofmass(com)ofthetwo-
par
ti
cl
eseparat
edby
adi
stancedi nfi
gure7.1as:
m2
xcom = d … ( 1)
7.
m1+m2
Wearbitr
ari
lychosetheori
ginoft hexaxist
ocoinci
dewit
hthepar
ti
cleofmassm1.

Page37of38
I
ftheorigi
nislocat edfart
herf rom t
heparticl
es,theposi t
ionoft
hecent
erofmass
i
scalcul
atedas:
m x+m x
xcom = 1 1 2 2 … ( 7.2)
m1+m2
General
l
y ,
fornpar ti
clesal
ongxaxi s
n
m1x1+m2x +m x+…+m x 1
xcom = 2
M
33 n n
=∑
M
i
=1
mixi … ( 3)
7.

wher
eM =m1+m2+m3+…+mn.

I
ftheparti
clesar edistributedi nt hr
eedi mensi ons,thecent erofmassmustbe
i
dent
if
iedbyt hr
eecoor dinates.
n n n
1 1 1
xcom =
M ∑
i
=1
mixi, ycom ∑
=
M
i
=1
miy
i
, zcom =∑
M
i
=1
mizi … ( 4)
7.

Example22:
Threepart
icl
esofmassm1=1.2kg,m2=2.
5kg,andm3=3. 4kgf
orm anequi
lat
eral
tr
iangl
eofedgelengt
ha=140cm.Wherei
sthecenterofmassofthi
sthr
ee-
part
icl
e
system?

Sol
uti
on:

Page38of39
Thedi
stanceycanbeobt ainedusingPy t
hagorast heor
em
2 2 2
140 =70 +y 3
2 2 2
y3
=140 -70 =1 9600 -
49 00=14700
y3
= 14700=121cm
m x+m x+m x ( 1.2)(0)(
+2. 5)(140)(
+3.4)
(70)
xcom = 1 1 2 2 3 3 = =83cm
M 7. 1

m1y
1
+m2y2
+m3y
3 ( 2)
1. (
0)( 5)
+2. (
0)( 4)
+3. (
121)
y = = =58cm
com
M 7.
1

Page39of40
8.
0 COLLI
SION

AColl
isi
onisani
solatedeventinwhichtwoormor
ebodi
esexer
trel
ati
vel
yst
rong
f
orcesoneachot
herforarelat
ivel
yshor
tti
me.

8.1 ELASTI CANDI NELASTI

CCOLLISI
ON
A colli
sionissai
dt obeelasti
cift
het ot
alki net
icenergyofthesystem oftwo
coll
i
dingbodi esi
sunchangedbyt hecol l
isi
on( i
.e.conser
ved).Whereas,i
fthe
ki
net i
cenergyofthesyst
em i
snotconserv
ed, suchacoll
isi
oniscal
ledaninel
asti
c
coll
isi
on.

Ineverydaycoll
i
sionsuchascol
l
isi
onoftwocars,kinet
icener
gyi
snotconser
ved,
sincesomekineti
cenergywi
l
lbel
ostinf
orm ofheatandsound.

8.2 LINEARMOMENTUM
⃗
I
nphysics,moment um p i
sdefinedastheproductofanobject
’smassandi
ts
vel
oci
ty:
⃗ ⃗
p =m v … ( 8.1)
ByNewton’ssecondlawofmot
ion,momentum i
srelat
edt
ofor
ceby
⃗ d⃗ p
F= … ( 2)
8.
dt

8.3 LAW OFCONSERVATI ONOFLI NEARMOMENTUM

Thel aw stat
est :I
hat nacl osed,isolatedsystem,thel
inearmomentum ofeach
⃗
coll
idingbodymaychangebutt het otalli
nearmomentum p oft
hesystem cannot
change, whetherthecolli
sioniselasticorinel
asti
c.
⃗ ⃗ ⃗
P =const antor Pi=Pf … (8.3)
wher eiandfdenoteini
tialandfinalrespecti
vel
y.

8.
4 ELASTI
CCOLLI
SIONSI
NONEDI
MENSI
ON

Consi
dert
hecol
l
isi
onoft
womassesm1andm2al
ongxaxi
s.

Page40of41
Byconservat
ionofl
i
nearmoment um,wehav e
m1v1i
+m2v2i
=m1v 1f
+m2v 2f
… ( 4)
8.
Also,
kinet
icener
gyisconservedforelasticcolli
sion.So, wehav
e
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
mv+ mv= mv + mv … ( 5)
8.
2 1 1i 2 2 2i 2 1 1f 2 2 2f
Equati
ons8.4and8.5canbeusedsi mul taneouslyiftherear
etwounknowns.

Exampl
e23:

A blockofmass m1=1. 6kg,mov ingtotheri

ghtwi t
haspeedof4m s ona
fr
ict
ionless,hori
zontaltr
ack,colli
deswithaspri
ngat tachedtoasecondblock,of
massm2=2. 1kg,thatismov i
ngt othelef
twit
haspeedof2. 5m s.Thespring
constantis600N m.Fort heinstantwhenm1ismov i
ngt otheri
ghtwi
thaspeedof
3m s, determine
(a) t hevelocit
yofm2and
(b) t hedistance,
x, t
hatthespri
ngiscompressed.

Solut
ion:
(a)
m1v
1i
+m2v 21
=m1v1f
+m2v2f
(
1.6)
(4)+(2.1)(
- 5)=(
2. 6)
1. (3)+(
2. (
1)v )
2f
v
2f
=-1.74m s
(
b)
Todet
ermi
nethecompr essionx,weapplytheconser
vat
ionof
energyprinci
ple
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
m v + m v = m v + m v + kx
2 1 1i 2 2 2i 2 1 1f 2 2 2f 2
substi
tut
ingthegivenv al
ues,
wehav e
x=0. 173m

Page41of42
Page42of43
9.
0 UNI
FORM CI
RCULARMOTI
ON

Aparti
cleissai
dtobei nunifor
m cir
cularmot
ioni
fitt
rav
elsar
oundaci
rcl
eora
ci
rcul
ararcataconst
ant(uni
form)speed.

Fi
gure9.1showst herel
ati
onbetweentheveloci
tyandaccel
erat
ionv
ect
orsat
di
ff
erentst
agesdur
inguni
for
m ci
rcul
armoti
on.

Thef
ollowingpoi ntsmustbenot ed:
(i
) Al thought hespeedi suniform,t hev eloci
ty( av ector)changesi ndir
ecti
on,
therefore,apar t
icleinunif
orm circul armot ionaccel erates.
⃗
(i
i
) Thev el
ocit yvectorv i salway sdi rectedt angentt ot hecircleinthedi
rect
ion
oft hemot ion.
(i
i
i) Theaccel erationi salwaysdirectedr adial
lyinwar d,thereforetheaccel
erat
ion
i
scal ledcent r
ipetalaccelerati
on.
(i
v) Themagni tudeoft hecentr
ipetalaccel erati
oni s:
2
v
a= … ( 9.1)
r
wher erist heradi usoftheci r
cleandvi sthespeedoft heparti
cle.
(v
) Thepar ticletravel sthecir
cumf er
enceoft heci rcl
eint ime
2πr
T= … ( 9.2)
v
wher eTiscal l
edt heperiodofr ev
ol ut i
on.

EXERCI
SE
2
v
Pr
ovet
hatt
hecent
ri
pet
alaccel
erat
ioni
sa= .
r

Page43of44
Sol
uti
on:

⃗ ̂ ̂
v=v x
i+ vyj
⃗ ̂ ̂
v=( -v nθ)i+(
si vcosθ)j
y x
From diagram,sinθ= , cosθ=
r r
⃗
( ) ()
v= -
ŷ
v i+ v j
r
x̂
r
⃗
⃗ dv d ⃗
a= () ( ) ( )
= v =-
dt dt
vdŷ
rdt
i+
vdx̂
rdt
j
dy dx
e =v
Not y=v cosθ and =v =v si
nθ
dt dt x
⃗
( v
a = -v
r) ( ) ̂
cosθ i+ v
v
r
si
̂
nθ j

|| (
⃗
a= a = -v )( )
v
r
2
cosθ + v
v
r
si
nθ
2

Page44of45
 () ()
2 2 2 2
v v
= (
cosθ)
2
+ (
sin2θ)
r r

= ( )( nθ)= ( )=
22 22 2
v 2 v2 v
cosθ+si
r r r
2
v
∴a=
r

10.
0 ROTATI
ON

10.
1 RIGI
DBODY
Arigi
dbodyisabodyisabodyt
hatcanr
otat
ewi
thal
lit
spar
tlockedt
oget
herand
wit
houtachangei
nit
sshape.

10.
2 ROTATION
Rot
ati
onoccurswhenev er
ypoi
ntofar
igi
dbodymovesi
nacir
clewhosecent
erli
es
ontheaxi
sofr otat
ion,andev
erypoi
ntmovesthr
oughthesameangleduri
nga
par
ti
cul
art
imei nterv
al.

10.
3 ANGULARPOSI
TION(
θ)

Angularposi
ti
onθistheangl
eofarefer
enceli
ner
elati
vetoafi
xeddi
rect
ion,
sayx.
s
θ= (rad) … ( 10.1)
r
wheresisthelengt
hofarcandri
sther adi
usoft
hecircl
e.θi
smeasuredinradi
ans
(r
ad).

Page45of46
10.
4 ANGULARDI SPLACEMENT
Abodyundergoesangul
ardi
spl
acementi
fitchangesangul
arposi
ti
onf
rom θ1t
oθ2.
I
tisexpr
essedas:
∆θ=θ2-θ1 … ( 2)
10.

10.
5 ANGULARVELOCI TYANDSPEED
Theav erageangularspeedωavg i
st her ati
ooftheangulardi
splacement∆θt
oti
me
∆tofabodyunder goingrotati
on.Iti sexpressedas:
∆θ
ωavg= … 10. 3
∆t
⃗
Theinstantaneousangularvelociyω oft
t hebodyis:
⃗ ∆θ dθ
ω =l i
m = … ( 4)
10.
∆t→0 ∆t d t
Themagni tudeofthebody ’
sangul arv el
ocit
yistheangul
arspeedω.

10.
6 ANGULARACCELERATI ON
Theaverageangularaccel
er ati
onisexpressedas
∆ω ω2- ω1
αavg= = … (10.5)
∆t t -
t
2 1
Theinst
antaneousangularaccel er
ati
onαofabodyisexpressedas:
∆ω dω
α= l i
m = … ( 6)
10.
→0 ∆t
∆t dt

10.
7 RELATI
NGTHEANGULARANDLI
NEARVARI
ABLES

Sincef
orarigidbody,
allpar
ticl
esmakeoner evol
uti
oni
nthesameamountoft ime,
theyal
lhav
et hesameangul arspeedω.Whenar igi
dbodyrot
ates,eachpar
ti
cl
ein
thebodymov esi
nitsowncircleaboutt
hataxi
s.

Recal
lfr
om equat
ion10.
1.

ThePosi
tonS=θr … (
i 7)
10.
dS d dθ
Speedv= = ( θr)=r =r ω
dt dt dt
v=rω … ( 8)
10.
wher
evi
sthel
i
nearspeedandωistheangul
arspeed.

Page46of47
Ari
gidbodyinrotat
ionalmoti
onwill
havet
wofor
msofaccel
erati
on.
dv d dω
(
1)Tangent
ialaccel
eratonat= = (
i ωr)=r =r α … ( 10.9)
dt dt dt
2
v (rω)
2
(
2)Radi
alacceler
atonar= =
i ω2 … (
=r 10)
10.
r r

10.8 KI
NETI
CENERGYOFROTATI ON
1 2
Wecannotappl
ythef
ormulak= mv t
ori
gidbodysuchascompactdi
scbecause,
2
theki
neti
cener
gyofi
tscent
erofmassi o(
szer m=0att hecent
er)
.

I
nstead,wetr
eatthecompactdiscasacol l
ecti
onofparti
cl
eswi
thdi
ff
erentspeeds.
1 2 1 2 1 2
k= m1v + m v + m v +…
2 1 2 22 2 33
1 2
k= ∑ mv
2 ii
si
ncev=ωr
1
∑
k=
2
mi(r
i
ω)2

1
k=(∑ )
2
2
mir
i
ω2
Thequanti
tyinparent
hesisi
scall
edt herotat
ionali
nert
iaormomentofiner
ti
aIof
thebodywit
hrespecttotheaxi
sofrotati
on.
1 2
∴k= I ω … ( 11)
10.
2
where
I=∑mr 2
ii
… ( 12)
10.

10.
9 PERPENDI
CULARAXESTHEOREM

Statementoft
hetheorem:Themoment sofinerti
aofanypl anelami
naaboutan
axisnor
maltothepl
aneoft hel
ami nai
sequaltothesum ofthemomentsofiner
ti
a
aboutanytwomutual
lyperpendicul
araxi
spassingthr
oughthegivenaxi
sandlyi
ng
i
nt hepl
aneoft
helamina.Thatis,
Page47of48
 I
z
=I
x
+I
y … ( 13)
10.
Pr
oof
:

Theposi
tionvect
orofpart
icl
ewithmassmii nt
hexyplanei
s:
⃗ ⃗ ⃗
Ri=xii+y i
j
Sothat
,themomentofinerti
aofparti
cl smiR2
emii i
.
∴Thetotalmomentofiner
tiaofal
lparti
cl
esaboutzaxi
sis
n n

I
z
= ∑mR=∑m(x+y)
i
=1
2
ii
i
=1
2
i i
2
i

n n

= ∑mx +∑my
i
=1
2
ii
i
=1
2
ii

I
z
=I
x
+I
y

11.
0 GRAVI
TATI
ON

Gr
avi
tati
oni
st hetendencyofbodi
estomovetowardeachother
.IsaacNewt
on
pr
oposedaf
orcelawthatwecal
lNewton’
sLawofgr
avi
tat
ion.

11.
1 NEWTON’
SLAW OFGRAVI
TATI
ON

TheLaw st
atest :Ev
hat eryparti
cleat
tract
sanyot
herpar
ti
clewi
thagr
avi
tat
ional
for
cewhosemagnit
udeisgivenby

Page48of49
 F= 2
r (
Gm1m2 Newt
Gr
av i
tati
on
)
on'sLawof
… ( 11.1)
wher
em1andm2ar et hemassesofthepar ti
cl
e,ri
sthedi stancebetweent
hem,
and
-
11 2 2
Gist
hegrav
itat
ionalconstantwi
thav alueG=6.67×10 N. m/ kg.

11.
2 SUPERPOSI
TIONPRI
NCI
PLE

Thi
sisapr i
ncipl
et hatsaysthenetforceonapart
icleisthevect
orialsummati
on
offorcesofat t
racti
onbet weenthepar t
icl
eandindivi
duali
nter
act i
ngpart
icl
es.
Mathemati
call
y,theprinci
plei
sexpressedas
n
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
∑
F1,net= F1i= F12+ F13+ F14+…+ F1n … (
i
=2
11.2)

⃗
i
fther
ear
eni
nter
act
ingpar
ti
cl e,F1,neti
es.Her sthenetf
orceonpar
ti
cl
e1.

Forext
endedobj
ect
,wewr
it
ethepr
inci
pleas
⃗ ⃗
∫
F1= dF … ( 3)
11.

Exampl
e24:

Thef i
gur
eshowsanarrangementoft hreepar
ti
cl
es.m1=6kg,m2=m3=4kg,and
⃗
dist
ancea=2cm.Whati st hemagnitudeofthenetgr
avi
tat
ionalf
orce F1nett
hat
actsonpart
icl
e1duet
oot herpar
ti
cles.

Sol
uti
on:

Page49of50
Bysuper
posi
ti
onpr
inci
ple
⃗ ⃗ ⃗
F1net= F12+ F13
⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂
F12=F12 i+F12 j=F12 i
⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂
F13=F13 i+F13 j=- F13 j
Gm1m2 ( 6.67×1011)(6) (
4)
F12= = =4×10-6N
a2
(
0.02)2

Gm1m2 ( 6.67×1011)(6) (
4)
F13= 2 = =1×10-6N
(2a) (
0.04)2

⃗ ̂ ̂
F12=F12 i=4×10-6N i
⃗ ̂ ̂
F13=- F13 j=- 1×10-6N j
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ̂
F1net= F12+ F13=4×10-6N i+ - ( ̂
)
1×10-6N j
F1net= ( F12)
2
+(-F13)2

F1net= ( 4×10-6)+(1×10-6)
2 2
-
F1net=4.1×10-6N

EXERCI
SE

(
1)

Page50of51
 Fi
ve par t
icl
es ar
e arr
anged as shown i n t
he f
igur
e abov e. m1=8kg,
o
m2=m3=m4=m5=2kg,a=3cm, andθ=30.Whati sthegrav
itat
ionalf
orce
⃗
F1netonpart
icl
e1duet
otheotherpart
icl
es.

(
2) Whatmustbet hesepar
ati
onbetweena5.
2kgpart
icl
eanda2.4kgpar
ti
cl
efor
-
12
t
hei
rgrav
itat
ionalat
tr
acti
ontohaveamagni
t 3×10 N?
udeof2.

(
3) I
nt hef i
gurebel ow,twospher esofmassm andat hi
rdsphereofmassM
form anequi l
ateralt
ri
angle.Thenetgr
avit
ati
onalfor
ceonthatcentr
alspher
e
from thethreeot herspheresiszer
o.(a)WhatisM inter
msofm?( b)Ifwe
doublethev al
ueofm4, whatisthemagnit
udeofthenetgr
avi
tati
onalfor
ceon
thecentralsphere?

Page51of52