2023/1/21

CIRCUIT AND NETWORK THEORY

II

COURSE CONTENT
Network classification and introduction to continuous time signals and
systems: Unit step, ramp and impulse signals, example of each signal,
differential equation formulation of linear time invariant continuous system,
responses for unit ramp, square pulse and impulse function. Review of Laplace
transform: initial value and final value theorem, properties and solution of
differential equation using LT, time domain analysis of LTI network using Laplace
transform, waveform synthesis, LT of complex waveforms, concept of transform
impedance, voltage ratio, transfer function, relation between impulse response
and system function. Networks theorems: maximum power transfer theorem,
superposition, Telligen’s, Milliman’s, Thevenin’s and Norton’s theorems, concept
of poles and zeros, relation between location of poles, time response and
stability. Two port networks: two port network parameters (z, y, T, T’, h, g),
symmetrical and reciprocal networks, inter-conversion of two port network
parameters, interconnection of two port networks, ladder networks, T-
transformation, image and characteristic impedance. Network functions: driving
point and transfer functions. Positive real function: definition and properties,
synthesis of LC, RL & RC circuits using Cauer and Foster’ s first and second form.

Course Lecturer: Prof. Eng. C Maina Muriithi,

PE Electrical Engineering 1
 2023/1/21

Expected Learning Outcomes

At the end of this course, the learner should be able
to;
• Obtain circuit parameters of dynamic circuits
using differential equations
• Solve dynamic circuits using Fourier and Laplace
transforms.
• Obtain the frequency response, resonance and
selectivity of RLC circuits.

Assessment & Grading

Final Exam 70%

CAT 10%
LAB WORK 15%
Homework Assignments 1,2,3 5%
TOTAL 100%

Course Lecturer: Prof. Eng. C Maina Muriithi,

PE Electrical Engineering 2
 2023/1/21

NEW TERMINOLOGY

t<0 After switching

t=0- Just before switching
t=0 Instant of switching
t=0+ Just after switching
t>0 After switching
t infinity Steady state

0. REVIEW OF DC AND AC
CIRCUIT THEORY

Course Lecturer: Prof. Eng. C Maina Muriithi,

PE Electrical Engineering 3
 2023/1/21

Circuit Elements

Independent voltage source

Ideal RS＝0
v
VS
+
VS

practical
VS  IRs
V  VS  IRs

Independent current source

Ideal
v

RS＝ ∞
I

IS i

practical
I S  V / RS
I  I S  V / RS

Course Lecturer: Prof. Eng. C Maina Muriithi,

PE Electrical Engineering 4
 2023/1/21

Voltage controlled (dependent) voltage source (VCVS)

+
vS +
_ v  vS
_

Current controlled (dependent) voltage source (CCVS)

iS +
_ v  riS

Q: What are the units for  and r?

Voltage controlled (dependent) current source (VCCS)

+
vS i  gvS
_

Current controlled (dependent) current source (CCCS)

iS i  iS

Q: What are the units for  and g?

Course Lecturer: Prof. Eng. C Maina Muriithi,

PE Electrical Engineering 5
 2023/1/21

1.3 Circuit Elements

Independent source
Can provide power to the circuit;
Excitation to circuit ;
Output is not controlled by external.

dependent source
Can provide power to the circuit;
No excitation to circuit;
Output is controlled by external.

Superposition Principle

Because the circuit is linear we can find the response of the circuit to each source
acting alone, and then add them up to find the response of the circuit to all sources
acting together. This is known as the superposition principle.

The superposition principle states that the voltage across (or the current through)
an element in a linear circuit is the algebraic sum of the voltages across (or
currents through) that element due to each independent source acting alone.

Course Lecturer: Prof. Eng. C Maina Muriithi,

PE Electrical Engineering 6
 2023/1/21

Turning sources off

Current source:

a
We replace it by a current source
i  is where
is is  0

b An open-circuit

Voltage source:

+ We replace it by a voltage source i

where
vs  0
DC
vs v  vs
-
An short-circuit

Example: In the circuit below, find the current i by superposition

 24V

DC

Turn off the two voltage sources (replace by

 
short circuits).
DC
12V

3A

i

 v1 
v2
12V

3A

i1

Course Lecturer: Prof. Eng. C Maina Muriithi,

PE Electrical Engineering 7
 2023/1/21

1 4  1 3  1 4 1 4   v1   0 
 v    
 1 4 1 4 1 8  2   3 


5 1
v1  v2  0
6 4
 v1 
v2
1 3
12V  v1  v2  3
 4 8
3A

 10 2 
i1 10
v2  v1 v1     3
3  8 8
i1  1
v1  3

Example: In the circuit below, find the current i by superposition

 24V

DC

  Turn off the 24V & 3A sources:

DC
12V

3A

i

i1
 

DC
12V
i2 
O.C.

i2

Course Lecturer: Prof. Eng. C Maina Muriithi,

PE Electrical Engineering 8
 2023/1/21

 

  

DC
O.C.
12V DC
12V
 
O.C.

i2 i2

12  4
3
16


12 DC
12V

i2  2 O.C.
6 i2

Example: In the circuit below, find the current i by superposition

 24V

DC

  Turn off the 3A & 12V sources:

DC
12V

3A
 24V
i
DC

i2
 

i3 
O.C.

i3

Course Lecturer: Prof. Eng. C Maina Muriithi,

PE Electrical Engineering 9
 2023/1/21

 4  8  4 4   i2   24 
 i    
  4 4  3  3   0 
 24V
16i2  4i3  24
DC

i2
 
4i2  7i3  0

i3 
O.C. 7
i3
i2  i3 i3  28  4   24
4
i3  1

 24V

DC

 
i  i1  i2  i3  1A  2A  1A  2A
DC
12V

3A

   24V

DC
i1 i2
 v1     
v2
12V DC
 12V

3A i2 i3 
O.C. O.C.
i1 i2 i3

i1  1 i2  2 i3  1

Course Lecturer: Prof. Eng. C Maina Muriithi,

PE Electrical Engineering 10
 2023/1/21

Thevenin's Theorem
Thevenin’s theorem states that a linear two-terminal resistive circuit can be replaced by
an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source VTh in series with a resistor RTh,
where VTh is the open-circuit voltage at the terminals, and RTh is the input or equivalent
resistance at the terminals when the independent sources are all turned off.

i a i a

RTh
Linear
Circuit RL RL
DC
VTh

b b

Rin Rin

Superposition Principle

The superposition principle states that

the voltage across (or the current
through) an element in a linear circuit is
the algebraic sum of the voltages across
(or currents through) that element due to
each independent source acting alone.

Course Lecturer: Prof. Eng. C Maina Muriithi,

PE Electrical Engineering 11
 2023/1/21

Turning sources off

Current source:

a
We replace it by a current source
i  is where
is is  0

b An open-circuit

Voltage source:

+ We replace it by a voltage source i

where
vs  0
DC
vs v  vs
-
An short-circuit

Example: In the circuit below, find the current i by superposition

 24V

DC

Turn off the two voltage sources (replace by

 
short circuits).
DC
12V

3A

i

 v1 
v2
12V

3A

i1

Course Lecturer: Prof. Eng. C Maina Muriithi,

PE Electrical Engineering 12
 2023/1/21

1 4  1 3  1 4 1 4   v1   0 
 v    
 1 4 1 4 1 8  2   3 


5 1
v1  v2  0
6 4
 v1 
v2
1 3
12V  v1  v2  3
 4 8
3A

 10 2 
i1 10
v2  v1 v1     3
3  8 8
i1  1
v1  3

Example: In the circuit below, find the current i by superposition

 24V

DC

  Turn off the 24V & 3A sources:

DC
12V

3A

i

i1
 

DC
12V
i2 
O.C.

i2

Course Lecturer: Prof. Eng. C Maina Muriithi,

PE Electrical Engineering 13
 2023/1/21

 

  

DC
O.C.
12V DC
12V
 
O.C.

i2 i2

12  4
3
16


12 DC
12V

i2  2 O.C.
6 i2

Example: In the circuit below, find the current i by superposition

 24V

DC

  Turn off the 3A & 12V sources:

DC
12V

3A
 24V
i
DC

i2
 

i3 
O.C.

i3

Course Lecturer: Prof. Eng. C Maina Muriithi,

PE Electrical Engineering 14
 2023/1/21

 4  8  4 4   i2   24 
 i    
  4 4  3  3   0 
 24V
16i2  4i3  24
DC

i2
 
4i2  7i3  0

i3 
O.C. 7
i3
i2  i3 i3  28  4   24
4
i3  1

 24V

DC

 
i  i1  i2  i3  1A  2A  1A  2A
DC
12V

3A

   24V

DC
i1 i2
 v1     
v2
12V DC
 12V

3A i2 i3 
O.C. O.C.
i1 i2 i3

i1  1 i2  2 i3  1

Course Lecturer: Prof. Eng. C Maina Muriithi,

PE Electrical Engineering 15
 2023/1/21

Thevenin's Theorem
Thevenin’s theorem states that a linear two-terminal resistive
circuit can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a
voltage source VTh in series with a resistor RTh, where VTh is the
open-circuit voltage at the terminals, and RTh is the input or
equivalent resistance at the terminals when the independent
sources are all turned off.

i a i a

RTh
Linear
Circuit RL RL
DC
VTh

b b

Rin Rin

Course Lecturer: Prof. Eng. C Maina Muriithi,

PE Electrical Engineering 16
 2023/1/21

THEVENIN & NORTON

THEVENIN’S THEOREM: Example 10.4: Working
with a mix of independent and dependent sources.

Find the voltage across the 100  load resistor by first finding
the Thevenin circuit to the left of terminals A-B.

IS A

50  40 
30 
_+ 86 V
100 

6 IS
B


Figure 10.19: Circuit for Example 10.4

21

THEVENIN & NORTON

THEVENIN’S THEOREM: Example 10.4: continued
First remove the 100  load resistor and find VAB = VTH to
the left of terminals A-B.
IS A

50  40 
30 
_+ 86 V

6 IS
B

Figure 10.20: Circuit for find VTH, Example 10.4.

 86  80 I S  6 I S  0  I S  1 A
VAB  6 I S  30 I S   36V
22

Course Lecturer: Prof. Eng. C Maina Muriithi,

PE Electrical Engineering 17
 2023/1/21

THEVENIN & NORTON

THEVENIN’S THEOREM: Example 10.4: continued
To find RTH we deactivate all independent sources but retain
all dependent sources as shown in Figure 10.21.

IS A

50  40 
30  RTH

6 IS
B

Figure 10.21: Example 10.4, independent sources deactivated.
We cannot find RTH of the above circuit, as it stands. We
must apply either a voltage or current source at the load
and calculate the ratio of this voltage to current to find RTH.

23

THEVENIN & NORTON

THEVENIN’S THEOREM: Example 10.4: continued
IS 1A

50  40 
30 
IS + 1 V 1A
6 IS

Figure 10.22: Circuit for find RTH, Example 10.4.

Around the loop at the left we write the following equation:

50 I S  30( I S  1)  6 I S  0
From which
15
IS  A
24 43

Course Lecturer: Prof. Eng. C Maina Muriithi,

PE Electrical Engineering 18
 2023/1/21

THEVENIN & NORTON

THEVENIN’S THEOREM: Example 10.4: continued
IS 1A

50  40 
30 
IS + 1 V 1A=I
6 IS

Figure 10.23: Circuit for find RTH, Example 10.4.

Using the outer loop, going in the cw direction, using drops;

 15 
50    1(40)  V  0
or V  57.4 volts
 43 
V V
RTH    57.4 
25 I 1

THEVENIN & NORTON

THEVENIN’S THEOREM: Example 10.4: continued
The Thevenin equivalent circuit tied to the 100  load
resistor is shown below.

RTH

57.4 

VTH +_ 36 V 100 

Figure 10.24: Thevenin circuit tied to load, Example 10.4.

36 x100
V100   22.9 V
57.4  100

26

Course Lecturer: Prof. Eng. C Maina Muriithi,

PE Electrical Engineering 19
 2023/1/21

AC CIRCUIT THEORY
A phasor, or phase vector, is a representation of a sinusoidal wave
whose amplitude , phase , and frequency are time-invariant.

Phasors of the same frequency can be added.

Course Lecturer: Prof. Eng. C Maina Muriithi,

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Course Lecturer: Prof. Eng. C Maina Muriithi,

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Course Lecturer: Prof. Eng. C Maina Muriithi,

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1. RESPONSE OF FIRST-
ORDER RL AND RC CIRCUITS

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Example
The switch in the circuit in figure below has been closed for a long time, and it is
opened at t=0. Calculate the initial energy stored in the capacitor.

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PRACTICAL QUESTION

NB. Charging and Discharging takes place in approximately five times the
time constant.

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• In the initially relaxed RC circuit shown the

switch is closed on to position S1 at time t = 0.
After one time constant, the switch is moved on
to position S2. Find the complete capacitor
voltage and current transients and show their
wave forms.

Course Lecturer: Prof. Eng. C Maina Muriithi,

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Course Lecturer: Prof. Eng. C Maina Muriithi,

PE Electrical Engineering 44
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APPLICATION EXAMPLE OF
AN RC CIRCUIT
• The capacitor is the most basic filter type and
is the most commonly used. The half-wave
rectifier for power supply application is shown
below. A capacitor filter is connected in
parallel with the load. The rectifier circuit
• is supplied from a transformer.

• During the positive half cycle, diode D1 will

conduct, and the capacitor charges rapidly. As the
input starts to go negative, D1 turns off, and the
capacitor will slowly discharge through the load.

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EXAMPLE

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UNBOUNDED RESPONSE

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Lab 1

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• % Charging of an RC circuit
• %
• c = 10e-6;
• r1 = 1e3;
• tau1 = c*r1;
• t = 0:0.002:0.05;
• v1 = 10*(1-exp(-t/tau1));
• r2 = 10e3;
• tau2 = c*r2;
• v2 = 10*(1-exp(-t/tau2));
• r3 = .1e3;
• tau3 = c*r3;
• v3 = 10*(1-exp(-t/tau3));
• plot(t,v1,'+',t,v2,'o', t,v3,'*')
• axis([0 0.06 0 12])
• title('Charging of a capacitor with three time
constants')
• xlabel('Time, s')
• ylabel('Voltage across capacitor')
• text(0.03, 5.0, '+ for R = 1 Kilohms')
• text(0.03, 6.0, 'o for R = 10 Kilohms')
• text(0.03, 7.0, '* for R = 0.1 Kilohms')

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2. NATURAL AND STEP

RESPONSE OF RLC CIRCUITS

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Simulink Model

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3. INTRODUCTION TO LAPLACE
TRANSFORM

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Definition
• Transforms -- a mathematical conversion from
one way of thinking to another to make a
problem easier to solve
problem in solution in
original original
way of way of
thinking thinking
solution inverse
transform in transform transform
way of
thinking

2. Transforms

problem in solution in
time time
domain inverse domain
Laplace solution Laplace
transform in transform
s domain

• Other transforms
• Fourier
• z-transform
• wavelets

2. Transforms

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Laplace
time domain transformation
linear time
differential domain
equation solution

Laplace transform
inverse Laplace
transform
Laplace algebra Laplace
transformed
solution
equation

Laplace domain or
complex frequency domain
4. Laplace transforms

The Complex Plane

(review)
Imaginary axis (j)

u  x  jy
y r u    tan 1
y
 x
Real axis
 x | u | r | u | x 2  y 2
r
y
u  x  jy
(complex) conjugate

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LAPLACE TRANSFORMS

SIMPLE TRANSFORMATIONS

Basic Tool For

Continuous Time:
Laplace Transform

L[ f (t )]  F (s)   f (t )est dt
0
• Convert time-domain functions and operations into
frequency-domain
– f(t)  F(s) (tR, sC
– Linear differential equations (LDE)  algebraic expression in
Complex plane
• Graphical solution for key LDE characteristics
• Discrete systems use the analogous z-transform

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Transforms
• Impulse --  (to)


F(s) = e-st  (to) dt

= e-sto

f(t)
 (to)

4. Laplace transforms

Transforms
• Step -- u (to)


F(s) = e-st u (to) dt

= e-sto/s
f(t)
1 u (to)

4. Laplace transforms

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• e-at
Transforms


F(s) = e-st e-at dt

= 1/(s+a)

4. Laplace transforms

Transforms
Linearity f1(t)  f2(t) F1(s) ± F2(s)

Constant multiplication a f(t) a F(s)

Complex shift eat f(t) F(s-a)

Real shift f(t - T) eTs F(as)

Scaling f(t/a) a F(as)

4. Laplace transforms

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Laplace Transforms
of Common
Functions
Name f(t) F(s)
1 t  0
Impulse f (t )   1
0 t  0
1
Step f (t )  1
s
1
Ramp f (t )  t
s2
1
Exponential f (t )  e at
sa
1
Sine f (t )  sin(t )
 2  s2

Laplace Transform
Properties
Addition/Scaling L[af1 (t )  bf 2 (t )]  aF1 ( s )  bF2 ( s )

d 
Differentiation L  f (t )  sF ( s )  f (0)
 dt 
Integration 
L  f (t )dt 
s

F ( s) 1
  f (t )dt
s

t 0

t
Convolutio n  f (t  τ)f (τ )dτ  F (s) F (s)
0
1 2 1 2

Initial-value theorem f (0)  lim sF ( s )

s 

Final-value theorem lim f (t )  lim sF ( s )

t  s 0

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LAPLACE TRANSFORMS

PARTIAL FRACTION EXPANSION

Definition
• Definition -- Partial fractions are several
fractions whose sum equals a given fraction
• Purpose -- Working with transforms requires
breaking complex fractions into simpler
fractions to allow use of tables of transforms

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Partial Fraction Expansions

s 1 A B • Expand into a term for each
 
( s  2) ( s  3) s  2 s  3 factor in the denominator.
• Recombine RHS
s 1 A( s  3)  Bs  2

( s  2) ( s  3) ( s  2) ( s  3)
• Equate terms in s and
constant terms. Solve.
A  B 1 3 A  2 B 1
• Each term is in a form so
that inverse Laplace
s 1 1 2
  transforms can be applied.
( s  2) ( s  3) s  2 s  3

Example of Solution of an ODE

d2y
 8 y  2 y(0)  y' (0)  0 • ODE w/initial conditions
dy
2
6
dt dt
• Apply Laplace transform to
s 2 Y ( s)  6s Y ( s)  8 Y ( s)  2 / s each term
• Solve for Y(s)
2
Y ( s) 
s ( s  2) ( s  4)
• Apply partial fraction
expansion
1 1 1
Y ( s)    • Apply inverse Laplace
4s 2 ( s  2) 4 ( s  4)
transform to each term
1 e 2t e 4t
y (t )   
4 2 4

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Different terms of
1st degree
• To separate a fraction into partial fractions
when its denominator can be divided into
different terms of first degree, assume an
unknown numerator for each fraction
• Example --
– (11x-1)/(X2 - 1) = A/(x+1) + B/(x-1)
– = [A(x-1) +B(x+1)]/[(x+1)(x-1))]
– A+B=11
– -A+B=-1
– A=6, B=5

Repeated terms of 1st degree (1 of 2)

• When the factors of the denominator are of
the first degree but some are repeated,
assume unknown numerators for each
factor
– If a term is present twice, make the fractions
the corresponding term and its second power
– If a term is present three times, make the
fractions the term and its second and third
powers

3. Partial fractions

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Repeated terms of 1st degree (2 of 2)

• Example --
– (x2+3x+4)/(x+1)3= A/(x+1) + B/(x+1)2 + C/(x+1)3
– x2+3x+4 = A(x+1)2 + B(x+1) + C
– = Ax2 + (2A+B)x + (A+B+C)
– A=1
– 2A+B = 3
– A+B+C = 4
– A=1, B=1, C=2

3. Partial fractions

Different quadratic
terms
• When there is a quadratic term, assume a
numerator of the form Ax + B
• Example --
– 1/[(x+1) (x2 + x + 2)] = A/(x+1) + (Bx +C)/ (x2 + x
+ 2)
– 1 = A (x2 + x + 2) + Bx(x+1) + C(x+1)
– 1 = (A+B) x2 + (A+B+C)x +(2A+C)
– A+B=0
– A+B+C=0
– 2A+C=1
– A=0.5, B=-0.5, C=0
3. Partial fractions

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Repeated quadratic
• Example -- terms
– 1/[(x+1) (x2 + x + 2)2] = A/(x+1) + (Bx +C)/ (x2 + x
+ 2) + (Dx +E)/ (x2 + x + 2)2
– 1 = A(x2 + x + 2)2 + Bx(x+1) (x2 + x + 2) + C(x+1)
(x2 + x + 2) + Dx(x+1) + E(x+1)
– A+B=0
– 2A+2B+C=0
– 5A+3B+2C+D=0
– 4A+2B+3C+D+E=0
– 4A+2C+E=1
– A=0.25, B=-0.25, C=0, D=-0.5, E=0
3. Partial fractions

Apply Initial- and Final-Value

Theorems to this Example
2 • Laplace transform
Y ( s) 
s ( s  2) ( s  4) of the function.

• Apply final-value
lim t   f (t ) 
2 (0) 1 theorem

(0) (0  2) (0  4) 4
• Apply initial-value
2 ( ) theorem
lim t 0  f (t )  0
() (  2) (  4)

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LAPLACE TRANSFORMS

SOLUTION PROCESS

Solution process (1
of 8)
• Any nonhomogeneous linear differential
equation with constant coefficients can be
solved with the following procedure, which
reduces the solution to algebra

4. Laplace transforms

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Solution process (2
of 8)
• Step 1: Put differential equation into
standard form
– D2 y + 2D y + 2y = cos t
– y(0) = 1
– D y(0) = 0

Solution process (3
of 8)
• Step 2: Take the Laplace transform of both
sides
– L{D2 y} + L{2D y} + L{2y} = L{cos t}

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Solution process (4
of 8)
• Step 3: Use table of transforms to express
equation in s-domain
– L{D2 y} + L{2D y} + L{2y} = L{cos  t}
– L{D2 y} = s2 Y(s) - sy(0) - D y(0)
– L{2D y} = 2[ s Y(s) - y(0)]
– L{2y} = 2 Y(s)
– L{cos t} = s/(s2 + 1)
– s2 Y(s) - s + 2s Y(s) - 2 + 2 Y(s) = s /(s2 + 1)

Solution process (5
of 8)
• Step 4: Solve for Y(s)
– s2 Y(s) - s + 2s Y(s) - 2 + 2 Y(s) = s/(s2 + 1)
– (s2 + 2s + 2) Y(s) = s/(s2 + 1) + s + 2
– Y(s) = [s/(s2 + 1) + s + 2]/ (s2 + 2s + 2)
– = (s3 + 2 s2 + 2s + 2)/[(s2 + 1) (s2 + 2s + 2)]

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Solution process (6
• Step 5: Expand equationofinto
8) format covered by
table
– Y(s) = (s3 + 2 s2 + 2s + 2)/[(s2 + 1) (s2 + 2s + 2)]
– = (As + B)/ (s2 + 1) + (Cs + E)/ (s2 + 2s + 2)
– (A+C)s3 + (2A + B + E) s2 + (2A + 2B + C)s + (2B +E)
–1=A+C
– 2 = 2A + B + E
– 2 = 2A + 2B + C
– 2 = 2B + E
– A = 0.2, B = 0.4, C = 0.8, E = 1.2

Solution process (7
of 8)
– (0.2s + 0.4)/ (s2 + 1)
– = 0.2 s/ (s2 + 1) + 0.4 / (s2 + 1)
– (0.8s + 1.2)/ (s2 + 2s + 2)
– = 0.8 (s+1)/[(s+1)2 + 1] + 0.4/ [(s+1)2 + 1]

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Solution process (8
of 8)
• Step 6: Use table to convert s-domain to
time domain
– 0.2 s/ (s2 + 1) becomes 0.2 cos t
– 0.4 / (s2 + 1) becomes 0.4 sin t
– 0.8 (s+1)/[(s+1)2 + 1] becomes 0.8 e-t cos t
– 0.4/ [(s+1)2 + 1] becomes 0.4 e-t sin t
– y(t) = 0.2 cos t + 0.4 sin t + 0.8 e-t cos t + 0.4 e-t
sin t

LAPLACE TRANSFORMS

TRANSFER FUNCTIONS

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Introduction
• Definition -- a transfer function is an
expression that relates the output to the
input in the s-domain
r(t) y(t)
differential
equation

r(s) y(s)
transfer
function

5. Transfer functions

Transfer Function
• Definition
X(s) H(s) Y(s)
– H(s) = Y(s) / X(s)
• Relates the output of a linear system (or
component) to its input
• Describes how a linear system responds to an
impulse
• All linear operations allowed
– Scaling, addition, multiplication

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Block Diagrams
• Pictorially expresses flows and relationships between
elements in system
• Blocks may recursively be systems
• Rules
– Cascaded (non-loading) elements: convolution
– Summation and difference elements
• Can simplify

Typical block
diagram
reference input, R(s) plant inputs, U(s)
error, E(s) output, Y(s)

pre-filter control plant post-filter

G1(s) Gc(s) Gp(s) G2(s)

feedback
H(s)
feedback, H(s)Y(s)

5. Transfer functions

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Example
R

v(t) L

C
v(t) = R I(t) + 1/C I(t) dt + L di(t)/dt

V(s) = [R I(s) + 1/(C s) I(s) + s L I(s)]

Note: Ignore initial conditions

5. Transfer functions

Block diagram and transfer function

• V(s)
– = (R + 1/(C s) + s L ) I(s)
– = (C L s2 + C R s + 1 )/(C s) I(s)
• I(s)/V(s) = C s / (C L s2 + C R s + 1 )

V(s) I(s)
C s / (C L s2 + C R s + 1 )

5. Transfer functions

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Block diagram reduction rules

Series
U Y U Y
G1 G2 G1 G2

Parallel
U + Y
G1
U Y
+ G1 + G 2
G2

Feedback
U + Y
G1 U Y
- G1 /(1+G1 G2)

G2
5. Transfer functions

Rational Laplace
Transforms
A( s )
F (s) 
B( s)
A( s )  a n s n  ...  a1 s  a 0
B( s )  bm s m  ...  b1 s  b0
Poles : s*  B( s*)  0 (So, F ( s*)  )
Zeroes : s*  A( s*)  0 (So, F ( s*)  0)
Poles and zeroes are complex
Order of system  # poles  m

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First Order System

Y ( s) K K
 
R( s) 1  K  sT 1  sT
Reference

R(s)
E (s) U (s) 1 Y (s)
S K
1  sT

B(s) 1

First Order System

Impulse Exponential
K
response
1  sT
Step response Step,
K K
- exponential
s s 1/ T
Ramp response Ramp, step,
K KT KT exponential
- -
s2 s s 1/ T

No oscillations (as seen by poles)

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Second Order
System
Y (s) K  N2
Impulse response :  2  2
R( s) Js  Bs  K s  2 N s   N2

Oscillates if poles have non - zero imaginary part (ie, B 2  4 JK  0)

B
Damping ratio :   where Bc  2 JK
Bc

K
Undamped natural frequency :  N 
J

Second Order
System: Parameters

Interpretation of damping ratio

  0 : Undamped oscillatio n (Re  0, Im  0)
0    1 : Underdamped (Re  0  Im)
1   : Overdamped (Re  0, Im  0)

Interpretation of undamped natural frequency

 N gives the frequency of the oscillatio n

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Transient Response
Characteristics
2

1.75

1.5

1.25

0.75

0.5

0.25

0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

d t r t pt s t

t d : Delay until reach 50% of steady state value

t r : Rise time  delay until first reach steady state value
t p : Time at which peak value is reached
t s : Settling time  stays within specified % of steady state

Transient Response

• Estimates the shape of the curve based on the

foregoing points on the x and y axis
• Typically applied to the following inputs
– Impulse
– Step
– Ramp
– Quadratic (Parabola)

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Effect of pole
locations

Oscillations
(higher-freq)
Im(s)

Faster Decay Faster Blowup

Re(s)
(e-at) (eat)

Poles
• The poles of a Laplace function are the
values of s that make the Laplace function
evaluate to infinity. They are therefore the
roots of the denominator polynomial
• 10 (s + 2)/[(s + 1)(s + 3)] has a pole at s = -1
and a pole at s = -3
• Complex poles always appear in complex-
conjugate pairs
• The transient response of system is
determined by the location of poles
6. Laplace applications

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Zeros
• The zeros of a Laplace function are the
values of s that make the Laplace function
evaluate to zero. They are therefore the
zeros of the numerator polynomial
• 10 (s + 2)/[(s + 1)(s + 3)] has a zero at s = -2
• Complex zeros always appear in complex-
conjugate pairs

6. Laplace applications

Stability
• A system is stable if bounded inputs produce bounded
outputs
• The complex s-plane is divided into two regions: the
stable region, which is the left half of the plane, and the
unstable region, which is the right half of the s-plane

s-plane x j

x x x 

x
stable x unstable

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Poles of the Transfer Function

Indicate the Dynamic Response
1
G( s) 
( s  a) ( s  bs  c) ( s  d )
2

A B C
Y ( s)   2 
( s  a) ( s  bs  c) ( s  d )

y(t )  A e  at  B e pt sin( t )  C  e dt

• For a, b, c, and d positive constants, transfer function

indicates exponential decay, oscillatory response, and
exponential growth, respectively.

Poles on a Complex
Plane

Im

Re

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Exponential Decay

Im

Re

y Time

Damped Sinusoidal

Im

Re
y

Time

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Exponentially Growing Sinusoidal

Behavior (Unstable)

Im

Re

Time

What Kind of Dynamic Behavior?

Im

Re

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Unstable Behavior
• If the output of a process grows without
bound for a bounded input, the process is
referred to a unstable.
• If the real portion of any pole of a transfer
function is positive, the process corresponding
to the transfer function is unstable.
• If any pole is located in the right half plane,
the process is unstable.

SCILAB TUTORIAL

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RLC EXAMPLE

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4. THE LAPLACE TRANSFORM

IN CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

APPLICATION OF THE LAPLACE TRANSFORM

TO CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
LEARNING GOALS
Laplace circuit solutions
Showing the usefulness of the Laplace transform

Circuit Element Models

Transforming circuits into the Laplace domain

Analysis Techniques
All standard analysis techniques, KVL, KCL, node,
loop analysis, Thevenin’s theorem are applicable

Transfer Function
The concept is revisited and given a formal meaning

Pole-Zero Plots/Bode Plots

Establishing the connection between them

Steady State Response

AC analysis revisited

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LAPLACE CIRCUIT SOLUTIONS

We compare a conventional approach to solve differential equations with a
technique using the Laplace transform
Comple “Take Laplace transform” of the equation
mentary
di
v S (t )  Ri (t )  L (t )
dt
 di  L
VS ( s)  RI ( s)  LL  
di i  iC  i p  dt  Initial conditions
KVL : v S (t )  Ri (t )  L (t ) P  di  are automatically
dt L    sI ( s)  i (0)  sI ( s) included
a  dt 
Complementary equation r 1 1
di t   RI ( s)  LsI ( s) I ( s) 
RiC (t )  L C (t )  0  iC (t )  K C e t s s ( R  Ls)
dt i
c I ( s)  1 / L K K Only algebra
RK C e t  LK C (e t )  0   
R  1 2
u s ( R / L  s ) s s  R / L is needed
L l
Particular solution for this case 1
a K1  sI ( s ) |s 0  No need to
i p (t )  K p  v S  1  RK p r R
search for
1
 t Use boundary conditions K 2  ( s  R / L) I ( s) |s  R / L   particular
R
1
i (t )   K C e L v (t)  0 for t  0  i( 0 )  0 R or comple-
R S
1   t mentary
R
L ; t  0
1   t  
R
i ( t ) 1 e solutions
i (t )  1  e L ; t  0 R  
R   


LEARNING BY DOING Find v (t ), t  0 In the Laplace domain the differential

equation is now an algebraic equation
v  vS
1
R RCsV ( s)  V ( s) 
dv s
C 1 1/ RC
vS dt V ( s)  
s( RCs  1) s( s  1/ RC )

Use partial fractions to determine inverse

Model using KCL dv v  v S
C  0 V ( s) 
1/ RC K
 1
K2
dt R s( s  1/ RC ) s s  1/ RC
dv
RC  v  vS K1  sV ( s) |s 0  1
dt
K 2  ( s  1 / RC )V ( s) |s 1 / RC  1
 dv 
RCL    V ( s)  VS ( s)
L
t

 dt  v (t )  1  e RC , t 0
 
dv
L    sV ( s)  v (0)  sV ( s)
 dt 
v S (t )  0, t  0  v (0)  0 Initial condition
given in implicit
form
1
v S  u(t )  VS ( s) 
s

Course Lecturer: Prof. Eng. C Maina Muriithi,

PE Electrical Engineering 122
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CIRCUIT ELEMENT MODELS

The method used so far follows the steps:
1. Write the differential equation model
2. Use Laplace transform to convert the model to an algebraic form

For a more efficient approach:

1. Develop s-domain models for circuit elements
2. Draw the “Laplace equivalent circuit” keeping the interconnections and replacing
the elements by their s-domain models
3. Analyze the Laplace equivalent circuit. All usual circuit tools are applicable and all
equations are algebraic.

Resistor
Independen t sources
v S ( t )  VS ( s )
i S (t )  I S ( s)
Dependent sources
v D (t )  AiC (t )  VD ( s )  AI C ( s )
i D (t )  BvC (t )  I D ( s )  BVC ( s ) v (t )  Ri (t )  V ( s)  RI ( s)
...

Capacitor: Model 1 Source transformation t  I ( s)

L   i ( x )dx  
0  s
v ( 0)
I eq  s  Cv (0)
1
Cs

1t 1 v (0)
C 0
v (t )  i ( x )dx  v (0) V ( s)  I ( s) 
Cs s
Impedance in series
with voltage source
Capacitor: Model 2

I ( s)  CsV ( s)  Cv (0)

Impedance in parallel
with current source

Course Lecturer: Prof. Eng. C Maina Muriithi,

PE Electrical Engineering 123
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Inductor Models

V ( s) i (0)
di I ( s)  
v (t )  L (t )  V ( s)  L( sI ( s)  i (0)) Ls s
dt

 di 
L    sI ( s)  i (0)
 dt 

LEARNING BY DOING Determine the model in the s-domain and the expression for
the voltage across the inductor
Steady state for t<0
i (0)  1A Inductor with
initial current

KVL : 1  (1  s ) I ( s )
Ohm' s Law
1
V ( s )  1 I ( s )  V ( s )  
s 1
Equivalent circuit in
s-domain

Course Lecturer: Prof. Eng. C Maina Muriithi,

PE Electrical Engineering 124
 2023/1/21

ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES
All the analysis techniques are applicable in the s-domain

LEARNING EXAMPLE Draw the s-domain equivalent and find the voltage in both
s-domain and time domain
3
I S ( s) 
s 1 One needs to determine the initial voltage
across the capacitor

i S (t )  0, t  0  vo (0)  0
RC  (10 103 )(25 106 )  0.25

120 K K
Vo ( s)   1  2
( s  4)( s  1) s  4 s  1
 1  K1  ( s  4)Vo ( s) |s 4  40
Vo ( s)   R ||  I S ( s)
 Cs  K 2  ( s  1)Vo ( s) |s 1  40
R
Vo ( s )  Cs I S ( s ) 
1/ C

3  103 
vo (t )  40 e t  e 4 t u(t )
R
1 s  1 / RC s 1
Cs

LEARNING EXAMPLE Find vo (t ) using node analysis, loop analysis, superposition,

source transformation, Thevenin' s and Norton' s theorem.
Assume all initial conditions are zero
V1 ( s )
KCL @ V1 1
2
12 s
V ( s) 
4 1
  s  V1 ( s )  Vo ( s )  0  s
s s 1
s
KCL@Vo Could have
Vo ( s) Vo ( s)  V1 ( s) used voltage
  0  2 divider here
Node Analysis 2 1
s
4 s  12
(1  s 2 )V1 ( s )  s 2Vo ( s )   2s
s
 2 sV1 ( s )  (1  2 s )Vo ( s )  0  (1  s 2 )

8( s  3)
Vo ( s ) 
(1  s ) 2

Course Lecturer: Prof. Eng. C Maina Muriithi,

PE Electrical Engineering 125
 2023/1/21

Loop Analysis Loop 1

4
I1 ( s) 
s
Loop 2
1 12
s ( I 2 ( s )  I1 ( s ))  I 2 ( s )  2 I 2 ( s ) 
s s
4( s  3)
I 2 ( s) 
( s  1) 2

8( s  3)
Vo ( s )  2 I 2 ( s ) 
( s  1) 2

Source Superposition Applying current source

I 2'

Current divider
s 4
Vo' ( s)  2  
1
2  s s
s
Applying voltage source

Voltage divider
2 12
8( s  3) Vo" ( s )  
Vo ( s )  V o' ( s )  V o" ( s )  1
( s  1) 2 2  s s
s

Course Lecturer: Prof. Eng. C Maina Muriithi,

PE Electrical Engineering 126
 2023/1/21

Source Transformation Combine the sources and use current

divider

s  4 12 
Vo ( s)  2    2
s   2 s s 
1
s

8( s  3)
Vo ( s ) 
( s  1) 2

The resistance is redundant

Using Thevenin’s Theorem

Reduce this part

1 s2  1
ZTh   s 
s s

Voltage
divider

2 4 s  12
Vo ( s ) 
12 4 4 s  12 s 1 s
2
VOC ( s)  s  2
s s s s
8( s  3)
Vo ( s ) 
Only independent sources ( s  1) 2

Course Lecturer: Prof. Eng. C Maina Muriithi,

PE Electrical Engineering 127
 2023/1/21

Using Norton’s Theorem

Reduce this part

ZTh  s

Current
division

s 4 s  12
Vo ( s )  2  2
1
s 2 s
s
4 12 / s 4 s  12 8( s  3)
I SC ( s)    Vo ( s ) 
s s s2 ( s  1) 2

LEARNING EXAMPLE Determine the voltage vo (t ). Assume all initial conditions to be zero
Selecting the analysis technique:

. Three loops, three non-reference nodes

. One voltage source between non-reference
nodes - supernode
. One current source. One loop current known
or supermesh
. If v_2 is known, v_o can be obtained with a
Transforming the circuit to s-domain voltage divider

Doing the algebra : V1 ( s)  V2 ( s)  12 / s

I ( s)  V2 ( s) / 2  6 / s
(1 / 2)( s  1)V2 ( s)  12 / s   2(V2 ( s) / 2  6 / s)
 V2 ( s) /( s  1)  0
12 12( s  1)( s  3)
Supernode constraint : V2 ( s)  V1 ( s)  V2 ( s) 
s s( s 2  4 s  5)
V1 ( s) V1 ( s) V ( s)
KCL@ supernode :   2 I ( s)  2 0 12( s  3)
2 2/ s s 1 Vo ( s ) 
V ( s) s ( s 2  4 s  5)
Controllin g variable : I ( s )   1
2
1
Voltage divider : V0 ( s)  V2 ( s)
s 1

Course Lecturer: Prof. Eng. C Maina Muriithi,

PE Electrical Engineering 128
 2023/1/21

Continued ... Compute Vo (s) using Thevenin' s theorem

-keep dependent source and controlling
variable in the same sub-circuit
-Make sub-circuit to be reduced as simple
as possible
-Try to leave a simple voltage divider after
reduction to Thevenin equivalent


VOC  12 / s 12 / s


I SC  2 I " I "2 I " /(2 / s)  0 I " 6 / s

6( s  3) Z  OC V ( s ) 2
I SC  

TH
s I SC ( s ) s 3
VOC  12 / s VOC  12 / s
  2I '  0 1 12
2 2/ s Vo ( s )  
V  12 / s 12 2 s
I '   OC VOC ( s)  1 s 
2 s s3

I'0

Continued … Computing the inverse Laplace transform

Analysis in the s-domain has established that the Laplace transform of the
output voltage is
12( s  3) s 2  4s  5  ( s  2  j1)( s  2  j1)  ( s  2)2  1
Vo ( s ) 
s ( s 2  4 s  5)
12( s  3) K K1 K1*
Vo ( s)   o 
s( s  2  j1)( s  2  j1) s ( s  2  j1) ( s  2  j1)
K o  sVo ( s) |s 0  36 K1 K1*
5   2 | K1 | e t cos( t  K1 )u(t )
( s    j ) ( s    j )
12(1  j1) 12 245 One can also use
K  ( s  2  j1)V ( s) |  
1 o s  2  j1 (2  j1)( j 2) 5153.43(290) quadratic factors...
 3.79  198.43  3.79161.57
12( s  3) C ( s  2)  36 
C C2 vo (t )    7.59e 2t cos(t  161.57 u(t )
Vo ( s) 

s s  2  1
2

 o 1 2 
s ( s  2)  1 ( s  2)  1
2 5 
Co  sVo ( s) |s 0  36 / 5 C1 ( s   ) C2 
  e t [C1 cos t  C 2 sin t ]u(t )
( s   )2   2 ( s   )2   2
12( s  3)  Co (( s  2) 2  1)  s[C1 ( s  2)  C 2 ] s  2  12  Co  2C2  C2  36 / 10  6  12 / 5
Equating coefficien ts of s 2 : 0  Co  C1  C1  36 / 5
 36 12 
vo (t )   (1  e 2t cos t )  e 2t sin t  u(t )
5 5 

Course Lecturer: Prof. Eng. C Maina Muriithi,

PE Electrical Engineering 129
 2023/1/21

LEARNING EXTENSION Find io (t ) using node equations

VS Assume zero initial conditions

supernode Implicit circuit transformation to s-domain
Vo  VS
Vo K1 K1*
  2 | K1 | e t cos( t  K1 )u(t )
( s    j ) ( s    j )
 1 15 
1  6   j 
 1 15   4 4 
K1   s   j  I o ( s) | 1 
 4 4  s   j
15
15
4 4 2j
KCL at supernode 4
2 V ( s) V ( s) 6.33  66.72
Cs(Vo (s)  VS (s))   o  o 0 K1   6.53  156.72
s s 2 0.9790
12 V ( s)
VS ( s )  , I o ( s )  o t
s 2   
4 cos 15 t  156.72 
Doing the algebra io ( t )  13.06 e  4 
 
1  6s 1  6s
I o ( s)  2 
s  0.5s  1  2
1  15
s   
 4  16
1  6s K1 K 1*
I o ( s)   
 1 15  1 15   1 15   1 15 
 s   j  s   j   s   j   s   j 
 4 4  4 4   4 4   4 4 

LEARNING EXTENSION Find vo (t ) using loop equations

K0 K1 K2
I 2 ( s)   
s s  0.27 s  3.73

K 0  sI 2 ( s) |s 0  2
supermesh
constraint due to source 16(0.27)  2
K1  ( s  0.27) I 2 ( s) |s 0.27   2.48
2 (0.27)(0.27  3.73)
 I 2  I1
s 16(3.73)  2
KVL on supermesh K 2  ( s  3.73) I 2 ( s) |s 3.73   4.47
(3.73)(3.73  0.27)
1 12
I1  2 I1  sI 2   2 I 2  0
s s  
i2 (t )  2  2.48e 0.27 t  4.47e 3.73t u(t )
v o ( t )  2i2 ( t )
16 s  2 16 s  2
I 2 ( s)  
s( s 2  4 s  1) s ( s  0.27)( s  3.73)

Determine inverse transform

Course Lecturer: Prof. Eng. C Maina Muriithi,

PE Electrical Engineering 130
 2023/1/21

TRANSIENT CIRCUIT ANALYSIS USING LAPLACE TRANSFORM

For the study of transients, especially transients due to switching, it is important

to determine initial conditions. For this determination, one relies on the properties:
1. Voltage across capacitors cannot change discontinuously
2. Current through inductors cannot change discontinuously

LEARNING EXAMPLE Determine vo (t ), t  0


vC ( 0  )
i L( 0  ) 

Assume steady state for t<0 and determine

voltage across capacitors and currents
through inductors
For DC case capacitors are open circuit
inductors are shortcircu it
vC (0)  1V , i L (0)  1A

Circuit for t>0

2s  7
Vo ( s) 
2 s 2  3s  2
Now determine the inverse transform

b2  4ac  0  complex conjugate roots

Laplace Circuit for t>0 K1 K 1*
Vo ( s )  
3 7 3 7
s  j s  j
4 4 4 4
 3 7  2.14  76.5
K1   s   j Vo ( s)
 4 4  3
s   j
7
4 4

K1 K1*
Use mesh analysis   2 | K1 | e t cos( t  K1 )u(t )
( s    j ) ( s    j )
4
( s  1) I1  sI 2   1
s 3
 t 7
2 1 vo (t )  4.28e 4 cos( t  76.5)
 sI1  ( s  1  ) I 2    1 4
s s
2s  1 2 1
I 2 ( s)  Vo ( s)  I 2 ( s) 
2 s  3s  2
2
s s

Course Lecturer: Prof. Eng. C Maina Muriithi,

PE Electrical Engineering 131
 2023/1/21

LEARNING EXTENSION Determine i1 (t ), t  0

Initial current through inductor 1

I1(s)   i1(t )  e9t u(t )
i L (0)  i L (0)  1A s 9

12
I1 ( s) 1
6 2s
s

2s 1 Current
I1 ( s)  
2 s  18 s divider

LEARNING EXTENSION Determine vo (t ), t  0 2s


8
 V
3

Vo (s)

2  12 8 
Vo ( s)      (voltage divider)
Determine initial current through inductor 4  2s  s 3 
i L (0)
Use source (8s  36) K1 K 2
superposition Vo ( s)   
3s( s  2) s s2
i12V  2 A
K1  sVo ( s) |s 0  6
2
i4V  A 10
3 K 2  ( s  2)Vo ( s) |s 2  
3
4  8 
i L (0)  A vo (t )   6  e 2t u(t )
3  3 

Course Lecturer: Prof. Eng. C Maina Muriithi,

PE Electrical Engineering 132
 2023/1/21

TRANSFER FUNCTION
bn s n  ...  b1s  b0
X (s) System with all Y (s) H ( s) 
initial conditions am s m  ...  a1s  a0
set to zero
For the impulse function
Y ( s)
H ( s)  x (t )   (t )  X ( s)  1
X ( s)
H(s) can also be interpreted as the Laplace
If the model for the system is a differential transform of the output when the input is
equation an impulse and all initial conditions are zero
dny d n1 y dy The inverse transform of H(s) is also
bn n
 bn1 n1  ...  b1  bo y called the impulse response of the system
dt dt dt
m m 1
d x d x dx
 am m  am 1 m 1  ...  a1  ao x If the impulse response is known then one
dt dt dt can determine the response of the system
If all initial conditions are zero to ANY other input
d k y 
L  k   s kY (s)
 dt 
bn s nY ( s )  ...  b1sY ( s )  b0Y ( s )
 am s m X ( s )  ...  a1sX ( s )  a0 X ( s )
bn s n  ...  b1s  b0
Y ( s)  X ( s)
am s m  ...  a1s  a0

LEARNING EXAMPLE A network has impulse response h(t )  e t u(t)

Determine the response, vo (t ), for the input vi (t )  10e 2 t u(t )
In the Laplace domain, Y(s)=H(s)X(s)

Vo ( s)  H ( s)Vi ( s)
1
h(t )  e t u(t )  H ( s) 
s 1
10
vi (t )  10e 2 t u(t )  Vi ( s) 
s2

10 K K
Vo ( s)   1  2
( s  1)( s  2) s 1 s  2
K1  ( s  1)Vo ( s) |s 1  10
K 2  ( s  2)Vo ( s) |s 2  10

 
vo (t )  10 e t  e 2 t u(t )

Course Lecturer: Prof. Eng. C Maina Muriithi,

PE Electrical Engineering 133
 2023/1/21

LEARNING EXAMPLE Vo ( s)
Determine the transfer function H ( s ) 
Vi ( s )
a) C  8F  poles : s1, 2  0.25  j 0.25

Transform the circuit to the Laplace

domain. All initial conditions set to zero

b) C  16F  poles : s1, 2  0.25

c) C  32F  poles : s1, 2  0.427,  0.073

Vi (s)

Mesh analysis

Vi ( s)  2 I1  I 2 1
Vo ( s)  I 2 ( s)
 1  sC
0   I1  1  s  I2
 sC 
(1 / 2C )
Vo ( s)  2
s  (1 / 2) s  1 / C

LEARNING EXTENSION Determine the pole-zero plot, the type of damping and the
unit step response
s  10
H ( s)  1 s  10
s2  4s  8 Y ( s)  H ( s) 
s s ( s 2  4 s  8)
zero : z  -10
poles : s 2  4s  8  ( s  2  j 2)( s  2  j 2)
s 2  4 s  8  0  s1, 2  2  j 2 K1 K2 K 2*
Y ( s)   
s s  2  j2 s  2  j2
j
x j2 K1 K1*
  2 | K1 | e t cos( t  K1 )u(t )
( s    j ) ( s    j )
O 2 10
K1  sY ( s) |s 0 
 10  8
x 8  j2
K 2  ( s  2  j 2)Vo ( s) |s 2 j 2 
(2  j 2)( j 4)
8.2514
s 2  4s  8 2 K2   0.73  211
  2.83135  490
 o2 2
2 o
 10 
vo (t )    1.46e2t cos(2t  211)  u (t )
 8 

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PE Electrical Engineering 134
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Second order networks: variation of poles with damping ratio

Normalized second order system LEARNING EXAMPLE

 02 1 R
H ( s)  o2  , 2 o 
s 2  2 0 s   02 LC L
poles : s1,2  0  0  2  1
1 1
Case 2 :   1 : Underdampe d network Gv ( s ) 
Vo ( s )
 Cs  LC
poles : s1, 2  0  j0 1   2 Vin ( s ) 1  Ls  R  R 1
s2   s 
Cs  L  LC

Variation of poles.
Use o  2000
  cos

POLE-ZERO PLOT/BODE PLOT CONNECTION

Bode plots display magnitude and phase information of G ( s) |s  j
They show a cross section of G(s)
s2
G ( s) 
s  2s  5
2
If the poles get closer to
imaginary axis the peaks
and valleys are more
pronounced

Cross section
shown by Bode

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Cross section

Due to symmetry
show only positive
frequencies

Front view
Amplitude Bode plot

Uses log scales

STEADY STATE RESPONSE

Y ( s)  H ( s) X ( s) Response when all initial conditions are zero

Laplace uses positive time functions. Even for sinusoids the response contains
transitory terms
EXAMPLE H ( s )  1 , X ( s )  s
( x (t )  [cos  t ]u(t ))
s 1 s2   2
s K K K*
Y ( s)   1  2  2 If interested in the steady state response
( s  1)( s  j )( s  j ) s  1 s  j s  j only, then don’t determine residues
associated with transient terms
 
y (t )  Ke t  2 | K 2 | cos( t  K 2 ) u(t )
If x(t )  X M cos(ot   )u (t )
transient Steady state response yss (t )  X M | H ( jo ) | cos(o t  H ( jo )   )
For the general case

X M cos  t u(t ) 
2

X M jt
 1 XM
e  e  jt  X ( s)   
XM 

2  s  j o s  j o 
1  X M X M  Kx K *x
Y ( s )  H ( s )        transient terms
 2  s  j o s  j o  s  j o s  j o
1 y(t )  2 | K x | cos(o t  K 2 )  transient terms
K x  ( s  j o )Y ( s ) |s  j o  X M H ( j o )
2
yss (t )  X M | H ( jo ) | cos(o t  H ( jo ))

Course Lecturer: Prof. Eng. C Maina Muriithi,

PE Electrical Engineering 136
 2023/1/21

LEARNING EXAMPLE Determine the steady state response

If x(t )  X M cos(ot   )u (t )
yss (t )  X M | H ( jo ) | cos(o t  H ( jo )   )

o  2, X M  10
s2 s2
Vo ( s )  Vi ( s )  H ( s )  2
3s  4 s  4
2
3s  4 s  4
Transform the circuit to the Laplace domain.
Assume all initial conditions are zero ( j 2) 2
H ( j 2)   0.35445
3( j 2) 2  4( j 2)  4

 ys (t )  3.54 cos(2t  45)V

V1  Vi V1 V1
KCL@V1 :   0
2 s 2 1
s
1
Voltage divider : Vo  V1
2
1
s

LEARNING EXTENSION Determine voss (t ), t  0

If x(t )  X M cos(ot   )u (t )
yss (t )  X M | H ( jo ) | cos(o t  H ( jo )   )

2
Vo ( s )  VOC ( s )
2  ZTh ( s )
o  2, X M  12
2 1
Vo ( s )   Vi ( s )
Transform circuit to Laplace domain. s2  s  1 s  1
2
Assume all initial conditions are zero s 1
Thevenin s 2
Vo ( s)  Vi ( s)
1 s 2  3s  3
H (s)
s
Vi (s) 2 2 2
H ( j 2)   
 4  6 j  3  1  6 j 6.0899.46
1 2
1 voss (t )  12  cos( 2t  99.46)
VOC ( s )  s Vi ( s )  Vi ( s ) 6.08
1
1 s 1
s
1 1 s2  s  1 APPLICATION
ZTh ( s )  s  || 1, || s  
s s 1 s 1 LAPLACE

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PE Electrical Engineering 137
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5. TWO-PORT CIRCUITS

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TWO-PORT NETWORKS

In many situations one is not interested in the internal organization of a

network. A description relating input and output variables may be sufficient

A two-port model is a description of a network that relates voltages and currents

at two pairs of terminals

LEARNING GOALS
Study the basic types of two-port models
Admittance parameters
Impedance parameters
Hybrid parameters
Transmission parameters

Understand how to convert one model into another

ADMITTANCE PARAMETERS

The network contains NO independent sources

The admittance parameters describe the currents in terms of the voltages
y21 determines the current I1  y11V1  y12V2 The first subindex identifies
flowing into port 2 when the I 2  y21V1  y22V2 the output port. The second
the input port.
port is short - circuited and a
voltage is applied to port 1
The computation of the parameters follows directly from the definition
I1 I1
y11  y12 
V1 V V2 V 0
2 0 1

I2 I2
y21  y22 
V1 V V2 V 0
2 0 1

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LEARNING EXAMPLE Find the admittance parameters for the network

I1  y11V1  y12V2
I 2  y21V1  y22V2

Circuit used to determine y11 , y21

1 3
I1  (1  )V1  y11  [ S ]
 I2 2 2
1 1 1
 I2  I1  I 2   V1  y21   [ S ]
1 2 2 2

Circuit used to determine y12 , y22

 1 1 5
I 2    V2  y22  [ S ]
 2 3 6
3 3 5 1
 I1  I2  V2  y12  [ S ]
23 5 6 2

Next we show one use of this model

An application of the admittance parameters Determine the current through the

4 Ohm resistor

I1  y11V1  y12V2
I 2  y21V1  y22V2

3 1
I1  V1  V2
2 2
1 5
I 2   V1  V2
2 6
1
I1  2 A, V2  4 I 2 I 2   V2
4
The model plus the conditions at the
ports are sufficient to determine the
other variables. 13
V1  V2
6
3 1
2  V1  V2 8
2 2 V2  [V ]
11
1 5 1
0   V1    V2 2
2 6 4 I 2   [ A]
11

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PE Electrical Engineering 142
 2023/1/21

IMPEDANCE PARAMETERS

The network contains NO independent sources

V1  z11 I1  z12 I 2
V2  z21 I1  z22 I 2

The ‘z parameters’ can be derived in a manner similar to the Y parameters

V1 V2
z11  z21 
I1 I I1
2 0 I 2 0

V1 V2
z12  z22 
I2 I1 0
I2 I1 0

LEARNING EXAMPLE Find the Z parameters

V1  z11 I1  z12 I 2
V2  z21 I1  z22 I 2
V1 V2
z11  z21 
I1 I I1
2 0 I 2 0

V1 V2
Write the loop equations z12  z22 
I2 I1 0
I2 I1 0
V1  2 I1  j 4( I1  I 2 )
V2  j 2 I 2  j 4( I 2  I1 )

rearranging

V1  (2  j 4) I1  j 4 I 2  z11  2  j 4  z12   j 4
V2   j 4 I1  j 2 I 2 z21   j 4 z22   j 2

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 2023/1/21

LEARNING EXAMPLE Use the Z parameters to find the current through the 4 Ohm
resistor

V1  z11 I1  z12 I 2
V2  z21 I1  z22 I 2

Output port constraint

V2  4I 2

Input port constraint

V1  120  (1) I1
V1  (2  j 4) I1  j 4 I 2
V2   j 4 I1  j 2 I 2
0   j 4 I1  (4  j 2) I 2  (3  j 4)
12  (3  j 4) I1  j 4 I 2  j4

48 j  (16  (4  j 2)(3  j 4)) I 2  I 2  1.61137.73

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HYBRID PARAMETERS

The network contains NO independent sources

V1  h11 I1  h12V2
I 2  h21 I1  h22V2

V1 I2
h11  h21  h11  short - circuit input impedance
I1 V I1 V
2 0 2 0 h12  open - circuit reverse voltage gain
V1 I2 h21  short - circuit forward current gain
h12  h22 
V2 I1  0
V2 I1 0 h22  open - circuit output admittance
These parameters are very common in modeling transistors

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 2023/1/21

LEARNING EXAMPLE Find the hybrid parameters for the network

I1 I2
 
V1  h11 I1  h12V2
V1 V2
I 2  h21 I1  h22V2
 
I2
 
I1 I2 I1  0
V1 V2

 
V1 V2  0
 6 2
V1  V2  h12 
3 6 3
V1  (12  (6 || 3)) I1  h11  14
V2 1
6 2 I2   h22  [ S ]
I2   I1  h21   9 9
3 6 3

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Solution

TRANSMISSION PARAMETERS ABCD parameters

The network contains NO independent sources

V1  AV2  BI 2
I1  CV2  DI 2

V1 I1
A C A  open circuit voltage ratio
V2 I 2 0
V2 I 2 0
B  negative short - circuit transfer impedance
B
V1
D
I1 C  open - circuit transfer admittance
I2 V
2 0
I2 V
2 0
D  negative short - circuit current ratio

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 2023/1/21

LEARNING EXAMPLE Determine the transmission parameters

V1  AV2  BI 2
I1  CV2  DI 2
V1 I1
A C
V2 I 2 0
V2 I 2 0

V1 I1
B D
I2 V I2 V
2 0 2 0

when I 2  0
when V2  0
1 1
j j
V2  V  A  1  j I2   I 
1
I1  D  1  j
1 1 1 1  j
1 1 1
j j
1 I
V2  I1  1  j  1   2  j 
j V2 V1  1  (1 || ) I1  
j   (1  j )I 2
  1  j 
B  2  j

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 2023/1/21

PARAMETER CONVERSIONS

If all parameters exist, they can be related by conventional algebraic manipulations.

As an example consider the relationship between Z and Y parameters
V1  z11 I1  z12 I 2
V2  z21 I1  z22 I 2
1
V1   z11 z12   I1   I1   z11 z12  V1   y11 y12  V1 
V    z  
z22   I 2   I 2   z21

z22  V2   y21 y22  V2 
 2   21

 y11 y12   z11 z12 

1
1  z22  z12 
 
y
 21 y22   z21 z22   Z  z21 z11 

with  Z  z11z22  z21z12

In the following conversion table, the symbol  stands for the determinant of the
corresponding matrix
z11 z12 y y12 h h A B
Z  , Y  11 ,  H  11 12 , T 
z21 z22 y21 y22 h21 h22 C D

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INTERCONNECTION OF TWO-PORTS
Interconnections permit the description of complex systems in terms of simpler
components or subsystems
The basic interconnections to be considered are: parallel, series and cascade

PARALLEL: Voltages are the same.

Current of interconnection
is the sum of currents

The rules used to derive models

for interconnection assume that
each subsystem behaves in the
same manner before and after
the interconnection

SERIES: Currents are the same.

Voltage of interconnection is the sum
of voltages

CASCADE:
Output of first subsystem
acts as input for the
second

Course Lecturer: Prof. Eng. C Maina Muriithi,

PE Electrical Engineering 150
 2023/1/21

Parallel Interconnection: Description Using Y Parameters

Interconnection
descriptio n
 I1   y11 y12  V1 
I    y y22  V2 
 2   21
I  YV

I  V  y y12 a  In a similar manner

I a   1a ,Va   1a ,Ya   11a   I a  YaVa
 I 2a  V2a   y21a y22 b  I b  YbVb
Interconne ction constraint s :
 I  I a  I b  I  YaVa  YbVb  (Ya  Yb )V
I1  I1a  I1b , I 2  I 2a  I 2b 
V  Va  Vb
V1  V1a  V1b , V2  V2a  V2b Y  Ya  Yb

Series interconnection using Z parameters SERIES: Currents are the same.

Voltage of interconnection is the sum
of voltages
Description of each subsystem
Va  Z a I a , Vb  Z b I b

Interconnection constraints Z  Za  Zb
Ia  Ib  I  V  Za I  Zb I  ( Za  Zb ) I
V  Va  Vb

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PE Electrical Engineering 151
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Cascade connection using transmission parameters

CASCADE:
Output of first subsystem
acts as input for the
second
Interconnection constraints:
I 2 a   I1b V2 a  V1b
V1  V1a V2  V2 b
I1  I1a I 2  I 2b V1  AV2  BI 2
I1  CV2  DI 2
V1a   Aa Ba   V2a 
 I   C Da   I 2a 
V1   A B   V2 
 1a   a  I   C
 1  D   I 2 

V1b   Ab Bb   V2b  Matrix multiplication does not commute.

 I   C Db   I 2b 
Order of the interconnection is important
 1b   b
V1   Aa Ba   Ab Bb   V2 
 I   C Da  Cb Db   I 2 
 1  a

LEARNING EXAMPLE Find the Y parameters for the network

I1  j2 I2
  1 1
V1  V2   j 2 I1 y11a  j , y12a   j  3 1 1 1 
V1
I 2   I1
V2 2 2  5 j2    j 
 5 2  [S]
  1 1 Y  1 1 
y21a   j , y22 a  j  


 2

1 
2 2  j  j
  5 2 5 2 
I1 I2
 
1 2 V1  2 I1  I 2 2 1
1
1  3  1
V1
1 V2 Yb     
V2  I1  3I 2 1 3 5  1 2 
 

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LEARNING EXAMPLE Find the Z parameters of the network

Network A

Use direct method,

or given the Y parameters transform to Z Network B
… or decompose the network in a series
connection of simpler networks
2  2 j 2 
3  2 j 3 2 j
Za  
 2 2  4 j  5  4 j 5 2 j
 3  2 j 3  2 j  3  2 j 3 2 j
Z  Za  Zb  
5  2 j 5  6 j 
1 1
Zb     3  2 j 3  2 j 
1 1

LEARNING EXAMPLE Find the transmission parameters

 A B  1  j 2  j 
By splitting the 2-Ohm resistor, C D    j 1  j 
the network can be viewed as the   
cascade connection of two identical
networks

 A B  1  j 2  j  1  j 2  j 
C D    j 1  j   j 1  j 
  
 A B   (1  j ) 2  (2  j ) j (1  j )( 2  j )  (2  j )(1  j )
C D    
   j (1  j )  (1  j )( j ) j (2  j )  (1  j ) 2 

 A B  1  4 j  2 2 4  6 j  2 2 
C D     Two-Ports
  2 j  2 1  4 j  2 2 
2


Course Lecturer: Prof. Eng. C Maina Muriithi,

PE Electrical Engineering 153