Power System Faults

Technical literature supporting this section:

J.L. Blackburn, Symmetrical Components for Power Systems Engineering. New York-Basel:
Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1993.

E.O. Schweitzer, III and S.E. Zocholl, “Introduction to Symmetrical Components.” Available at
www.selinc.com.

W.D. Stevenson, Elements of Power System Analysis, Third Edition. New York: McGraw-Hill,
Inc., 1975.

S.E. Zocholl, “Symmetrical Components: Line Transposition.” Available at www.selinc.com.

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Power system calculations can be done in terms of volts, amperes, watts, VARs, and ohmic
quantities. These calculations can also be done using per-unit and percent representations of the
voltage, current, power, and impedance quantities. As we progress through this section, it will
become more apparent that per-unit and percent analysis methods are simpler and computationally
more efficient.

It is essential to note that a factor of 100 differentiates the per-unit value of any quantity from its
percent value. Making the mistake of entering percent values into a short-circuit analysis software
(ASPEN, CAPE, etc.) instead of per-unit values would result in erroneously increasing the
impedance 100 times, thus reducing the short-circuit current and ultimately causing relay
coordination errors.

Also, when you are working with percent values, use care with multiplication. For example,

In per unit: 0.04 pu • 0.99 pu = 0.0396 pu

In percent: 4(%) • 99(%) = 3.96% or 0.0396 pu; not 396(%) or 3.96 pu

Forgetting that this product should be done with percentage values would result in a product of larger
numbers and a much larger result—ultimately causing errors in whatever study is being done.

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The first step in the selection of base quantities is to determine the power base, which is a three-phase
apparent power value to be used for the whole power system. Typical values are 100 MVA for utility
systems and 10 MVA for industrial power systems.

The second step is to select the voltage base values. One phase-to-phase voltage value is selected for
each voltage level. The procedure is to select one voltage base value and calculate the other values
using the power transformer ratios. This procedure ensures that the transformers can be represented
by their per-unit series (short-circuit) impedances.

The impedance of power transformers normally comes on the nameplate and is given as a percentage
[Z (per unit)  100] of the rated impedance base for the transformer.

The impedance of a transformer can be measured by making a short-circuit test of the transformer.
This is because of the following:

Zt = V1 (per unit) / I1 (per unit) with V2 = 0 (short circuit)

This is why the transformer impedance is usually referred to as the short-circuit impedance.

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The third step in the selection of base quantities is to calculate the current and impedance base values
for each voltage level.

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Often, we must convert an impedance to a different base. For example, if a transformer impedance is
given on a 20 MVA base, it may need to be converted to a 100 MVA base to match the base of a
system model. If the voltage base is not being changed, that portion of the equation becomes equal
to 1 and can be ignored.

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Notice that since we used the power transformer ratio to calculate the low-side base voltage, the
voltage ratio equals 1 in the transformer reactance equation.

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For example, the per-unit values of transformers with similar MVA ratings and that share a similar
voltage class fall within a small per-unit range. If a transformer’s actual impedance is unknown or
unavailable at the time of a preliminary short-circuit study, you can make a near-accurate per-unit
approximation if you know the MVA rating of the transformer. The voltage and current phase shifts
across delta-wye power transformers are not considered in their per-unit representation and need to
be treated separately.

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We can classify power system faults as shunt faults and series faults. Short circuits are the most
destructive type of shunt fault; system protection must include a tripping action to protect against
short circuits.

A fallen conductor in an isolated neutral or in a high-impedance-grounded system is a shunt fault that

shifts the system neutral without large fault currents. The system may continue to operate for a short
time in this condition. The protection system should issue only an alarm signal. Ground fault
detection in these systems requires very sensitive relays.

Open phases are series faults. Broken conductors and blown fuses are the most common causes of
open-phase conditions. Series faults do not produce high currents. They do, however, create system
unbalance. Negative-sequence currents may overheat and damage the rotors of generators and motors
in the system. Although tripping a line as a result of an open phase is not necessary, providing
protection against unbalanced operation in rotating machines is required.

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This slide summarizes the ten possible types of short circuits. Four faults involve only the phase
conductors (the three-phase fault and the three phase-to-phase faults). The other six faults also
involve ground (the three single-phase-to-ground faults and the three phase-to-phase-to-ground
faults).

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Most short circuits involve ground. We use separate ground fault protection in the power system. The
highly dangerous three-phase fault is the least frequent fault. A three-phase fault that presents special
protection problems is that created by maintenance personnel leaving grounding switches or
grounding equipment connected after line maintenance.

About 80 percent of short circuits in overhead transmission lines are temporary. Automatic reclosing
reconnects the line when protection trips the breaker and the fault disappears.

Many faults evolve. These faults may begin as single-phase-to-ground faults, evolve into phase-to-
phase-to-ground faults, and eventually become three-phase faults. There are also combined faults. A
broken conductor can touch a line tower or ground on one side only, for example, creating a
combination of open-phase and ground fault at the same point.

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To understand the nature of short circuits, we must perform an analysis of a short circuit at the
terminals of a simplified generator. The simplified generator can be used to represent, as an
equivalent, the behavior of almost any type of system during fault conditions.

The simplified generator consists of an ideal three-phase voltage source with series branches. Each of
these branches has a self-impedance and a mutual inductance with the other two branches. For
simplicity, it is assumed that the mutual coupling between phases is constant. That is, it is the same
between any two phases.

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The general equations for a simplified generator are shown.

The voltage at the generator is equal to the sum of the voltage drops in the loop. The voltage drops
include the phase current times its self-impedance and the other phase current times the mutual
impedance. Additionally, the voltage at the terminal and the voltage of the grounding impedance are
added in.

Notice that the equations are coupled; they are not independent. The coupling is a result of the mutual
impedance that exists between the phases.

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The short circuit creates boundary conditions that can be used to simplify the equations.

Because the fault is balanced, the sum of the phase currents equals zero. If the sum is zero, then

Ib  Ic   I a

Because there is no ground current, the voltage drop across the grounding impedance equals zero.

By definition, a bolted fault is placed at the terminals. Therefore,

Va  Vb  Vc  0

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By applying the boundary conditions, the equations are simplified so that the generator voltage for
any phase is now independent of the current in the other phases. This means that during a perfectly
balanced short circuit, the simplified generator can be represented by an even simpler model in which
the three phases are not magnetically coupled.

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As with any other balanced condition, we can analyze the fault by examining only one of the phases.
The impedance is the impedance found for one of the phases with the procedure previously
described.

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The simplified calculations assume the fault current is perfectly sinusoidal (symmetrical) and
perfectly balanced. As a result, the Phase A current is equal to the calculated current. The currents for
the other phases are equal in magnitude to the calculated current but are shifted by 120 degrees.

Because the voltages are commonly specified as rms, the resulting current is an rms value.

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The method commonly used to determine system currents and voltages for a three-phase short circuit
at any point of the network is derived from Thévenin’s theorem.

The first step is to find the Thévenin equivalent circuit. The Thévenin equivalent is simply a three-
phase generator such as the one described earlier. The second step is to use the equations for the
simple generator to determine the fault current. Finally, use network solution techniques to calculate
the voltages and currents along the network.

We can show that for a balanced three-phase condition, we can model each phase of each element of
the network by a simple impedance. This implies that the currents and voltages can be calculated for
a single phase. The resulting phasor solution can be rotated by 120 degrees to obtain the results for
the other phases. In other words, the problem becomes a classic single-phase ac network problem.

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The Thévenin equivalent that is applied to one phase is actually a three-phase equivalent generator
that uses the simplified model shown earlier.

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In this example, all of the element impedances are shown in per unit.

The following assumptions apply to the respective source circuits:

G1: ZG1 = j0.4 pu

G2: ZG2 = j0.2 pu

T1: ZT1 = j0.4 pu

T2: ZT2 = j0.2 pu

L1: ZL1 = 0.032 + j0.158

L2: ZL2 = 0.042 + j0.210

T3, T4: ZT3 = ZT4 = j0.5

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The Thévenin equivalent is found by simple parallel and series impedance combinations. Since the source
electromotive forces (emfs) have the same magnitudes and are in phase, the circuit branches, including the
generators, transformers, and lines, are effectively in parallel.

Fault current magnitude in pu:

1
I   1.605 pu
0.021  j 0.623

Base current:
100,000
I base   4,183.7 A
3 13.8 

Fault current magnitude in amperes:

I  1.605  4,183.7   6,715 A

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To this point, the discussion has assumed the fault to be a bolted fault. That is, the fault resistance has
been equal to zero. However, it is easy enough to consider the effect of fault resistance. To consider
the effect of fault resistance, simply add it to the Thévenin equivalent impedance before calculating
the fault current.

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Overhead lines are the most exposed system elements. Most faults occur on overhead transmission
and distribution lines. It is very important to know how to calculate and analyze the system during
line fault conditions to properly design the protective system.

Two cases are presented in the figure: the first is a fault on a radial line, and the second is a fault on a
transmission line that is part of a looped system.

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For a radial line, if the effect of load is not considered (a usual assumption), the circuit is a very
simple series circuit. The circuit consists of an equivalent source impedance connected in series with
the impedance of the line.

If we define m as the per-unit impedance to the fault, then the equivalent circuit line impedance is
equal to m times the total line impedance. To calculate m, divide the distance to the fault by the total
length of the line.

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If the line is not radial, then two equivalent sources are needed, one for each line end. The total fault
current, I, is calculated by solving the resulting equivalent circuit. The contribution from each line
end is calculated through the use of current dividers and other network techniques.

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For a balanced, three-phase fault, a symmetrical line can be represented as a line, with decoupled
phases, of impedance ZL.

The transmission line is then represented by three lines of impedance ZL, completely decoupled. This
is how the calculations are simplified for three-phase short circuits.

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To this point, the calculated fault current has been treated as if it were a steady-state phenomenon.
There is a period of time following fault initiation where the steady-state fault current does not
accurately represent the actual fault current. This transient portion of the fault current will be
examined.

Circuit analysis teaches us that the source voltage is equal to the voltage drop of the loop. For a
resistor, the voltage drop is equal to the resistance times the current. For an inductor, the voltage drop
is equal to the inductance times the first derivative of the current.

We can manipulate and solve the equation for the fault current, i(t). Assuming that there was no
current flowing before the fault inception, we can solve the differential equation.

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The solution indicates that the fault current has a sinusoidal part (ac component) and an exponentially
decaying part (dc component). The magnitude, phase angles, and time constant depend on the circuit
parameters (resistance and inductance). The magnitude of the offset is determined by the angle of the
voltage at fault inception. The time constant, or the decay rate, is determined by the L/R ratio of the
circuit.

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The fault current wave shape exhibits asymmetry following the fault inception. The asymmetry is
due to the dc component of the fault current. The effect disappears as the offset disappears. The time
it takes the offset to disappear depends on the time constant of the circuit. This time constant is
directly related to the L/R ratio of the circuit.

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When a short circuit takes place on the terminals of a synchronous generator, the current wave shape
is not the same as for a simple generator with only simple R-L elements.

The synchronous generator is a very complex machine whose transient behavior during a short
circuit requires the solution of more than ten differential equations. The generator short-circuit
current has several time constants and dc offset, and also some double-frequency components.

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This figure shows the typical generator stator phase currents during a fault. The currents contain dc
offset components of different polarities because the fault inception represents different point-on-
wave instants for the three phases.

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This figure shows the result of extracting the symmetrical component from the A-phase stator current
shown on the previous slide. The symmetrical current is not perfectly sinusoidal: it contains a time-
varying envelope that reflects the fact that the generator impedance varies during the fault. The
impedance variation from an initial minimum value to a steady-state high value is a continuous
process.

To simplify the analysis, we typically make a step-wise approximation of the process, which results
in three transient components, as shown in the equation above:

• Subtransient component: The time constant is Td″ and it lasts around two cycles

• Transient component: The time constant is Td′ and it lasts around 10 to 20 cycles

• Steady-state component

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For short-circuit studies, the three states can be represented by three generator reactances:

• Subtransient reactance: Xd″ ~ 0.10 pu (2 cycles)

• Transient reactance: Xd′ ~ 0.18 pu (10 to 20 cycles)

• Synchronous reactance: Xd ~ 1.70 pu (1 to 2 seconds)

The slide shows the resulting subtransient (Id″), transient (Id′), and synchronous (Id) stator current
components. In these equations, E″, E′, and E are the generator subtransient, transient, and steady-
state electromotive forces, respectively.

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The slide shows the contributions of different elements to a short-circuit current.

Notice that the contribution of induction motors lasts less than two cycles.

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Throughout the course, the following references are used interchangeably:

• Balanced system and symmetrical system

• Unbalanced system and unsymmetrical system

• Balanced fault and symmetrical fault

• Unbalanced fault and unsymmetrical fault

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The symmetrical components method is used to analyze unbalances in power systems.

When you are applying the symmetrical components method to three-phase systems, any unbalanced
set of three phasors can be decomposed into three subsets of phasors, namely:

• A set of three phasors that are in phase and of equal magnitude, called the zero-sequence set

• A balanced set of three phasors called the positive-sequence set

• A balanced set of three phasors called the negative-sequence set

For a set of three-phase voltage or current phasors with abc phase sequence or rotation order, the
positive-sequence set will typically have an a1b1c1 rotation order. If the phase sequence nomenclature
is acb, the sequence nomenclature of the positive-sequence set will have an a1c1b1 rotation order.

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These are the basic relations between the different phasors in each of the sequences. They become
compact due to the use of the complex number a.

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If we add the three sequences, we find the original unbalanced quantities. The relationships using
a = 1120° can be used to write the three currents of the original system as functions of the Phase a
components only.

Finally, we drop the subindex a from the expressions, since it is normal to use Phase a reference.

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When we solve for the sequence components, the equations give the sequence currents in terms of
the phase currents.

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The current equations can be written in compact matrix notation. Matrix A is sometimes called the
symmetrical components transformation matrix.

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The inverse transformation is easily obtained, as shown above.

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The figure shows the original phase equations for a perfectly symmetrical transmission line. Note the
magnetic coupling among the phases.

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The results obtained in the preceding slides suggest that the line can be represented by three circuits
that are not magnetically coupled. The three circuits are called the line positive-, negative-, and zero-
sequence networks.

For nonsymmetrical lines, the circuits can have certain mutual couplings, but these effects can be
disregarded in many practical applications.

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The figure shows the representation of a simplified generator, which is widely used not only to model
real generators, but also as an equivalent source of interconnected power systems.

The procedure described earlier can be applied to find the three sequence networks for this
equipment.

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The three sequence networks of the simplified generator are shown in the figure. Note the following:

• There is no magnetic coupling.

• There is a source in the positive-sequence network. This source is the original “natural”
positive-sequence source present in the three-phase model.

• There is no source in the negative- or the zero-sequence networks, as expected, since a

generator is supposed to produce only positive-sequence voltages.

• The neutral grounding impedance appears in the zero-sequence network. This is due to the
fact that unlike the cases of positive- and negative-sequence tests, for the zero-sequence test
there is a current flowing through this impedance.

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The figure shows a simplified diagram of a wye-wye-connected transformer.

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After we apply the short-circuit tests for different sequences as indicated earlier, we obtain the
resulting sequence networks of a wye-wye transformer as shown above. The impedance shown is the
short-circuit impedance of the transformer in per unit, as obtained in the normal transformer short-
circuit test. This impedance came from the transformer test report. Detailed information can be found
in the transformer’s test protocol sheets.

The zero-sequence impedance is dependent on the transformer construction. The zero-sequence

impedance will be equal to the positive-sequence impedance if the unit is three single-phase banks or
if the unit is a three-phase shell-type transformer. For the three-phase core-type transformers, the
zero-sequence impedance will range from 0.9 to 1.0 times the positive-sequence impedance.

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The figure shows a simplified diagram of a delta-wye-connected transformer.

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A set of three single-phase currents, or zero-sequence currents, cannot flow in a circuit that ends in a
delta. In the case of a transformer with zero-sequence currents flowing through the wye side, the
currents are reflected to the other side but circulate within the delta, as shown above.

Alternatively, this can be shown using symmetrical components. For the transformer shown above,
the high-side line current is:

(Īa – Īb) (N2 / N1)

Because the turns ratio impacts only the magnitude of the line current, we can ignore it for the
purposes of this discussion:

I a  I b   I a 0  I a1  I a 2    I b 0  I b1  I b 2 
  I a 0  I b 0    I a1  I b1    I a 2  I b 2 
  I a1  I b1    I a 2  I b 2  since I a 0  I b 0

Therefore, there is no zero-sequence current on the delta side, outside of the delta connective.

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The resulting networks are shown in the figure for the delta-wye transformer.

The transformer zero-sequence network has an open circuit on the delta side to reflect the fact that
the delta traps zero-sequence currents. The connection to ground on the wye side reflects the fact that
the delta-wye transformer contributes to ground faults on the wye side.

The impedances shown are the short-circuit impedance of the transformer in per unit, as obtained in
the normal transformer short-circuit test. The zero-sequence impedance will exhibit the same
properties as described for the wye-wye transformer.

The zero-sequence impedance varies with the transformer construction, identical to the wye-wye
transformer connection.

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These are the three sequence networks for the system shown on the previous slide. Three elements of
the power system are considered: a generator, a transformer, and a line.

• The generator is modeled with sequence impedances ZG1, ZG2, and ZG0. In many cases, the
generator is an equivalent used to represent the transmission network “behind” a distribution
substation. The equivalent is calculated so that it produces, in the substation, the same short-
circuit current as the transmission system.

• The transformer is modeled by its three sequence impedances: ZT1, ZT2, and ZT0. Except for a
few cases, these three impedances are assumed to be equal to the short-circuit impedance of
the transformer provided by the manufacturer on the transformer’s nameplate.

• The sequence impedances of a line (overhead or underground) ZL1, ZL2, and ZL0 depend on
the conductor and the geometric arrangement used. These impedances are calculated using
formulas and tables.

Once the networks are determined, they can be reduced to a simple network as shown in the figure
on the right. The simplified networks correspond to the Thévenin equivalent of the system at the
faulted bus.

Note the connection of the delta-wye transformer in the zero-sequence network. The open connection
is due to the fact that the delta winding traps the zero-sequence current, as previously discussed.

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Here is another example, a line with two wye-grounded equivalent sources connected at the ends.

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Method for calculating unbalanced short circuits:

1. Determine the point (node or bus) of the system where the short circuit will be simulated

2. Find the sequence networks (positive, negative, and zero) of the system

3. Find the Thévenin equivalent of each sequence network at that point

4. Connect the sequence networks depending on the type of fault, and calculate the sequence
fault current

5. Using network techniques, calculate the sequence voltages and currents along the system

6. Use the symmetrical components transformation to find the phase quantities

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The three-phase fault is straightforward. The fault boundary conditions are introduced to the original
generator’s equations. The result is that there are no negative- and zero-sequence currents, and the
positive-sequence network responds to a simple equation:
E  Z1 I1

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The results obtained in the previous slide suggest that the generator’s sequence networks must be
connected as shown on this slide.

For this particular case, the A-phase fault current is equal to the positive-sequence current. The
B-phase and C-phase fault currents are equal in magnitude to the A-phase, but they are rotated
240 degrees and 120 degrees, respectively.

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Using A-phase as the reference, the classic analysis examines a B-phase-to-C-phase fault.

Again, the fault boundary conditions are introduced to the original generator’s equations. The result
is that there is no zero-sequence current and that the positive- and negative-sequence networks
respond in the equation in a way that suggests they must be in parallel.

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The results obtained in the previous slide suggest that the generator’s sequence networks must be
connected as shown on this slide.

The fault current is found by applying the original symmetrical components equations.

Note that the fault voltage is 1.73 times larger than the positive-sequence voltage.

Also, note that when Z 1  Z 2 (which is very frequent), the fault current magnitude is 86.7 percent of
the magnitude of the three-phase fault current.

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This is the case of a solid Phase-A-to-ground fault.

After introducing the fault conditions to the original generator’s equations, the result is that there are
positive-, negative-, and zero-sequence currents, and they are equal in magnitude and phase.

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The result is, for this particular fault, that the sequence networks are connected in series. The fault
current, obtained with the symmetrical component transformation, is three times the sequence
current.

Note the presence of the neutral grounding impedance. This impedance limits the fault current.

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The analysis for the phase-to-phase-to-ground short circuit is similar to the one performed for the
other three cases.

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The network connection for a phase-to-phase-to-ground fault is similar to the connection for a phase-
to-phase fault. The difference is the addition of the zero-sequence network in parallel with the
negative-sequence network.

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The simple subtransmission network (69 kV) feeds a distribution substation (13.8 kV) through two
transformers in parallel. A single-phase-to-ground fault occurs at the distribution (13.8 kV) bus.

Calculate the phase fault currents at the fault point.

The system source voltages equal 1 per unit (pu). The system element impedances are as follows:

G1: ZG1,1 = j0.4 pu, ZG1,2 = j0.5 pu

G2: ZG2,1 = j0.2 pu, ZG2,2 = j0.4 pu

T1: ZT1,1 = ZT1,2 = ZT1,0 = j0.4 pu

T2: ZT2,1 = ZT2,2 = ZT2,0 = j0.2 pu

L1: ZL1,1 = ZL1,2 = 0.032 + j0.158, ZL1,0 = 0.11 + j0.51 pu

L2: ZL2,1 = ZL2,2 = 0.042 + j0.210, ZL2,0 = 0.15 + j0.704 pu

T3, T4: ZT3,1,2,0 = ZT4,1,2,0 = j0.5 pu

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The Thévenin equivalent is found by simple parallel and series impedance combinations. The student
must work this example and find the currents and voltages at the fault point. Note that we assume
that both generators are at 1.0 pu (zero degrees). This simplifies the problem. In more precise
calculations, the actual bus voltages are considered in finding the Thévenin voltage.

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The same procedure is performed over the negative-sequence network. In this case, no voltage source
is involved. Why?

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The zero-sequence current considers the delta-wye connection of the step-up transformers in the
power plants.

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For a single-phase-to-ground fault, the sequence networks are connected in series. Finding the
sequence current at the fault point is straightforward.

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The phase fault current is found through the use of symmetrical components equations.

I a  I1  I 2  I 0  3I1

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During normal operation, the currents will either lag or lead the voltages by the power factor angle.

During a three-phase fault, the phase current magnitudes increase and the voltage magnitudes
decrease. If the fault is perfectly balanced, the faulted quantities remain separated by 120 degrees.
During the fault, the currents will lag the voltages by the line impedance angle. For the case shown
above, the line impedance angle is 90 degrees, or a purely reactive line.

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The figure on the left shows the phase voltages and currents for a single-phase-to-ground fault and,
on the right, the voltages and currents for a phase-to-phase fault.

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The slide shows the phase voltages and currents for a phase-to-phase-to-ground fault.

It is very important in protective relaying to know the behavior of voltages and currents for different
fault conditions.

These quantities are the inputs to the relays. The relays make decisions based on these quantities.

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Let us analyze the example presented in the figure. Note the transformer connections.

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The atypical sequence network connections consider the transformers’ deltas off the side of the fault.

If one of the transformers had a delta connection on the fault side, then the zero-sequence current
would not be present.

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