Sensors and Transducers

Unit II
 Sensors and Transducers
Unit II
1.Temperature Sensors:

These types of temperature sensor vary from simple ON/OFF thermostatic devices which
control a domestic hot water heating system to highly sensitive semiconductor types that
can control complex process control furnace plants.

We remember from our school science classes that the movement of molecules and atoms
produces heat (kinetic energy) and the greater the movement, the more heat that is
generated. Temperature Sensors measure the amount of heat energy or even coldness that
is generated by an object or system, allowing us to “sense” or detect any physical change
to that temperature producing either an analogue or digital output.

There are many different types of Temperature Sensor available and all have different
characteristics depending upon their actual application. A temperature sensor consists of
two basic physical types:

Contact Temperature Sensor Types – These types of temperature sensor are required to
be in physical contact with the object being sensed and use conduction to monitor changes
in temperature. They can be used to detect solids, liquids or gases over a wide range of
temperatures.
Non-contact Temperature Sensor Types – These types of temperature sensor use
convection and radiation to monitor changes in temperature. They can be used to detect
liquids and gases that emit radiant energy as heat rises and cold settles to the bottom in
convection currents or detect the radiant energy being transmitted from an object in the
form of infra-red radiation (the sun).
2. The Thermostat
The Thermostat is a contact type electro-mechanical temperature sensor or switch, that
basically consists of two different metals such as nickel, copper, tungsten or aluminium
etc, that are bonded together to form a Bi-metallic strip. The different linear expansion
rates of the two dissimilar metals produces a mechanical bending movement when the
strip is subjected to heat.

The bi-metallic strip can be used itself as an electrical switch or as a mechanical way of
operating an electrical switch in thermostatic controls and are used extensively to control
hot water heating elements in boilers, furnaces, hot water storage tanks as well as in
vehicle radiator cooling systems.
3.Resistive Temperature Detectors (RTD).
Another type of electrical resistance temperature sensor is the Resistance Temperature
Detector or RTD. RTD’s are precision temperature sensors made from high-purity
conducting metals such as platinum, copper or nickel wound into a coil and whose
electrical resistance changes as a function of temperature, similar to that of the thermistor.
Also available are thin-film RTD’s. These devices have a thin film of platinum paste is
deposited onto a white ceramic substrate.
resistive temperature detector
A Resistive RTD
Resistive temperature detectors have positive temperature coefficients (PTC) but unlike
the thermistor their output is extremely linear producing very accurate measurements of
temperature. However, they have very poor thermal sensitivity, that is a change in
temperature only produces a very small output change for example, 1Ω/oC.
The more common types of RTD’s are made from platinum and are called Platinum
Resistance Thermometer or PRT ‘s with the most commonly available of them all the
Pt100 sensor, which has a standard resistance value of 100Ω at 0oC. The downside is that
Platinum is expensive and one of the main disadvantages of this type of device is its cost.
Like the thermistor, RTD’s are passive resistive devices and by passing a constant current
through the temperature sensor it is possible to obtain an output voltage that increases
linearly with temperature. A typical RTD has a base resistance of about 100Ω at 0oC,
increasing to about 140Ω at 100oC with an operating temperature range of between -200
to +600oC.
Because the RTD is a resistive device, we need to pass a current through them and monitor
the resulting voltage. However, any variation in resistance due to self-heat of the resistive
wires as the current flows through it, I2R, (Ohms Law) causes an error in the readings.
To avoid this, the RTD is usually connected into a Wheatstone Bridge network which has
additional connecting wires for lead-compensation and/or connection to a constant
current source.

4.Resistance Temperature Detectors Working Principle

Principle of Operation
Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD) operates on the principle that the electrical
resistance of a metal changes predictably in an essentially linear and repeatable manner
with changes in temperature. RTD have a positive temperature coefficient (resistance
increases with temperature). The resistance of the element at a base temperature is
proportional to the length of the element and the inverse of the cross-sectional area.
A typical electrical circuit designed to measure temperature with RTDs actually measures
a change in resistance of the RTD, which is then used to calculate a change in temperature.
The resistance of an RTD increases with increasing temperature, just as the resistance of
a strain gage increases with increasing strain.
Bridge Circuit Construction
Figure below shows a basic bridge circuit which consists of three known resistances, R1,
R2, and R3 (variable), an unknown variable resistor RX (RTD), a source of voltage, and
a sensitive ammeter.
Resistors R1 and R2 are the ratio arms of the bridge. They ratio the two variable
resistances for current flow through the ammeter. R3 is a variable resistor known as the
standard arm that is adjusted to match the unknown resistor. The sensing ammeter
visually displays the current that is flowing through the bridge circuit. Analysis of the
circuit shows that when R3 is adjusted so that the ammeter reads zero current, the
resistance of both arms of the bridge circuit is the same. The relationship of the resistance
between the two arms of the bridge can be expressed as

Since the values of R1, R2, and R3 are known values, the only unknown is Rx. The value
of Rx can be calculated for the bridge during an ammeter zero current condition. Knowing
this resistance value provides a baseline point for calibration of the instrument attached
to the bridge circuit. The unknown resistance, Rx, is given by

5.RTD Materials & Construction

RTD acts somewhat like an electrical transducer, converting changes in temperature to
voltage signals by the measurement of resistance. The metals that are best suited for use
as RTD sensors are pure metals or certain alloys of uniform quality that increase in
resistance as temperature increases and conversely decrease in resistance as temperature
decreases. Only a few metals have the properties necessary for use in RTD elements.
Common materials used in RTD sensor are BALCO wire, Copper, Platinum.

BALCO – A sensor constructed using a BALCO wire is an annealed resistance alloy with
a nominal composition of 70 percent nickel and 30 percent iron. A BALCO 500-ohm
resistance element provides a relatively linear resistance variation from –40 to 250° The
sensor is a low-mass device and responds quickly to changes in temperature. When 1000
ohms is measured across the BALCO element, the temperature is approximately 70°F.
As the temperature increases, the resistance changes 2.2 ohms per 1°F. This is called a
Temperature Coefficient of Resistance Curve (TCR Curve). In a BALCO, as the
resistance has direct relationship with temperature i.e., as temperature increases, the
resistance increases proportionally. The usual range of temperature measurement with
BALCO is -40° to 240°F.
Platinum – RTD sensors using platinum material exhibit linear response and stable over
time. In some applications a short length of wire is used to provide a nominal resistance
of 100 ohms. However, with a low resistance value, element self-heating and sensor lead
wire resistance can affect the temperature indication. With a small amount of resistance
change of the element, additional amplification must be used to increase the signal level.
Platinum film sensor on an insulating base provides high resistance to the tune of 1000
ohms at 74° With this high resistance, the sensor is relatively immune to self-heating and
responds quickly to changes in temperature. RTD elements of this type are common.
6.The Thermistor
The Thermistor is another type of temperature sensor, whose name is a combination of
the words THERM-ally sensitive res-ISTOR. A thermistor is a special type of resistor
which changes its physical resistance when exposed to changes in temperature.

Thermistor

Thermistors are generally made from ceramic materials such as oxides of nickel,
manganese or cobalt coated in glass which makes them easily damaged. Their main
advantage over snap-action types is their speed of response to any changes in temperature,
accuracy and repeatability.
Most types of thermistors have a Negative Temperature Coefficient of resistance or
(NTC), that is their resistance value goes DOWN with an increase in the temperature, and
of course there are some which have a Positive Temperature Coefficient, (PTC), in that
their resistance value goes UP with an increase in temperature.
Thermistors are constructed from a ceramic type semiconductor material using metal
oxide technology such as manganese, cobalt and nickel, etc. The semiconductor material
is generally formed into small pressed discs or balls which are hermetically sealed to give
a relatively fast response to any changes in temperature.
 Thermistors are rated by their resistive value at room temperature (usually at 25oC), their
time constant (the time to react to the temperature change) and their power rating with
respect to the current flowing through them. Like resistors, thermistors are available with
resistance values at room temperature from 10’s of MΩ down to just a few Ohms, but for
sensing purposes those types with values in the kilo-ohms are generally used.
Thermistors are passive resistive devices which means we need to pass a current through
it to produce a measurable voltage output. Then thermistors are generally connected in
series with a suitable biasing resistor to form a potential divider network and the choice
of resistor gives a voltage output at some pre-determined temperature point or value
Temperature Sensors Example No1
The following thermistor has a resistance value of 10KΩ at 25oC and a resistance value of
100Ω at 100oC. Calculate the voltage drop across the thermistor and hence its output
voltage (Vout) for both temperatures when connected in series with a 1kΩ resistor across
a 12v power supply.

At 25oC

At 100oC

By changing the fixed resistor value of R2 (in our example 1kΩ) to a potentiometer or
present, a voltage output can be obtained at a predetermined temperature set point for
example, 5v output at 60oC and by varying the potentiometer a particular output voltage
level can be obtained over a wider temperature range.
It needs to be noted however, that thermistors are non-linear devices and their standard
resistance values at room temperature is different between different thermistor’s, which is
due mainly to the semiconductor materials they are made from. The Thermistor, have an
exponential change with temperature and therefore have a Beta temperature constant ( β )
which can be used to calculate its resistance for any given temperature point.
However, when used with a series resistor such as in a voltage divider network or
Wheatstone Bridge type arrangement, the current obtained in response to a voltage applied
to the divider/bridge network is linear with temperature. Then, the output voltage across
the resistor becomes linear with temperature.
7. Thermocouple: Working Principle & Its Applications
The thermocouple can be defined as a kind of temperature sensor that is used to measure
the temperature at one specific point in the form of the EMF or an electric current. This
sensor comprises two dissimilar metal wires that are connected together at one junction.
The temperature can be measured at this junction, and the change in temperature of the
metal wire stimulates the voltages.

The amount of EMF generated in the device is very minute (millivolts), so very
sensitive devices must be utilized for calculating the e.m.f produced in the circuit.
The common devices used to calculate the e.m.f are voltage balancing potentiometer
and the ordinary galvanometer. From these two, a balancing potentiometer is utilized
physically or mechanically.
Thermocouple Working Principle:
The thermocouple principle mainly depends on the three effects namely Seebeck,
Peltier, and Thompson.
See beck-effect
This type of effect occurs among two dissimilar metals. When the heat offers to any
one of the metal wires, then the flow of electrons supplies from hot metal wire to cold
metal wire. Therefore, direct current stimulates the circuit.
Peltier-effect
This Peltier effect is opposite to the Seebeck effect. This effect states that the
difference of the temperature can be formed among any two dissimilar conductors by
applying the potential variation among them.
Thompson-effect
This effect states that as two disparate metals fix together & if they form two joints
then the voltage induces the total conductor’s length due to the gradient of
temperature. This is a physical word that demonstrates the change in rate and
direction of temperature at an exact position.
Construction of Thermocouple
The construction of the device is shown below. It comprises two different metal wires
and that are connected together at the junction end. The junction thinks as the
measuring end. The end of the junction is classified into three type’s namely
ungrounded, grounded, and exposed junctions.

Ungrounded-Junction
In this type of junction, the conductors are totally separated from the protecting cover.
The applications of this junction mainly include high-pressure application works. The
main benefit of using this function is to decrease the stray magnetic field effect.
Grounded-Junction
In this type of junction, the metal wires, as well as the protection cover, are connected
together. This function is used to measure the temperature in the acidic atmosphere,
and it supplies resistance to the noise.
Exposed-Junction
The exposed junction is applicable in the areas where a quick response is required.
This type of junction is used to measure the gas temperature. The metal used to make
the temperature sensor basically depends on the calculating range of temperature.
Generally, a thermocouple is designed with two different metal wires namely iron
and constantan that makes in detecting element by connecting at one junction that is
named as a hot junction. This consist of two junctions; one junction is connected by
a voltmeter or transmitter where the cold junction and the second junction is
associated in a process that is called a hot junction.
How Does a Thermocouple Work?
The thermocouple diagram is shown in the below picture. This circuit can be built
with two different metals, and they are coupled together by generating two junctions.
The two metals are surrounded by the connection through welding.
In the above diagram, the junctions are denoted by P & Q, and the temperatures are
denoted by T1, & T2. When the temperature of the junction is dissimilar from each
other, then the electromagnetic force generates in the circuit.

If the temperate at the junction end turn into equivalent, then the equivalent, as well as
reverse electromagnetic force, produces in the circuit, and there is no flow of current
through it. Similarly, the temperature at the junction end becomes imbalanced, then the
potential variation induces in this circuit.
The magnitude of the electromagnetic force induces in the circuit relies on the sorts of
material utilized for thermocouple making. The entire flow of current throughout the
circuit is calculated by the measuring tools.
The electromagnetic force induced in the circuit is calculated by the following equation
E = a (∆Ө) + b (∆Ө)2
Where ∆Ө is the temperature difference among the hot thermocouple junction end as well
as the reference thermocouple junction end, a & b are constants
Thermocouple Types
In before going with a discussion of thermocouple types, it has to be considered that
thermocouple needs to be protected in a protective case to isolate from the atmospheric
temperatures. This covering will significantly minimize the corrosion impact on the
device.
So, there are many types of thermocouples. Let us have a detailed look at those.
Type K – This is also termed as Nickel-Chromium/Nickel-Alumel type of thermocouple.
It is the most generally used type. It has the features of enhanced reliability, preciseness,
and inexpensive and can operate for extended temperature ranges.

Type The temperature ranges are:

Thermocouple grade wire – -454F to 2300F (-2700C to 12600C)
Extension wire (00C to 2000C)
This K-type has an accuracy level of
Standard +/- 2.2C or +/-0.75% and the special limits are +/- 1.1C or 0.4%K Thermocouple
Type J – It is a mix of Iron/Constantan. This is also the most used type of thermocouple.
It has the features of enhanced reliability, preciseness, and inexpensive. This device can
be operated only for lesser temperature ranges and has a short lifespan when operated at
a high range of temperatures.

J Type
The temperature ranges are:
Thermocouple grade wire – -346F to 1400F (-2100C to 7600C)
Extension wire (00C to 2000C)
This J-type has an accuracy level of
Standard +/- 2.2C or +/-0.75% and the special limits are +/- 1.1C or 0.4%
Type T – It is a mix of Copper/Constantan. The T type thermocouple holds increased
stability and is generally implemented for lesser temperature applications like ultra-low
temperature freezers and cryogenics.

T Type Thermocouple
The temperature ranges are:
Thermocouple grade wire – -454F to 700F (-2700C to 3700C)
Extension wire (00C to 2000C)
This T-type has an accuracy level of
Standard +/- 1.0C or +/-0.75% and the special limits are +/- 0.5C or 0.4%
8.Types of radiation detectors
Radiation detectors may be characterized by the type of radiation that they are designed
to sense or by their underlying operating principals. From a functionality perspective,
radiation detectors include counters, spectrometers, and radiation dosimeters.
The most common types of radiation detectors include:
Gas-filled radiation detectors
Scintillation radiation detectors
Solid-state radiation detectors
Gas-filled radiation detectors
Gas-filled radiation detectors work based on the ionization effect that occurs when
radiation passes through air or a specific gas. If a high-voltage potential difference is
applied to a chamber containing air or a specialized gas, the ionizing radiation causes the
generation of positively charged ions and free electrons that were stripped from the atoms
of the gas during the ionization process. The electrical potential difference in the chamber
will cause the positive ions to collect to the cathode and the free electrons to collect at the
anode of the detector. This charged particle accumulation results in a small current to
flow which can be sensed by the detector and displayed as an output signal or a “count”.
The level of current is dependent on the level of radiation incident on the detector. Note
that gas-filled radiation detectors do not detect every particle since some radiation may
pass through and not produce sufficient ionization in the chamber to be detected. Also,
these detectors generally do not report information on the charge, energy level, or the type
of incident radiation.
The most common type of gas-filled radiation detector is the Geiger-Muller or GM
detector. To learn more about these types of radiation detectors, see our related guide
About Gas-Filled Radiation Detectors.
Scintillation radiation detectors
Scintillation radiation detectors use the level of light energy produced when radiation
interacts with a material to ultimately establish the level of radiation. The scintillator light
flashes can be brief in their duration, which allows for the device to detect large numbers
of particles in a short time period. Scintillating materials may be solids or liquids, and
when the incoming radiation strikes the material, photons are released into a device called
a photomultiplier tube. The photomultiplier tube consists of a series of plates, called
dynodes, each having a more positive electrical potential than the prior plate in the tube.
As the radiation releases a photon into the tube, it strikes the initial dynode and releases
an electron via the photoelectric effect. The freed electron is attracted to the greater
positive potential of the next plate in the photomultiplier, which then causes the release
of more electrons to be passed further down the tube to successive dynodes. This process
repeats with amplification in the number of electrons released at each successive dynode.
The result of this action is that the photomultiplier tube generates an output pulse that is
proportional to the amount of light energy entering the tube, which in turn is directly
proportional to the amount of radiation energy that entered the scintillation radiation
detector.
Solid-state radiation detectors
Solid-state radiation detectors operate using an ionization principal within a
semiconductor device containing two types of semiconductor material - and n-type and a
p-type. These materials consist of atoms that have charge carriers which may be thought
of as either electrons or holes, which are the absence of electrons. N-type material has
more electrons than holes, while p-type material has more holes than electrons. When
these type semiconductor materials are joined within a solid-state radiation detector, a
depletion zone is created by the migration of electrons from the n-region to the p-region.
Incident radiation that strikes the semiconductor material produces free electrons and
holes, and the number of electron-hole pairs is proportional to the level of radiation. As
these charge carriers travel within the detector, they form a current pulse that can be used
to establish the level of radiation present.
9.How Does a Radiation Detector Work?
SCINTILLATION DETECTOR: The basic principle behind this instrument is the use of
a special material which glows or "scintillates" when radiation interacts with it. The most
common type of material is a type of salt called sodium-iodide. The light produced from
the scintillation process is reflected through a clear window where it interacts with device
called a photomultiplier tube. The first part of the photomultiplier tube is made of another
special material called a photocathode. The photocathode produces electrons when light
strikes its surface. These electrons are then pulled towards a series of plates called
dynodes through the application of a positive high voltage. When electrons from the
photocathode hit the first dynode, several electrons are produced for each initial electron
hitting its surface. This "bunch" of electrons is then pulled towards the next dynode, where
more electron "multiplication" occurs. The sequence continues until the last dynode is
reached, where the electron pulse is now millions of times larger than it was at the
beginning of the tube.
At this point the electrons are collected by an anode at the end of the tube forming an
electronic pulse. The pulse is then detected and displayed by the instrument.
GAS FILLED DETECTOR: This instrument works on the principle that as radiation
passes through air or a specific gas, ionization of the molecules in the air occur. When a
high voltage is placed between two areas of the gas filled space, the positive ions will be
attracted to the negative side of the detector (the cathode) and the free electrons will travel
to the positive side (the anode). These charges are collected by the anode and cathode
which then form a very small current in the wires going to the detector. By placing a very
sensitive current measuring device between the wires from the cathode and anode, the
small current is measured and displayed as a signal. The more radiation which enters the
chamber, the more current is displayed by the instrument. Many types of gas-filled
detectors exist, but the two most common are the ion chamber used for measuring large
amounts of radiation and the Geiger-Muller or GM detector used to measure very small
amounts of radiation.
10. How Does a Pressure Transducer Work?
A pressure transducer is a device that measures the pressure of a fluid, indicating the force
the fluid is exerting on surfaces in contact with it. Pressure transducers are used in many
control and monitoring applications such as flow, air speed, level, pump systems or
altitude.

The most common pressure transducer constructions include a force collector such as a
flexible diaphragm and a transduction element that uses a dependent resistive, capacitive,
or inductive method to generate an electrical signal. The type of electrical device used
will determine the components used to build the pressure sensor.
11. What does a pressure transducer measure?
A pressure transducer measures pressure. It uses a sensor capable of converting the
pressure acting on it into electrical signals. These electrical signals are then relayed to
controllers or PLCs where they are then processed and recorded.
Pressure transducers use strain gauges to measure the force acting on them. The strain
gauges undergo deformation and this creates a change in voltage produced by it. The
pressure measurement is based on the degree of change seen in the voltage.
There are also advanced versions of pressure transducers that use capacitance or
piezoelectric sensors instead of the strain gauges. They are chosen based on the range,
work environment and precision required from the pressure sensor.
How static pressure transmitter works?
Static pressure transducers measure the pressure of a fluid when it is at rest. Static
pressure transducers are the most commonly used pressure monitoring devices.
When a fluid exerts pressure on the pressure transducers, the strain gage (or the sensor)
within it gets deformed. This deformation results in voltage variations. The magnitude of
variation corresponds to the intensity of the pressure. Once the pressure releases, the strain
gauge gets back to its original form.
Piezoelectric pressure transducers are an example of non-static or dynamic pressure
transducers. They cannot measure static pressure, instead, they measure pressure
variances in real-time.
12.Types of pressure transducers
Strain gauge pressure transducer
Strain gauge pressure transducers are suitable to measure extraordinarily high and low
pressures, as well as differential pressure. Differential pressure is the difference in
pressure between any two given points. The transducer contains a sensing element, a
diaphragm. Any deformation of the diaphragm will cause the change of resistance of the
strain gauges. Typically, 4 gauges are used in a Wheatstone bridge to maximize the
sensitivity of the transducer. This resistance change is converted into the usable output
signal.
Strain gauge pressure transducer components: connector (A), housing (B), strain gauge
(C), & pressure inlet (D)
Capacitance pressure transducer
Capacitance pressure transducers measure pressure by detecting the changes in electrical
capacitance due to the movement of the diaphragm. It has two capacitor plates, a
diaphragm, and an electrode fixed to an unpressurized surface. These plates are at a
certain distance from each other, and the change in pressure will widen or narrow the gap
between these plates. This change in capacitance is converted into a usable signal.
Depending upon the application, this transducer can measure either absolute, gauge, or
differential pressure.

Capacitance pressure transducer components: insulated standoffs (A), diaphragm (B), capacitor plates (C), & pressure port (D)
13.Manometer Definition & Types
Manometers is the devices during which an acceptable liquid is employed within the
Mano-metric column to observe the difference in pressure between 2 totally different
locations or one will say between a definite point and therefore the atmosphere. mostly 5
Types of manometer.
Types of Manometer
1) U-Tube Manometer: (Types of Manometer)
This manometer is extremely easy to construct. It consists of a U – formed bent tube
whose one end is hooked up to the gauge Location ‘A’ and alternative Location is
receptive the atmosphere. it’s then stuffed with a Liquid. The density of the Liquid
dictates the vary of pressures that may be observed.
If one port is left open to the atmosphere and therefore the alternative port is connected
to the pressure to be observe, the device acts as a gauge pressure meter. If each port is
connected to 2 totally different unknown pressures, the instrument acts as a differential
gauge.
It will observe each positive and negative pressures. It contains liquid of specific gravity
larger than that of a liquid of that the pressure is to be observe.
where ‘γ’ is specific weight of the Liquid, ‘P’ is Pressure at A (which u r going to
calculate).
Hence; Pressure at A is P = γ2h2 – γ1h1
2) Differential U-Tube Manometer: ( Types of Manometer )
Differential U-tube manometer is extremely similar to the U-tube manometer as we tend
to mentioned on top of. Here one open Location (which was thought-about as atmospheric
Location in U-Tube manometer) is connected to a different pressure Location i.e
This manometer is largely used to observe the differences between to totally different
points otherwise you will say we tend to calculate the difference.
Pressure distinction between A and B is given by equation

13.Well-Type Manometer
The Groth Model 8170 Well-Type Manometer is a direct reading, single column type
pressure gauge providing accurate pressure readings, positive, negative, or differential. It
is used to indicate gas pressure in lines from the digester and those leading to utilities and
waste gas burners. The Groth unit may be used indoors or outdoors and is designed to be
mounted almost anywhere for convenience. The Groth Model 8170 may be wall mounted
or panel mounted. Any number of tubes may be mounted side by side on a common panel.
A solid acrylic assembly protects the shatter-proof tube and the scale against dust, dirt,
and rain. Groth manometers have no hidden wells or packing glands, and are leak proof.
The tube can be filled with a red oil-type liquid. The large font inch scale is easy to read.
Heavy construction and a durable coating provide a long-lasting product which is
designed for easy cleaning and maintenance.
Features

• Multiple manometers are factory installed and inter- connected to simplify installation
• Each pressure port is connected to a vented stainless-steel valve for isolation and zero
calibration
• All manometers are connected to a common panel vent port, and a flame check is
provided for the vent line
• Wall mounting is easy and connections are made at the bottom of the panel
• Indoor or outdoor service
• Standard, over-pressure safety traps provide absolute protection against loss of fluid

In the well type manometer, the pressure to be measured is normally applied to the well.
When pressure applied to the well the level of liquid in the well falls by the distance ” x
” and the level in the limb rises by the distance ” h “.
When the column of liquid (h + x) exerts a pressure equal to the pressure applied to the
well, the liquid stops moving.
The value of (h + x) will increase as the pressure to be measured increases and will
decrease as the pressure to be measured decreases. The value of (h + x) can be read from
a scale positioned as shown in the diagram above.
This scale is normally calibrated in units of pressure, e.g. mm of mercury gauge or Pascal
(Pa), so that the pressure can be read directly from the device.