9

Elasticity
Deforming Force
A force which produces a change in configuration of the object on
applying it, is called a deforming force.

Elasticity
Elasticity is that property of the object by virtue of which it regain its
original configuration after the removal of the deforming force.

Elastic Limit
Elastic limit is the upper limit of deforming force upto which, if
deforming force is removed, the body regains its original form
completely and beyond which if deforming force is increased the body
loses its property of elasticity and get permanently deformed.

Perfectly Elastic Bodies

Those bodies which regain its original configuration immediately and
completely after the removal of deforming force are called perfectly
elastic bodies. e.g. quartz, phospher bronze etc.

Perfectly Plastic Bodies

Those bodies which does not regain its original configuration at all on
the removal of deforming force are called perfectly plastic bodies. e.g.
putty, paraffin, wax etc.

Stress
The internal restoring force acting per unit area of a deformed body is
called stress.
Restoring force
Stress =
Area
2
Its SI unit is N/m or pascal and dimensional formula is [ML-1T -2 ].
 Elasticity 89
Stress is a tensor quantity.
Stress is of three types :
(i) Normal Stress If deforming force is applied normally to an
object, then the stress is called normal stress.
If there is an increase in length, then stress is called tensile
stress.
If there is a decrease in length, then stress is called
compression stress.
(ii) Volumetric Stress If deforming force is applied normally on an
object all over its surface, that changes its volume, then the
stress is called volumetric stress.
(iii) Tangential Stress If deforming force is applied tangentially
to an object, then the stress is called tangential stress. It changes
the shape of the object.

Strain
The fractional change in configuration is called strain.
Change in configuration
Strain =
Original configuration
It has no unit and it is a dimensionless quantity.
According to the change in configuration, the strain is of three types
Change in length
(i) Longitudinal strain =
Original length
Change in volume
(ii) Volumetric strain =
Original volume
(iii) Shearing strain = Angular displacement of the plane
perpendicular to the fixed surface.

Hooke’s Law
Within the limit of elasticity, the stress is proportional to the strain.
Stress µ Strain
or Stress = E ´ Strain
where, E is the modulus of elasticity of the material of the body.

Elastic Moduli
The ratio of stress and strain, called modulus of elasticity or elastic
moduli.
90 Handbook of Physics

Types of Modulus of Elasticity

Modulus of elasticity is of three types

1. Young’s Modulus of Elasticity

It is defined as the ratio of normal stress to the longitudinal strain
within the elastic limit.
Normal stress
Y =
Longitudinal strain
F Dl Mg Dl
Y = =
Al pr 2 l
Its SI unit is N/m 2 or pascal and its dimensional formula is [ML-1T -2 ].
Force Constant of Wire
Force required to produce unit elongation in a wire is called force
constant of a material of wire. It is denoted by k
YA
k=
l
where, Y = Young’s modulus of elasticity
and A = cross-section area of wire.

2. Bulk Modulus of Elasticity

It is defined as the ratio of volumetric stress to the volumetric strain
within the elastic limit.
Volumetric stress
K =
Volumetric strain
FV DpV
K =- =-
ADV DV
where, Dp = F / A = Change in pressure.
Negative sign implies that when the pressure increases volume
decreases and vice-versa.
Its SI unit is N/m 2 or pascal and its dimensional formula is [ML–1T –2 ].

Compressibility
Compressibility of a material is the reciprocal of its bulk modulus of
elasticity.
1
Compressibility (C ) =
K
Its SI unit is N -1m 2 and CGS unit is dyne–1 cm2.
 Elasticity 91
3. Modulus of Rigidity ( h) (Shear Modulus)
It is defined as the ratio of tangential stress to the shearing strain,
within the elastic limit.
Tangential stress
h=
Shearing strain
F
h=
Aq
Its SI unit is N/m 2 or pascal and its dimensional formula is [ML–1T –2 ].

Factors affecting Elasticity

(i) Modulus of elasticity of materials decreases with the rise in
temperature, except for invar.
(ii) By annealing elasticity of material decreases.
(iii) By hammering or rolling elasticity of material increases.
(iv) Addition of impurities affects elastic properties depending on
whether impurities are themselves more or less elastic.
Note
● For liquids, modulus of rigidity is zero.
● Young’s modulus (Y) and modulus of rigidity ( h) are possessed by solid materials
only.

Poisson’s Ratio
When a deforming force is applied at the free end of a suspended wire
of length l and radius R, then its length increases by dl but its radius
decreases by dR. Now two types of strains are produced by a single
force.
(i) Longitudinal strain = Dl/ l
(ii) Lateral strain = - DR/ R
Lateral strain - DR/ R
\ Poisson’s ratio ( s) = =
Longitudinal strain D l/ l
The theoretical value of Poisson’s ratio lies between - 1 and 0.5.
Its practical value lies between 0 and 0.5.
Relation Between Y , K, h and s
(i) Y = 3K (1 - 2s) (ii) Y = 2 h (1 + s)
3K - 2 h 9 1 3 9K h
(iii) s = (iv) = + or Y =
2 h + 6K Y K h h + 3K
92 Handbook of Physics

Important Points
● For the same material, the three coefficients of elasticity g , h and K have
different magnitudes.
● Isothermal elasticity of a gas E T = p where, p = pressure of the gas.
● Adiabatic elasticity of a gas E S = g p
Cp
where, g = , ratio of specific heats at constant pressure and at constant
CV
volume.
E Cp
● Ratio between isothermal elasticity and adiabatic elasticity S = g =
ET CV

Stress and Strain Curve

When a wire is stretched by a load as in Fig. (a), it is seen that for
small value of load, the extension produced in the wire is proportional
to the load as shown in Fig. (b). Hence,
Stress µ Strain
Beyond the limit of elasticity, the stress and strain are not
proportional to each other, on increasing the load further, the wire
breaks at point D, known as feature point.

Elastic limit or yield point Fracture point

C
B D
A Plastic deformation
Stress

Proportional
limit
Plastic behaviour
Elastic behaviour
Permanent set
Load = mg
O 0<1% O¢ Strain 30%
Fig.(a) Fig.(b)
Breaking Stress
The minimum value of stress required to break a wire, is called
breaking stress. Breaking stress is fixed for a material but breaking
force varies with area of cross-section of the wire.
Breaking stress
Safety factor =
Working stress

Elastic Relaxation Time

The time delay in restoring the original configuration after removal of
deforming force is called elastic relaxation time.
For quartz and phospher bronze this time is negligible.
 Elasticity 93
Elastic After Effect
The temporary delay in regaining the original configuration by the
elastic body after the removal of deforming force is called elastic after
effect.

Elastic Fatigue
The property of an elastic body by virtue of which its behaviour
becomes less elastic under the action of repeated alternating
deforming force is called elastic fatigue.

Ductile Materials
The materials which show large plastic range beyond elastic limits
are called ductile materials. e.g. copper, silver, iron, aluminum, etc.
Ductile materials are used for making springs and sheets.

Brittle Materials
The materials which show very small plastic range beyond elastic
limits are called brittle materials, e.g. glass, cast iron, etc.

Elastomers
The materials for which strain produced is much larger, than the
stress applied, within the limit of elasticity are called elastomers. e.g.
rubber, the elastic tissue of arota, the large vessel carrying blood from
heart etc. Elastomers have no plastic range.

Malleability
When a solid is compressed, a stage is reached beyond which it cannot
regains its original shape after the deforming force is removed. This
quality is called malleability of solid substance.

Elastic hysteresis
As a natural consequence of the elastic after-effect, the strain in the
body tends to lag behind the stress applied to the body so that during
a rapidly changing stress, the strain is greater for the same value of
stress. This lag of strain behind the stress is called elastic hysteresis.

Elastic Potential Energy in a Stretched Wire

The work done in stretching a wire is stored in the form of potential
energy of the wire.
Potential energy
1
U = Average force ´ Increase in length = FDl
2
94 Handbook of Physics

1
= Stress ´ Strain ´ Volume of the wire
2
Elastic potential energy per unit volume
1 1
U = ´ Stress ´ Strain = (Young’s modulus) ´ (Strain) 2
2 2
1
Elastic potential energy of a stretched spring = kx 2
2
where, k = Force constant of spring and x = Change in length.

Thermal Stress
When temperature of a rod fixed at its both ends is changed, then the
produced stress is called thermal stress.
F
Thermal stress = = Ya Dq
A
where, a = Coefficient of linear expansion of the material of the rod.
When temperature of a gas enclosed in a vessel is changed, then the
thermal stress produced is equal to change in
pressure ( Dp) of the gas. l
Thermal stress = Dp = Kg Dq
d
where, K = Bulk modulus of elasticity
and g = Coefficient of cubical expansion of the
gas. w

Cantilever
A beam clamped at one end and loaded at free end is called a
cantilever. Depression ( d) at the free end of a cantilever is given by
wl3
d=
3YIG
where, w = Load, l = Length of the cantilever, Y = Young’s modulus
of elasticity and IG = Geometrical moment of inertia.
For a beam of rectangular cross-section having breadth b and
bd3
thicknes d, IG =
12
pr 4
For a beam of circular cross-section area having radius r , IG =
4
 Elasticity 95
Beam Supported at Two Ends and Loaded at the Middle
l

w
3
wl
Depression at middle, d =
48YIG

Torsion of a Cylinder
If the upper end of a cylinder is clamped and a torque is applied at the
lower end the cylinder get twisted by angle q, then

f
l

phr 4
Couple per unit twist, C=
2l
where, h = Modulus of rigidity of the material of cylinder,
r = Radius of cylinder,
and l = length of cylinder.
Work done in twisting the cylinder through an angle q
1
W = Cq 2
2
Relation between angle of twist ( q ) and angle of shear ( f)
rq = lf
r
or f= q
l