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Course Outline
• Measurement in Physics
• Space and Time
• Units and Dimension
• Kinematics
• Fundamental Laws of Mechanics
• Statics and Dynamics
• Work and Energy
• Conservation laws

WORK PLAN
Week 1
Week 2
Week 3
Week 4
Week 5
Week 6
Week 7
Week 8
Week 9
Week 10
Week 11
Week 13
Week 14
Week 15 REVISION

Page 1 of 42
1.0 MEASUREMENT

Physics is a science based upon exact measurement of physical quantities. Therefore

it is essential that student first becomes familiar with the various methods of
measurement and the units in which these measurements are expressed.

A unit is a value quantity or magnitude in terms of which other values, quantities or

magnitudes are expressed.

1.1 FUNDAMENTAL QUANTITIES AND UNITS

A fundamental quantity also known as base quantity is a quantity which cannot

be expressed in terms of any other physical quantity. The units in which the
fundamental quantities are measured are called fundamental units. In mechanics
(study of the effects of external forces on bodies at rest or in motion), the quantities
length, mass and time are chosen as fundamental quantities.

Fundamental Quantity Fundamental Unit Unit Symbol

Length Meter m
Mass Kilogram kg
Time Second S

1.2 SYSTEM OF UNITS

The following systems of units have been in use –

(i) The French or C.G.S (Centimeter, Gramme, Second) System;
(ii) The British or F.P.S (Foot, Pound, Second) System;
(iii) The M.K.S (Metre, Kilogram, Second) System; and
(iv) The S.I. (International System of Units).

1.3 THE INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS (S.I.)

The S.I. is the latest version of the system of units and only system likely to be used
all over the world. This system consists of seven base or fundamental units from
which we can derive other possible quantities of science. They are

S.N Physical Quantity Unit Unit Symbol

o
1. Length Meter m
2. Mass Kilogram Kg
3. Time Second S

Page 2 of 42
 4. Electric Current Ampere A
5. Temperature Kelvin K
6. Amount of Mole mol
Substance
7. Luminous Intensity Candela Cd

1.4 CONCEPT OF DIMENSION

Dimension of a physical quantity simply indicates the physical quantities which

appear in that quantity and gives absolutely no idea about the magnitude of the
quantity. In mechanics the length, mass and time are taken as the three base
dimensions and are expressed as letter [L], [M] and [T] respectively. Hence, a
formula which indicates the relation between the derived unit and the fundamental
units is called dimensional formula.

Example 1: Deduce the dimensional formula for the following physical quantities:
(a) Velocity, (b) acceleration, (c) force, (d) pressure, (e) work, and (f) power.

Solution:
Dimension of length [ L ]
( a ) Dimension of Velocity= = =[ LT −1 ]
Dimension of time [ T ]

Hence the dimnesional formula for velocity will be [ M 0 L T −1 ]

Dimension of velocity [ L T ] [ −2 ] [ 0 −2 ]
−1
( b ) Dimension of acceleration= = = L T = M LT
Dimension of time [T ]

( c ) Dimension of force=Dimension of mass × Dimension of acceleration

¿ [ M ] × [ L T −2 ] =[ ML T −2 ]

Dimension of Force [ ML T ] [ −1 −2 ]
−2
( d ) Dimension of Pressure= = = ML T
Dimension of Area [ L2 ]
Students to attempt (e ) and(f ).

Example 2: Deduce the dimensional formula for (a) modulus of elasticity( Ƴ ) , and (b)
coefficient of viscosity( η ) .

Solution:

Page 3 of 42
 Dimension of force × Dimension of length [ ML T ] × [ L ] [
−2
Stress Force/ Area
(a )Ƴ = = = = =M
Strain Change∈length/Original length Dimension of Area× Dimension of length [ L2 ] × [ L ]
( b ) the coefficient of viscosity ( η ) of a liquid is defined as tangential force required per unit area
¿ maintain unit velocity gradient between two layers of theliquid unit distance apart .
F 1
η=
A ( dV /dx )
Dimension of Force × Dimension of distance
Dimension of η=
dimension of Area× Dimension of Velocity
[ MLT ] × [ L ] [ M L2 T −2 ] [ −1 −1 ]
−2
¿ 2 = = ML T
[ L ] × [ L T −1 ] [ L3 T −1 ]

1.4 USES OF DIMENSIONAL EQUATIONS

(a) To check the homogeneity of a derived physical equation (i.e. to check the
correctness of a physical equation).

Example 3:
Show that the following relation for the time period of a body executing
simple harmonic motion is correct.
T =2 π
√ l
g
wherel and g are the displacement and acceleration due to gravity
respectively.

Solution:

For the relation to be correct, the dimension of L.H.S must be equal to

dimension of R.H.S
0 0 1
Dimension of L . H . S=M L T ∨T
[ Dimension of l ] 1/ 2 [ L ]1 /2 [ L ] 1/ 2
Dimension of R . H . S= 1 /2
= 1/ 2
= 1 /2
[ Dimension of g ] [ L T −2 ] [ L ] T −1
1
¿ −1 =T
T
Since Dimension of L . H . S=Dimension of R . H . S , the relation is dimensionally
correct.

(b) To derive a relationship between different physical quantities.

Example 4:

Page 4 of 42
If the frequency f of a stretched string depends upon the lengthl of the string,
the tension T in the string and the mass per unit length λ of the string.
Establish a relation for the frequency using the concept of dimension.

Solution:
x y z
f ∝ l T λ …(1)
x y z
f =k l T λ … (2)
[ Dimension of f ] =[ Dimension of l ] x × [ Dimension of T ] y × [ Dimension of λ ] z
y z
[ M 0 L 0 T −1 ]=[ L ] x × [ ML T −2 ] × [ M L−1 ]
[ M ] 0 [ L ] 0 [ T ]−1=[ M ] y+z [ L ] x+ y−z [ T ]−2 y
Equating the powers
y + z=0 … ( 3 )
x + y−z=0 …(4 )
−2 y=−1 …(5)
1
¿ equation ( 5 ) , y= … ( 6 )
2
substituting ( 6 ) into ( 3 ) , we have
1
+ z=0
2
−1
z= … (7)
2
substituting ( 6 )∧( 7 ) into(4)
x+ −
1 −1
2 2( ) =0
x=−1 …(8)
substituting ( 6 ) , ( 7 )∧( 8 ) into ( 2 ) , we have
−1 1 /2 −1/ 2
f =k l T λ

Equation (¿) is the required relation.

f =k
1 T
l λ √… (¿)

(c) To derive the unit of a Physical Quantity

Example5:

The viscous drag F between two layers of liquid with surface area of contact A
in a region of velocity gradient dv /dx is given by
F=ηA dv /dx

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 whereη is the coefficient of viscosity of the liquid. Obtain the unit for η .

Solution:

F=ηA dv /dx
Making η the subject of the formula
F 1
η=
A dv /dx
Dimension of force=[ ML T −2 ]
Dimension of surface area= [ L2 ]
Dimension of velocity=[ LT −1 ]
Dimension of displacement = [ L ]
[ ML T −2 ] [ L ] M L2 T −2
Dimension of η= 2 = 3 −1 =M L−1 T −1
[ L ] [ LT ] L T
−1

−1 −1
∴ Unit of η=kg m s

1.5 LIMITATIONS OF DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

(i) The method does not provide any information about the magnitude of
dimensionless variables and dimensionless constants.
(ii) The method cannot be used if the quantities depend upon more than
three-dimensional quantities: M,L and T.
(iii) The method is not applicable if the relationship involves trigonometric,
exponential and logarithmic functions.

EXERCISE
1) Show on the basis of dimensional analysis that the following relations are
correct:
a. v 2−u2=2 aS , where u is the initial velocity, v is final velocity, a is
acceleration of the body and S is the distance moved.
b. ρ=3 g /4 rG where ρ is the density of earth, G is the gravitational
constant, r is the radius of the earth and g is acceleration due to
gravity.
2) The speed of sound v in a medium depends on its wavelength λ , the young
modulus E , and the density ρ , of the medium. Use the method of dimensional
analysis to derive a formula for the speed of sound in a medium. (Unit for
Young Modulus E : kg m−1 s−2 )
2.0 VECTORS

Physical quantities can generally be classified as (i) Scalars and (ii) Vectors.

Page 6 of 42
Scalars are physical quantities which possess only magnitude and no direction in
space. Examples are mass, time, temperature, volume, speed etc. On the other hand,
Vectors are physical quantities which have both magnitude and direction in space.
Examples are force, velocity, acceleration, etc.

2.1 RESOLUTION OF VECTORS

A two dimensional vector can be represented as the sum of two vectors. Consider
figure A above, the vector ⃗
A can be expressed as
⃗
A=⃗ A x+ ⃗
A y ∨⃗
A= A x i^ + A y ^j …2.1
Vectors ⃗
A x and ⃗
A y are called vector components of ⃗ A .i^ and ^j are unit vectors along the
x axis and y axis respectively. A unit vector is a vector that has a magnitude of
exactly 1 and specify a particular direction.

Let θ be the angle which the vector ⃗

A makes with the positive x -axis, then we have

A x = A cos θ∧ A y = A sinθ …2.2

Magnitude of vector A=|⃗ A|= A=√ A 2x + A2y … 2.3
Ay
tanθ= … 2.4
Ax

In three dimensions, a vector ⃗

A can be expressed as
⃗
A=⃗
A x+ ⃗
A y+ ⃗
A z ∨⃗ ^ A y ^j+ A z k^ …2.5
A = A x i+
Here, the magnitude is expressed as
|⃗A|= A=√ A 2x + A2y + A 2z … 2.6

2.2 ADDITION/SUBTRACTION OF VECTORS BY COMPONENTS

Page 7 of 42
Example:
If ⃗ ^ ^j+ 4 k^ and ⃗
A=2 i+3 ^
B=i+4 ^j+5 k^ . Find the magnitude of ( ⃗
A+ ⃗
B ) and ( ⃗
A−⃗
B ).

Solution:
( ⃗A+ ⃗ ^ ^j+ 4 k^ ) + ( i+4
B ) =( 2 i+3 ^ ^j +5 k^ ) =3 i^ +7 ^j+ 9 k^
( ⃗A−⃗ ^ ^j+4 k^ ) −( i+
B )=( 2 i+3 ^ 4 ^j+ 5 k^ )=i− ^ ^j− k^
Hence their magnitudes will be
|⃗A + ⃗B|=√ ( 3 )2 + ( 7 )2 + ( 9 )2 =√139
|⃗A −⃗B|= √( 1 )2 + (−1 )2 + (−1 )2=√ 3

2.3 MULTIPLICATION OF VECTORS

(i) Dot Product or Scalar Product

The scalar product of two vectors is defined as the product of the magnitude
of two vectors and the cosine of the smaller angle between them.
⃗ B =|⃗
A.⃗ A||⃗
B|cos θ= AB cos θ=S
where S is a scalar quantity.

Example:
Find the angle between the two vectors ⃗ ^ 4 ^j+5 k^ and ⃗
A=3 i+ B=3 i^ +4 ^j −¿
5 k^ .
Solution:
⃗A.⃗B =|⃗ A||⃗
B|cos θ
⃗ ⃗
A . B = A x Bx + A y B y + A z B z=3 × 3+4 × 4 +5 (−5 )=0
|⃗A|=√ 32 +4 2 +52=√ 50
|B⃗|=√3 2+ 4 2+ (−5 )2=√ 50
⃗A.⃗ B 0
cos θ= = =0
|⃗A||⃗B| √ 50× √50
o
θ=90

(ii) Cross Product or Vector product

The vector product of two vectors is defined as a vector having a magnitude

equal to the product of the magnitudes of the two vectors and the sine of the
angle between them and is in the direction perpendicular to the plane
containing the two vectors. Thus if ⃗
A and ⃗B are two vectors, then their vector
product (or cross product), written as ⃗
A × ⃗
B , is a vector ⃗
C defined as
⃗
C =⃗ B=|⃗
A×⃗ A||⃗
B|sinθn

Page 8 of 42
 whereθ is the angle between the two vectors and n is the unit vector
perpendicular to the plane of vectors ⃗
A and ⃗
B.

3.0 KINEMATICS

Kinematics is the study of the motion of objects without referring to what causes the
motion. Motion is a change in position in a time interval.

3.1 MOTION IN ONE DIMENSION/MOTION ALONG A STRAIGHT LINE

A straight line motion or one-dimensional motion could either be vertical (like that
of a falling body), horizontal, or slanted, but it must be straight.

3.1.1 POSITION AND DISPLACEMENT

The position of an object in space is its location relative to some reference point,
often the origin (or zero point). For example, a particle might be located at x=5 m,
which means the position of the particle is 5 m in positive direction from the origin.
Meanwhile, the displacement is the change from one position x 1 to another position
x 2. It is given as
∆ x=x 2−x 1 …(3.1)

3.1.2 AVERAGE VELOCITY AND AVERAGE SPEED

The average velocity is the ratio of the displacement ∆ x that occurs during a
particular time interval ∆ t to that interval. It is a vector quantity and is expressed as:
∆ x x 2−x 1
v avg= = … .(3.2)
∆ t t 2−t 1
¿
∆ y y 2− y 1
v avg= = … .(3.2)
∆t t 2−t 1

The average speed is the ratio of the total distance covered by a particle to the time.
It is a scalar and is expressed as:
total distance
Savg = … (3.3)
∆t

3.1.3 INSTANTANEOUS VELOCITY AND SPEED

The instantaneous velocity describes how fast a particle is moving at a given instant.
It is expressed as:

Page 9 of 42
 ∆ x dx
v= lim = …(3.4 )
∆t→0 ∆ t dt
Speed is the magnitude of instantaneous velocity; that is, speed is velocity that has
no indication of direction either in words or via an algebraic sign. For example, a
velocity of +5 m/s or −5 m/s is associated with a speed of 5 m/s .

Example 6:
The position of a particle moving on an x axis is given by x=7.8+ 9.2t−2.1 t 3, with x in
meters and t in seconds. What is its velocity at t=3.5 s ? Is the velocity constant, or is
it continuously changing?

Solution:
dx d ( 7.8+9.2 t−2.1 t )
3
2
v= = =0+9.2− (3 )( 2.1 ) t
dt dt
2
v=9.2−6.3t (¿)

At t=3.5 s ,
2−68 m
v=9.2−6.3 (3.5 ) =
s
since eqn ( ¿ ) involves t ,the velocity v depends on time ( t )∧so is continuously changing .

3.1.4 ACCELERATION

When a particle’s velocity changes, the particle is said to undergo acceleration. The
average accelerationa avg over a time interval ∆ t is
∆ v v 2−v 1
=a avg= … 3.5
∆ t t 2−t 1
where the particle has velocity v 1 at time t 1 and then velocity v 2 at time t 2. The
instantaneous acceleration (or simply acceleration) is the derivative of velocity
with respect to time:
dv
a= … 3.6
dt
Equation 3.6 can also be written as

( )
2
d ( ) d dx d x
a= v= = 2 … 3.7
dt dt dt dt
In words, the acceleration of a particle at any instant is the second derivative of its
position x (t) with respect to time.

Example 7:
A particle’s position on the x -axis is given by x=4−27 t+t 3, with x in meters and t in
seconds. (a) find the particle’s velocity function v (t) and acceleration a (t). (b) Is
there ever a time when v=0?

Page 10 of 42
Solution:
dx d
= ( 4−27 t+ t ) =−27+3 t
3 2
( a ) v=
dt dt
dv d
a= = ( −27+3 t ) =6 t
2
dt dt
( b ) 0=−27+3 t 2
2 27
t = =9
3
t=3 s

3.2 MOTION IN TWO AND THREE DIMENSIONS

The concept of position, velocity and acceleration for motion along a straight line is
similar to that of two and three dimension, but more complex.

3.2.1 Position and Displacement

The position vectorr⃗ is used to specify the position of a particle in space. It is

generally expressed in the unit vector notation as
^ y ^j+ z ^k …(3.8)
r⃗ =x i+
where x i^ , y ^j and z k^ are the vector components of r⃗ , and the coefficients x , y , and z
are its scalar components.

If a particle moves from point 1 to point 2 during a certain time interval, the position
vector changes from r⃗1to r⃗2, then the particle’s displacement is
∆ r⃗ =⃗r 2−⃗r 1 … (3.9)

Page 11 of 42
Example 8:
The position vector of a particle is initially r⃗1= (−3 m) i+ ^ ( 2 m) ^j+ ( 5 m ) k^ and then later is
^ ( 2 m ) ^j+ ( 8 m) k^ . What is the particle’s displacement ∆ r⃗ from r⃗ 1to r⃗ 2?
r⃗ 2= ( 9 m ) i+

Solution:
^ [ 2−2 ] ^j+ [ 8−5 ] k^
∆ r⃗ =⃗r 2−⃗r 1=[ 9− (−3 ) ] i+
^ ( 3 m ) ^k
∆ r⃗ =( 12 m ) i+

Example 9:
A rabbit runs across a parking lot. The coordinates of the rabbit as a function of time
t are: x=−0.3 t 2 +7.2t +28 and y=0.22t 2−9.1 t+ 30 with t in seconds and x and y in
meters. At t=15 s , what is the rabbit’s position vector r⃗ in unit vector notation and as
a magnitude and an angle?

Solution:
^ y ^j
r⃗ =x i+
At t=15 s
2
x=−0.3 ( 15 ) +7.2 ( 15 ) +28=68.5 m
2
y=0.22 ( 15 ) −9.1 (15 )+ 30=−57 m
^ (−57 m ) ^j
∴ ⃗r = (68.5 m ) i+
The magnitude of the position vector r⃗ is
r =√ x + y =√ ( 68.5 ) + (−57 ) =89.11m
2 2 2 2

The angle of r⃗ is
y
θ=tan−1 =tan−1
x
−57
68.5 ( )
=−39.76 o

3.2.1 Average Velocity and Instantaneous Velocity

If a particle moves through a displacement ∆ r⃗ in a time interval ∆ t , then its average

velocity ⃗v avg is
^ ∆ y ^j+ ∆ z k^ ∆ x ∆ y
∆ r⃗ ∆ x i+
⃗v avg= = = ^
i+ ^j+ ∆ z k^ … 3.10
∆t ∆t ∆t ∆t ∆t

When we speak of the velocity of a particle, we usually mean the particle’s

instantaneous velocity ⃗v . It is expressed as
d r⃗ dx ^ dy ^ dz ^
v⃗ = = i+ j+ k=v x i^ + v y ^j +v z k^ … 3.11
dt dt dt dt

Example 10:
Find the velocity ⃗v at time t=15 s of the rabbit in example 9 in unit vector notation
and as a magnitude and angle.
Page 12 of 42
Solution:
The components of the velocity are v x and v y
dx d d
= ( x ) = (−0.3 t +7.2 t+28 )=−0.6 t +7.2
2
vx=
dt dt dt
At t=15 s , v x =−0.6 (15 )+ 7.2=−1.8 m/s
dy d d
v y = = ( y )= ( 0.22t −9.1 t +30 )=0.44 t−9.1
2
dt dt dt
At t=15 s , v y =0.44 ( 15 )−9.1=−2.5 m/s
^ v y ^j
⃗v =v x i+
⃗v =(−1.8 m/s ) i+ ^ (−2.5 m/ s ) ^j
Magnitude of ⃗v =v=√ v x + v y = √ (−1.8 ) + (−2.5 ) =3.08 m/s
2 2 2 2

θ=tan
vx( )
−1 v y
=tan (
−1 −2.5
−1.8 )
=54.25
o

3.2.2 Average Acceleration and Instantaneous Acceleration

The average acceleration is defined as the change in velocity from v⃗ 1 to v⃗ 2 in a time

interval ∆ t . It is mathematically expressed as
⃗v 2−⃗v 1 ∆ ⃗v
a⃗ avg= = … 3.12
∆t ∆t
The instantaneous acceleration a⃗ (or acceleration) is the limit of average velocity as
∆ t approaches zero. It is expressed mathematically as
∆ ⃗v d ⃗v
a⃗ = lim = … 3.13
∆ t →0 ∆ t dt
We note that
d ⃗v d d
a⃗ = = ( ⃗v )= ( v x i^ + v y ^j +v z k^ )
dt dt dt
d vx d v y d v z
a⃗ = ^
i+ ^j+ k^
dt dt dt
^ y ^j+ a z k^
a⃗ =a x i+a

3.2.3 Constant Acceleration

In many types of motion, the acceleration is either constant or approximately so.

The following equations describe the motion of a particle with constant
acceleration:
s/n Equation
1. v=v o+ at
2. 1 2
s=v t+ a t o
2

Page 13 of 42
 3. 2 2
v =v o +2 as
4. 1
s= ( v o + v ) t
2
5. 1 2
s=vt− a t
2
Note that these equations are only applicable if
acceleration is constant.

EXERCISE:
A driver spotted a police car and he braked from a speed of 100 km/h to a speed of
80 km/h during a displacement of 88 m , at a constant acceleration. (a) What is that
acceleration?(b) How much time is required for the given decrease in speed.

Example 11:
Find the acceleration a⃗ at time t=15 s of the rabbit in example 10 in unit vector
notation and as a magnitude and angle.
Solution:
d vx d d −2
a x= = ( v x )= (−0.6 t +7.2 )=−0.6 m s
dt dt dt
d vy d d −2
a y= = ( v y ) = ( 0.44 t−9.1 )=0.44 m s
dt dt dt
^ ( 0.44 m s−2 ) ^j
a⃗ =(−0.6 ms−2 ) i+
magnitude of ⃗a =a=√ (−0.6 ) + ( 0.44 ) =0.74 m s
2 2 −2

θ=tan
−1 a y
ax
=tan (
−1 0.44
−0.6 ) =−36.25
o

EXERCISE
A particle with velocity ⃗v o=−2 i+ ^ 4 ^j in meters per second at t=0 undergoes a
constant acceleration a⃗ of magnitude a=3 m s−2 at an angle θ=130o from the positive
direction of the x axis. What is the particle’s velocity ⃗v at t=5 s , in unit vector notation
and as a magnitude and an angle?
^
Ans :⃗v =−12 i+16 ^j ( m/s ) , v=19 m/s ,θ=127 o

3.3 PROJECTILE MOTION

A projectile is a particle which moves in a vertical plane with some initial velocity ⃗v o
but its acceleration is always the free fall acceleration ⃗g which is downward.
Example of a projectile is a golf ball. The motion of a projectile is called projectile
motion.

Consider the figure below.

Page 14 of 42
When an object is projected at an angle to the horizontal, as shown in figure above,
the following should be noted:
(i) the horizontal component of the velocity v ox is constant;
(ii) the vertical component of the velocity v oy changes;
(iii) the vertical component of the velocity is zero at the highest point;
(iv) the vertical acceleration a y =−g throughout the motion, while the horizontal
acceleration a x is zero.
In projectile motion, the horizontal motion and the vertical motion are independent
of each other; that is, neither motion affects the other.

Vertical motion:
Initial velocity v oy =v o sin θ, acceleration a y =−g
Let H be the maximum height reached. At maximum height v y =0.
2 2
Using v y =v oy +2 a y H
2
0=( v o sin θ ) + 2 (−g ) H
2 2
0=v o sin θ−2 gH
2 2
v o sin θ
H= … 3.14
2g
Let the time taken to reach the maximum height be t .
Using v y =v oy + a y t
0=v o sin θ+ (−g ) t
0=v o sin θ−¿
v o sin θ
t= …3.15
g
When the object landed on the ground, the vertical displacement H=0. Let T be the
total time of flight.
1 2
Using H y =v oy t+ a y t
2

Page 15 of 42
 1 2
0=v o sin θ T + (−g ) T
2
Dividing through by t , we have
1
0=v o sin θ− >¿
2
¿ =v sin θ
2 o
2 v o sin θ
T= =2 t … 3.16
g

Horizontal Motion:
Initial velocity v ox=v o cos θ=constant ,a x =0
To obtain the range (horizontal displacement) of the projectile, we use
1 2
x−x o=v ox t + a x t
2
The range R of the projectile is
1 2
R=v ox T + a x t
2
Since ax =0 ,then
R=v ox T

R=( v o cos θ )
2
(2 v o sin θ
g )
v o ( 2sin θ cos θ )
R=
g
recall , 2 sinθ cos θ=sin2 θ
2
v o sin2 θ
R= ..3.17
g
2
v
The maximum value of R is o and it occurs when sin 2 θ=1, or 2 θ=90o ,∴ θ=45 o.
g
Therefore the maximum range is obtained if the object is projected at an angle 45 o to
the horizontal.

Example 12:
A pirate ship is 560 m from a military island base. A military cannon (large gun on
wheels) located at sea level fires balls at initial speed v o=82 m/s . ( a ) At what angleθ
from the horizontal must a ball be fired to hit the ship? ( b ) How far should the pirate
ship be from the cannon if it is to be beyond the maximum range of the cannonballs?

Solution:
2
v o sin 2θ
( a ) R=
g
gR
sin 2 θ= 2
vo

Page 16 of 42
 2 θ=sin
−1
( )
gR
2
vo
=sin
(
−1 9.8 ×560

82
2
−1
)
=sin 0.816=54.68
o
o

54.68
θ=
2
o
θ=27.34

2
v sin 2θ
( b ) R= o
g
o
The range R is maximum at θ=45
822 ×sin ( 2 × 45o )
R=
9.8
R=686 m
∴ The ship should be beyond 686 m ( i. e . R>686 m ) for the ship¿ be safe .

Example 13:
A projectile shot at an angle of 60 o above the horizontal strikes a building 25 m away
at a point 16 m above the point of projection. Find the magnitude and direction of the
velocity of the projectile as it strikes the building.

Solution:

Horizontal motion
1 2
Using x=v ox t + a x t
2
recall a x =0 , v ox=v o cos θ
x=v o cos θ t

Page 17 of 42
 x 25 50
t= = =
v o cos θ v o × cos 60 v o
Vertical motion
1 2
Using y =v oy t + a y t
2
recall a y =−g , v oy =v o sinθ
1 2
y=v o sin θ t− g t
2

( )
2
o 50 1 50
16=v o ×sin 60 × − ×9.8 × 2
vo 2 vo
12,250
16=43.3− 2
vo
v o=21.18 m/s
50 50
Now ,t= = =2.36 s
v o 21.18
o
v ox=v o cos θ=21.18 ×cos 60 =10.59 m/s
o
v oy =v o sin θ=21.18× sin 60 =18.34 m/s
Using v=v o+ at
v x =v ox + ax t=10.59+ ( 0 ) t=10.59 m/s
v y =v oy +a y t=18.34 + (−9.8 ) ×2.36=−4.79 m/s
v=√ v x + v y =√ ( 10.59 ) + (−4.79 ) =11.62m/s
2 2 2 2

θ=tan−1 (
−4.79
10.59 )=−24.330

EXERCISE

1. A projectile leaves the ground at an angle of 60 o to the horizontal. Its kinetic

energy is E . Neglecting air resistance, find in terms of E its kinetic energy at
1
the highest point of the motion. (Answer: E)
4

2. An object is released from an aeroplane which is diving at an angle of 30o from

the horizontal with a speed of 50 m/s . If the plane is at a height of 4000 m from
the ground when the object is released, find
(a) the velocity of the object when it hits the ground.
(b) the time taken for the object to reach the ground.

4.0 DYNAMICS

Dynamics is a branch of mechanics which deals with the forces that give rise to
motion. Just as kinematics describes how objects move without describing the force
Page 18 of 42
that caused the motion, Newton’s laws of motion are the foundation of dynamics
which describes the motion and force responsible for the motion.

4.1 FORCE

Force is that which changes the velocity of an object. Force is a vector quantity. An
external force is one which lies outside of the system being considered.

4.1.1 TYPES OF FORCES

Contact Force is that in which one object has to be in contact with another to exert
a force on it. A push or pull on an object are examples of contact force.

Tension ⃗
T is the force on a string or chain tending to stretch it.

Normal force ⃗
F N is the force which acts perpendicular to a surface which supports
an object.

Weight ⃗ W of an object is the force with which gravity pulls downward upon it. It is
given as ⃗
W =m ⃗g . It is equal to the gravitational force on the body.

Frictional force ⃗f is the force on a body when the body slides or attempts to slide
along a surface and is always parallel to the surface and directed so as to oppose the
motion of the body.

Other important forces include gravitational force or simply gravity,

electromagnetic force, nuclear force.

4.1.2 NET FORCE

The net force is the vector sum of all force vectors that act on an object. It is
expressed as:
n
F net=∑ ⃗
⃗ F i= ⃗
F 1 +⃗
F2 +…+ ⃗
F n … 4.1
i=1
In Cartesian components, the net force are given by
n
F net , x =∑ F i , x =⃗
⃗ F1 , x + ⃗
F2 , x +…+ ⃗
Fn, x
i=1
n
F net , y =∑ F i , y = ⃗
⃗ F1, y + ⃗
F 2 , y +…+ ⃗
F n , y … 4.2
i=1
n
F net , z=∑ Fi , z =⃗
⃗ F 1 , z +⃗
F 2 ,z + …+ ⃗
F n ,z
i=1

Page 19 of 42
4.2 NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION

4.2.1 Newton’s First Law

If no net force acts on a body (i.e. ⃗

F net=0), then the body’s velocity cannot change;
that is, the body cannot accelerate. If it was moving, it will remain in motion in a
straight line with the same constant velocity.

4.2.2 Newton’s Second Law

If a net external force, ⃗

F net acts on an object with mass m , the force will cause an
acceleration, a⃗ , in the same direction as the force. Mathematically, the law is
expressed as:
⃗
F net=m a⃗ … 4.3
Which may be written in Cartesian components as
⃗
F net , x =m a x , ⃗
F net , y =m a y , ⃗
F net ,z =m a z … 4.4

4.2.3 Newton’s Third Law

The forces that two interacting objects exert on each other are always exactly
equal in magnitude and opposite in direction:
⃗
F 1→ 2=− ⃗
F 2 →1 … 4.5

Example 14:
Three forces that act on a particle are given by
^
F 1=( 20 i−36
⃗ ^j +73 k^ ) N , ⃗
F 2=(−17 i^ +21 ^j−46 k^ ) N∧ ⃗
F 3=(−12 k^ ) N . Find their resultant (net)
vector. Also find the magnitude of the resultant to two significant figures.

Solution:
⃗F net= ⃗F 1 +⃗
F2 + ⃗ F3
⃗F net , x =[ 20 i^ + (−17 i^ ) ] N=3 i^ N
⃗
F =[ −36 ^j+21 ^j ] N=−15 ^j N
net , y

F net , z= [ 73 k−46
⃗ ^ ^
k−12 k^ ] N =15 k^ N
F net= [ 3 i−15
⃗ ^ ^j+ 15 k^ ] N
⃗ net|=√ 32+ (−15 )2 +152=√ 459=21 N
F=|F

Example 15:
Five coplanar forces act on an object as shown in the figure below. Find the resultant
of the forces. The magnitude of the forces are: F 1=15 N , F 2=19 N , F 3=22 N , F 4=11 N ,
F 5=16 N .

Page 20 of 42
Solution:
⃗
F net= ⃗F 1 +⃗ F2 + ⃗ F 3 +⃗
F 4+ ⃗F5
F 1= F1 , x + F1 , y =F 1 cos 60 i+ F 1 sin 60 ^j
o^
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ o

⃗
F 2= ⃗ F2 , x i^ =F 2 i^
⃗
F 3=−⃗ F 3 , y ^j =−F 3 ^j
⃗
F 4=− ⃗ ^ ⃗
F 4 ,x i− F 4 , y ^j=−F 4 cos 30 i−F
o^ o^
4 sin30 j
⃗
F 5=−⃗ F 5 ,x + ⃗
o
F 5 , y =−F 5 cos 45 + F5 sin 45
o

o^
⃗ sin 60 ^j=7.5 i+12.99
^ ^j
o
F 1=15 cos 60 i+15
⃗
F 2=19 i^
⃗
F 3=−22 ^j
F 4=−11 cos 30 i−11sin 30 ^j=−9.53 i−5.5
o^ ^ ^j
⃗ o

⃗ o o ^
F 5=−16 cos 45 +16 sin 45 =−11.31 i+11.31 ^j

⃗
F net , x =( 7.5+19−9.53−11.31 ) i^ N=5.66 i^ N
⃗
F net , y =( 12.99−22−5.5+11.31 ) ^j N=−3.2 ^j N
F net= √ ( 5.66 ) + (−3.2 ) =6.5 N
⃗ 2 2

Example 16:
A mass of 55 kg was suspended with two ropes as shown in the figure below. What is
the tension in each rope if θ=45 o?

Page 21 of 42
Solution:

F net=∑ ⃗
⃗ F i=M ( ⃗a )=M ( 0 )=0
∑ F x =T 1 x +T 2 x =( T 1 cos θ−T 2 cos θ ) i^ =0
⃗ ⃗ ⃗
∑ ⃗F y =T⃗ 1 y +⃗T 2 y − ⃗
W =[ T 1 sin θ+ T 2 sin θ−55 ( 9.8 ) ] ^j =0
Note , both ropes support theload equally
⃗
T 1= ⃗
T 2 =⃗
T
T cos θ−T cos θ=0
T sin θ+T sin θ−539=0
2 T sin θ=539=0
539
T=
2× sin 45
T =381 N
Example 17:

Page 22 of 42
A cord holds stationary a block of mass m=15 kg on a frictionless plane that is
inclined at angle θ=27o . ( a )What is the magnitude of the tension ⃗T on the block from
the cord and the normal force ⃗ N on the block from the plane? ( b )If the cord is cut, so
that the body slides down the plane, calculate the acceleration of the body.

Solution:
(a) The free body diagram is sketched as

We note from Newton’s 2nd law, ⃗

F net=m a⃗
⃗
T+⃗ N +⃗ F g=m ⃗a …(1)
a⃗ =0(since the forces are∈equilibrium)
⃗
T+⃗ N +⃗ F g=0 … (2)
solving∈the cartesiancoordinates , we have
x :T +0−F g sinθ=0
T =F g sin θ=mg sin θ
o
T =15 ×9.8 × sin 27 =66.74 N
y :0+ N −F g cos θ=0
N=F g cosθ=mgcos θ
o
N=15 × 9.8 ×cos 27
N=130.98 N

( b ) Cutting the co rd removes force T⃗ ¿the block , so that the block slides along x axis
∴ equation ( 2 ) becomes
0+ 0−F g sin θ=ma
−mg sin θ=ma
a=−g sin θ
o
a=−9.8 × sin27
2
a=−4.45 m/ s

5.0 KINETIC ENERGY, WORK, AND POWER

5.1 KINETIC ENERGY

Page 23 of 42
The kinetic energy K is energy associated with the state of motion of a particle and
is defined as:
1 2
K= mv … 5.1
2
where m , is the mass of the particle and v is the speed of the particle which is well
below the speed of light. Its S.I. unit is the joule (J).

Example 18:
A car of mass 1310 kg being driven at a speed limit of 24.6 m/s has a kinetic energy of:
1 2 1 2 5
K car = m v = ( 1310 ) ( 24.6 ) =4.0 ×10 J
2 2

5.2 WORK
Work W is the energy transferred to or from an object by means of a force acting on
the object. Energy transferred to the object is positive work, and energy transferred
from the object is negative work. It is a scalar quantity.

The work done by a force can be defined as the product of the magnitude of the
displacement and the component of the force in the direction of the displacement.
The unit of work in S.I. is the Joule (J).

Consider the figure below.

Work can be expressed mathematically as

W =Fx cos φ … (5.2 )
¿
W =⃗
F . ⃗x … ( 5.3 )
Equation ( 5.3 ) is especially useful for calculating the work when ⃗
F and ⃗x are given in
unit vector notations.

Page 24 of 42
Consider the figure below.

If a force displaces the particle through a distance dr , then the work done dW by the
forced is
dW =⃗
F . d ⃗r …(5.4)
The total work done by the force in moving the particle from initial point i to final
point f will be
f f
W =∫ ⃗
F . d ⃗r =∫ Fdr cos θ …(5.5)
i i

5.3 WORK-KINETIC ENERGY THEOREM

The work-kinetic energy theorem states that “when a body is acted upon by a force
or resultant force, the work done by the force is equal to the change in kinetic
energy of the body.”

Proof:
f f
W =∫ ⃗
F . d ⃗r =∫ Fdr cos θ
i i
Force ⃗
F is∈the direction of displacement d ⃗r ,∴ θ=0
f f
W =∫ Fdr=∫ madr
i i
f f
W =∫ m
i
( dvdt ) dr=∫ m ( dvdr drdt )dr
i
f f f
dv
W =∫ m vdr=∫ mvdv=m∫ vdv
i dr i i

[ ] [ ]
2 f 2 2
v vf vi
W =m =m −
2 i 2 2
1 2 1 2
W = m v f − m v i … (5.6)
2 2
W =K f −K i
W =∆ K …(5.7)

Page 25 of 42
5.4 POWER

Power is the rate of doing work. If an amount of work ∆ W is done in a small interval
of time ∆ t , the power P is
∆ W dW
= P= lim
…(5.8)
∆t→0 ∆ t dt
Power is a scalar quantity and its unit is J / s which is also called the watt (W ).

For a constant force

dW ⃗ d r⃗ ⃗
P= =F . = F . v⃗ (5.9)
dt dt
d r⃗
since theinstantaneous velocity ⃗v =
dt
If ⃗
F acts at an angle θ to ⃗v , then
P= ⃗
F . ⃗v =Fv cos θ …(5.10)

Example 19:
A body moves with velocity ⃗v =( 5 i+ ^ 2 ^j−3 k^ ) m/ s under the influence of a constant
^ 3 ^j−2 k^ ) N . Determine (a) the instantaneous power; (b) the angle
F =( 4 i+
force ⃗
between ⃗F and ⃗v .

Solution:
( a ) Power=⃗
F.⃗
V
^ 3 ^j−2 k^ ) . ( 5 i+
¿ ( 4 i+ ^ 2 ^j−3 k^ ) =20+6+ 6=32 W
( b ) P=FV cos θ
θ=cos−1
[ ]P
Fv
F=|⃗ F|= √ 4 +3 + (−2 ) = √ 29
2 2 2

V =|⃗v|=√ 5 2+ 22+ (−3 ) =√ 38

2

θ=cos−1 [ ]P
Fv
=cos−1
[ √
32
29× √ ]
38
=15.43o

Example 20:
A crate slides across an oily parking lot through a displacement d= ⃗ (−3 m ) i^ while a
steady wind pushes against the crate with a force ⃗ F =( 2 N ) i^ + (−6 N ) ^j. (a) Calculate the
work done by the wind, (b) if the crate has a kinetic energy of 10 J at the beginning of
the displacement d⃗ , what is the kinetic energy at the end of d⃗ ?

Solution:
F . ⃗d=( 2 i^ −6 ^j ) . (−3 i^ ) =( 2 i^ −6 ^j ) . ( −3 i+0
( a ) W =⃗ ^ ^j )=−6 J

Page 26 of 42
( b ) W =∆ K =K f −k i
K f =W + K i=−6+10=4 J

EXERCISE
A constant force ⃗ F =( 5 i+ ^ ^j+4 k^ ) m to a
^ 3 ^j−2 k^ ) N moves a particle from position r⃗ 1=( 2 i−
position r⃗2=( 3 i^ +5 ^j+ k^ ) m. Calculate the work done by the force. [ Ans=29 J ]

Page 27 of 42
6.0 POTENTIAL ENERGY

Potential energy U is the energy that can be associated with the configuration (or
arrangement) of a system of objects that exerts forces on one another.

Consider a tennis ball thrown upward as shown in figure 6.1 below.

As the ball is thrown upward, the gravitational force does negative work on it by
decreasing its kinetic energy. As the ball descends, the gravitational force does
positive work on it by increasing its kinetic energy. Thus the change in potential
energy is defined to equal the negative of work done. That is
∆ U =−W … ( 6.1 )
Recall that
xf

W =∫ F ( x ) dx
xi
xf

∴ ∆ U =−∫ F ( x ) dx … ( 6.2 )
xi

6.1 GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY

Gravitational potential energy is the potential energy associated with a system
consisting of Earth and a nearby particle.
yf yf yf

∆ U =−∫ F ( y ) dy=−∫ (−mg ) dy=mg∫ dy=mg [ y ] y =mg ( y f − y i )

yf
i
yi yi yi
∆ U =mg ∆ y … ( 6.3 )
Usually, reference point y i is taken as zero.
∆ U =mgy … ( 6.4 )

Page 28 of 42
Example 21:
A mass of 2 kg hangs 5 m above the ground. What is the gravitational potential energy
of the mass-earth system at (i) the ground, (ii) a height of 3 m above the ground, and
(iii) a height of 6m.

Solution:
( i ) U =mg ( y f − y i )=2× 9.8 × ( 5−0 )=98 J
(ii)U =mg ( y f − y i )=2× 9.8 × ( 5−3 )=39.2 J
( iii ) U =mg ( y f − y i )=2 × 9.8× ( 5−6 )=−19.6 J

6.2 ELASTIC POTENTIAL ENERGY

Elastic potential energy is the energy associated with the state of compression or
extension of an elastic object. For a spring that exerts a force f =−kx when its free
end has displacement x , the elastic potential is
xf xf xf

∆ U =−∫ Fdx=−∫ (−kx ) dx=k ∫ xdx

xi xi xi

[ ]
2 xf
x 1 2 1 2
¿k = k x f − k xi … ( 6.5 )
2 x
i
2 2

6.3 CONSERVATION OF MECHANICAL ENERGY

We recall from equation (5.7)
W =∆ K … ( 6.6 )
Also, we recall from equation (6.1)
W =−∆ U … ( 6.7 )
Combining equations (6.5) and (6.6)
∆ K =−∆ U
K 2−K 1 =−( U 2−U 1)
Rearranging
K 2 +U 2=K 1+U 1 … ( 6.8 )
In words,

(∑anyofstate of a system ) ( other state of the system )

K . E∧P . E for = the ∑ of K . E∧P. E for any

Equation (6.8) is the conservation of mechanical energy equation.

The principle of conservation of mechanical energy states that: In an isolated

system, the kinetic energy and potential energy can change, but their sum, the
mechanical energy Emec of the system cannot change. That is
∆ E mec =∆ K + ∆ U=0 … ( 6.9 )

Page 29 of 42
7.0 CENTER OF MASS

The center of mass of a body or a system of bodies is the point that moves as though
all of the masses were concentrated there and all external forces were applied there.

We define the position of the center of mass (com) of the two-particle separated by
a distance d in figure 7.1 as:
m2
x com= d … (7.1 )
m 1+ m 2
We arbitrarily chose the origin of the x axis to coincide with the particle of mass m1.

If the origin is located farther from the particles, the position of the center of mass is
calculated as:
m1 x 1 +m2 x 2
x com= … ( 7.2 )
m1 +m2
Generally, for n particles along x axis
m1 x 1 +m2 x 2 +m3 x 3 +…+ mn x n 1 n
x com= = ∑ mi x i … ( 7.3 )
M M i=1

Page 30 of 42
where M =m1 +m2+ m3+ …+mn.

If the particles are distributed in three dimensions, the center of mass must be
identified by three coordinates.
n n n
1 1 1
x com= ∑ mi x i , y com= ∑ mi yi , z com= ∑ mi z i … ( 7.4 )
M i=1 M i=1 M i=1

Example 22:
Three particles of mass m1=1.2 kg , m2=2.5 kg , and m3=3.4 kg form an equilateral
triangle of edge length a=140 cm. Where is the center of mass of this three-particle
system?

Solution:

The distance y can be obtained using Pythagoras theorem

2 2 2
140 =70 + y 3
2 2 2
y 3=140 −70 =19600−4900=14700
y 3= √ 14700=121 cm
m1 x 1 +m2 x 2 +m3 x 3 (1.2 )( 0 )+ ( 2.5 )( 140 )+ ( 3.4 ) ( 70 )
x com= = =83 cm
M 7.1

m1 y 1+ m2 y 2+ m3 y 3 ( 1.2 )( 0 )+ ( 2.5 ) ( 0 ) + ( 3.4 )( 121 )

y com = = =58 cm
M 7.1

Page 31 of 42
8.0 COLLISION

A Collision is an isolated event in which two or more bodies exert relatively strong
forces on each other for a relatively short time.

8.1 ELASTIC AND INELASTIC COLLISION

A collision is said to be elastic if the total kinetic energy of the system of two
colliding bodies is unchanged by the collision (i.e. conserved). Whereas, if the kinetic
energy of the system is not conserved, such a collision is called an inelastic
collision.

In every day collision such as collision of two cars, kinetic energy is not conserved,
since some kinetic energy will be lost in form of heat and sound.

8.2 LINEAR MOMENTUM

In physics, momentum ⃗p is defined as the product of an object’s mass and its
velocity:
⃗p=m ⃗v … ( 8.1 )
By Newton’s second law of motion, momentum is related to force by
⃗ d ⃗p
F= … ( 8.2 )
dt
-
8.3 LAW OF CONSERVATION OF LINEAR MOMENTUM
The law states that: In a closed, isolated system, the linear momentum of each
colliding body may change but the total linear momentum ⃗p of the system
cannot change, whether the collision is elastic or inelastic.
⃗
P=constant∨ ⃗
P i=⃗
Pf … ( 8.3 )
wherei and f denote initial and final respectively.

8.4 ELASTIC COLLISIONS IN ONE DIMENSION

Consider the collision of two masses m1 and m2 along x axis.

By conservation of linear momentum, we have

Page 32 of 42
 m1 v 1 i+ m2 v 2 i=m1 v 1 f + m2 v 2 f … ( 8.4 )
Also, kinetic energy is conserved for elastic collision. So, we have
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
m1 v 1i + m2 v 2 i= m1 v 1 f + m2 v 2 f … ( 8.5 )
2 2 2 2
Equations 8.4 and 8.5 can be used simultaneously if there are two unknowns.

Example 23:

A block of mass m1=1.6 kg , moving to the right with a speed of 4 m/s on a frictionless,
horizontal track, collides with a spring attached to a second block, of mass m2=2.1 kg ,
that is moving to the left with a speed of 2.5 m/s . The spring constant is 600 N /m . For
the instant when m1 is moving to the right with a speed of 3 m/s , determine
(a) the velocity of m2 and
(b) the distance, x , that the spring is compressed.

Solution:
(a)
m1 v 1 i+ m2 v 2 i=m1 v 1 f + m2 v 2 f
( 1.6 )( 4 ) + ( 2.1 ) (−2.5 )= (1.6 ) (3 )+ ( 2.1 ) ( v 2 f )
v 2 f =−1.74 m/s
(b)
¿ determine the compression x , we apply the conservation of
energy principle
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
m1 v 1i + m 2 v 2 i= m 1 v 1 f + m 2 v 2 f + k x
2 2 2 2 2
substitutingthe given values , we have
x=0.173 m

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9.0 UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION

A particle is said to be in uniform circular motion if it travels around a circle or a

circular arc at a constant (uniform) speed.

Figure 9.1 shows the relation between the velocity and acceleration vectors at
different stages during uniform circular motion.

The following points must be noted:

(i) Although the speed is uniform, the velocity (a vector) changes in direction,
therefore, a particle in uniform circular motion accelerates.
(ii) The velocity vector ⃗v is always directed tangentially to the circle in the
direction of the motion.
(iii) The acceleration is always directed radially inward, therefore the acceleration
is called centripetal acceleration.
(iv) The magnitude of the centripetal acceleration is:
2
v
a= … ( 9.1 )
r
wherer is the radius of the circle and v is the speed of the particle.
(v) The particle travels the circumference of the circle in time
2 πr
T= … ( 9.2 )
v
whereT is called the period of revolution.

EXERCISE
2
v
Prove that the centripetal acceleration is a= .
r

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Solution:

^ v y ^j
v⃗ =v x i+
⃗v =(−v sin θ ) i+^ ( v cos θ ) ^j
y x
¿ diagram , sin θ= , cosθ=
r r

( y
) ( )
⃗v = −v i^ + v ^j
r
x
r
d ⃗v d
a⃗ = = ( v⃗ )=
dt dt ( ) ( )
−v dy ^ v dx ^
r dt
i+
r dt
j
dy θ∧dx
Note =v y =v cos =v x =v sin θ
dt dt
a⃗ = (−v
r ) ( ) v
v cos θ i^ + v sin θ ^j
r

√r
a=|a⃗|= ( v cos θ ) + ( v sin θ )
2 2
−v v
r

√v ( ) ( ) (sinv θ) v
2 2 2 2
v
¿ ( cos θ ) + v
2 2
r r

√r √r r
¿ ( ) ( cos θ+ sin θ )= ( ) =
2 2 2 2 2
2 2

2
v
∴ a=
r

10.0 ROTATION

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10.1 RIGID BODY
A rigid body is a body that can rotate with all its part locked together and without a
change in its shape.

10.2 ROTATION
Rotation occurs when every point of a rigid body moves in a circle whose center lies
on the axis of rotation, and every point moves through the same angle during a
particular time interval.

10.3 ANGULAR POSITION ( θ )

Angular position θ is the angle of a reference line relative to a fixed direction, say x .
s
θ= ( rad ) … ( 10.1 )
r
where s is the length of arc and r is the radius of the circle. θis measured in radians
(rad ).

10.4 ANGULAR DISPLACEMENT

A body undergoes angular displacement if it changes angular position from θ1to θ2. It
is expressed as:
∆ θ=θ2−θ 1 … ( 10.2 )

10.5 ANGULAR VELOCITY AND SPEED

The average angular speedω avg is the ratio of the angular displacement ∆ θ to time
∆ t of a body undergoing rotation. It is expressed as:
∆θ
ω avg= … 10.3
∆t
The instantaneous angular velocity ⃗
ω of the body is:
∆ θ dθ
ω = lim
⃗ = … ( 10.4 )
∆ t →0 ∆ t dt

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The magnitude of the body’s angular velocity is the angular speed ω .

10.6 ANGULAR ACCELERATION

The average angular acceleration is expressed as
∆ ω ω2−ω1
α avg=
= … ( 10.5 )
∆t t 2−t 1
The instantaneous angular acceleration α of a body is expressed as:
∆ ω dω
α = lim = … ( 10.6 )
∆ t →0 ∆ t dt

10.7 RELATING THE ANGULAR AND LINEAR VARIABLES

Since for a rigid body, all particles make one revolution in the same amount of time,
they all have the same angular speed ω . When a rigid body rotates, each particle in
the body moves in its own circle about that axis.

Recall from equation 10.1.

The Position S=θr … ( 10.7 )

dS d dθ
Speed v= = ( θr )=r =rω
dt dt dt
v=rω… ( 10.8 )
where v is the linear speed and ω is the angular speed.

A rigid body in rotational motion will have two forms of acceleration.

dv d dω
( 1 ) Tangential acceleration at = = ( ωr )=r =rα … ( 10.9 )
dt dt dt
2
v 2 ( rω )
( 2 ) Radial acceleration ar = = =r ω2 … ( 10.10 )
r r

10.8 KINETIC ENERGY OF ROTATION

2 1
We cannot apply the formula k = m v to rigid body such as compact disc because,
2
the kinetic energy of its center of mass is zero ( m=0 at the center ).

Instead, we treat the compact disc as a collection of particles with different speeds.
1 2 1 2 1 2
k = m 1 v 1+ m 2 v 2 + m 3 v 3+ …
2 2 2

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 1
k =∑ m i v i
2
2
since v=ωr
1
k =∑ m i ( r i ω )
2
2
1
k = ( ∑ mi r i ) ω
2 2
2
The quantity in parenthesis is called the rotational inertia or moment of inertia I
of the body with respect to the axis of rotation.
1 2
∴ k = I ω … ( 10.11 )
2
where
I =∑ mi r i … ( 10.12 )
2

10.9 PERPENDICULAR AXES THEOREM

Statement of the theorem: The moments of inertia of any plane lamina about an
axis normal to the plane of the lamina is equal to the sum of the moments of inertia
about any two mutually perpendicular axis passing through the given axis and lying
in the plane of the lamina. That is,
I z =I x + I y … ( 10.13 )
Proof:

The position vector of particle with mass mi in the xy plane is:

⃗
Ri=x i ⃗i + y i ⃗j
So that, the moment of inertia of particle miis mi R 2i .
∴ The total moment of inertia of all particles about z axisis
n n
I z =∑ mi R2i =¿ ∑ mi ( x 2i + y 2i ) ¿
i=1 i=1

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 n n
¿ ∑ mi x + ∑ mi y 2i
2
i
i=1 i=1
I z =I x + I y

11.0 GRAVITATION

Gravitation is the tendency of bodies to move toward each other. Isaac Newton
proposed a force law that we call Newton’s Law of gravitation.

11.1 NEWTON’S LAW OF GRAVITATION

The law states that: Every particle attracts any other particle with a
gravitational force whose magnitude is given by
Gm1 m2 Newto n' s Law of
F=
r
2 (
Gravitation
… ( 11.1 )
)
wherem1 and m2 are the masses of the particle, r is the distance between them, and G
is the gravitational constant with a value G=6.67× 10−11 N . m2 /kg2.

11.2 SUPERPOSITION PRINCIPLE

This is a principle that says the net force on a particle is the vectorial summation
of forces of attraction between the particle and individual interacting particles.
Mathematically, the principle is expressed as
n
F 1, net =∑ ⃗
⃗ F1 i = ⃗
F 12+ ⃗
F 13 + ⃗
F14 + …+ ⃗
F1 n … ( 11.2 )
i=2

if there are n interacting particles. Here, ⃗

F 1, net is the net force on particle 1.

For extended object, we write the principle as

F 1=∫ d ⃗
⃗ F … ( 11.3 )

Example 24:

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The figure shows an arrangement of three particles. m1=6 kg , m2=m3 =4 kg, and
distance a=2 cm. What is the magnitude of the net gravitational force ⃗
F 1net that acts
on particle 1 due to other particles.

Solution:

By superposition principle
⃗
F 1net = ⃗ F 12+ ⃗F 13
⃗F 12=F 12 i + F 12 j =F 12 i^
^ ^
⃗
F 13=F 13 i^ + F 13 ^j=−F 13 ^j
G m1 m2 ( 6.67 ×1011 ) ( 6 )( 4 ) −6
F 12= 2
= 2
=4 ×10 N
a ( 0.02 )
G m1 m2 ( 6.67 ×1011 ) ( 6 ) ( 4 )
F 13= 2
= 2
=1 ×10−6 N
( 2 a) ( 0.04 )
⃗ ^
F 12=F 12 i=4 ×10 N i^
−6

F 13=−F13 ^j=−1 ×10 N ^j

⃗ −6

⃗
F 1net = ⃗
F 12+ ⃗ F 13=4 ×10−6 N i+ ^ (−1× 10−6 N ^j )
√ 2
F 1net = ( F 12) + (−F 13 )
2

√ 2
F 1net = ( 4 ×10 ) + (−1× 10 )
−6

−6
−6 2

F 1net =4.1× 10 N

Page 40 of 42
EXERCISE

(1)

Five particles are arranged as shown in the figure above.

m1=8 kg , m2=m3 =m4=m5=2 kg , a=3 cm ,and θ=30o. What is the gravitational
force ⃗
F 1net on particle 1 due to the other particles.

(2) What must be the separation between a 5.2 kg particle and a 2.4 kg particle for
their gravitational attraction to have a magnitude of 2.3 ×10−12 N ?

(3) In the figure below, two spheres of mass m and a third sphere of mass M form
an equilateral triangle. The net gravitational force on that central sphere from
the three other spheres is zero. (a) What is M in terms of m ? (b) If we double
the value of m4 , what is the magnitude of the net gravitational force on the
central sphere?

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