Power System Protection

Chapter # 8
(Transformer Protection)

Muhammad Bilal
Assistant Professor, EED UET LHR.
Introduction...
• Transformer faults are generally classified into five
categories:
1. winding and terminal faults
2. core faults
3. tank and transformer accessory faults
4. on–load tap changer faults
5. abnormal operating conditions
6. sustained or un-cleared external faults
Introduction...
• For faults originating in the transformer itself, the
approximate proportion of faults is shown below.
Introduction...
Winding Faults
• Internal short circuit faults in the windings of
transformers are:
• Phase-to-ground faults (The most common)
• Phase-to-phase faults (Rare)
• Turn-to-turn faults (Less common)
Introduction...
Core Faults
• Transformer core is made by stacking the thin laminated
sheets of silicon-steel.
• It is done so to reduce the eddy-current loss in
transformer core.
• A conducting bridge across the laminated structures of
the core can permit sufficient eddy-current to flow to
cause serious overheating.
• The bolts that clamp the core together are always
insulated to avoid this trouble.
• If any portion of the core insulation becomes defective,
the resultant heating may damage the winding.
Introduction...
Tank Faults
• Loss of oil through tank leaks will ultimately produce a
dangerous condition.
• Overheating may also occur due to prolonged
overloading, blocked cooling ducts due to oil sludging or
failure of the forced cooling system, if fitted.
Introduction...
Externally Applied Conditions
• Sources of abnormal stress in a transformer are:
a. overload
b. system faults
c. overvoltage
d. reduced system frequency
Overload
• Overload causes increased 'copper loss' and a
consequent temperature rise.
• Overloads can be carried for limited periods.
Introduction...
Externally Applied Conditions…
Overload
• The thermal time constant of naturally cooled
transformers lies between 2.5-5 hours.
• Shorter time constants apply in the case of force-cooled
transformers.
Introduction...
Externally Applied Conditions…
System Faults
• System short circuits produce a relatively intense rate of
heating of the feeding transformers.
• The copper loss increases in proportion to the square of
the per unit fault current.
• The typical duration of external short circuits that a
transformer can sustain without damage is 2 seconds.
Introduction...
Externally Applied Conditions…
Overvoltages
• Overvoltage conditions are of two kinds:
i. Transient surge voltages
ii. Power frequency overvoltage
• Transient overvoltages arise from switching, and
lightning disturbances and are liable to cause interturn
faults.
• Power frequency overvoltage causes both an increase in
stress on the insulation and an increase in the working
flux.
Transformer Protection – Overview…
• Following Table summarizes the problems and the
possible forms of protection that may be used.
Overcurrent Protection of Transformers…

12
Overcurrent Protection of Transformers…
Fuses…
• High Rupturing Capacity (HRC) fuses, although very fast
in operation with large fault currents, are extremely
slow with currents of less than three times their rated
value.
• Typical ratings of fuses for use with 11kV transformers
are given below in the table:
Percentage Differential Protection

𝑁1 × 𝐼1𝑝 = 𝑁2 × 𝐼2𝑝
𝐼1𝑝 = 𝑛1 × 𝐼1𝑠
𝐼2𝑝 = 𝑛2 × 𝐼2𝑠
𝑁1 × 𝑛1 𝐼1𝑠 = 𝑁2 × 𝑛2 𝐼2𝑠
𝑰𝟏𝒔 = 𝑰𝟐𝒔
𝑁1 𝑛1 = 𝑁2 𝑛2
𝐼𝑑 = 𝐼1𝑠 − 𝐼2𝑠 = 0
Percentage Differential Protection…
 Percentage Differential Protection…
Example 1
• A single-phase transformer is rated at 69/110 kV, 20
MVA. It is to be protected by a differential relay, with
input taps of 3.0, 4.0, 4.5, 4.8, 4.9, 5.0, 5.1, 5.2, 5.5 A
secondary.
The transformer has an under load tap changer (ULTC)
with a turns ratio of − 5 % to + 5 % in steps of 5/8 %.
Specify the CTs, the pickup setting and the percentage
differential slope for the relay.
The available slopes are 10, 20 and 40 %.

16
 Percentage Differential Protection…
Example 1
20 × 106
𝐼1𝑝 = 3
= 289.86 𝐴
69 × 10
20 × 106
𝐼2𝑝 = 3
= 181.82 𝐴
110 × 10
CT Ratio on LV side 300 ∶ 5
CT Ratio on HV side 200 ∶ 5
289.86 × 5
𝐼1𝑠 = = 4.83 𝐴
300
181.82 × 5
𝐼2𝑠 = = 4.55 𝐴
200 17
 Percentage Differential Protection…
Example 1
Taps of 4.8 and 4.5 can be used on LV and HV sides
respectively.
4.83 4.55
𝐼𝑑 = ×5− × 5 = −0.024 𝐴
4.8 4.5
0.024
% 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100 = 0.5 %
5
CT Error = 10 %
ULTC Error = 5 %
Total Error = 0.5 + 10 + 5 = 15.5 %
Slope Setting = 15.5 + 5 ≈ 𝟐𝟎 % 18
 Causes of False Differential Currents…
1. Magnetizing Inrush Current During Energization
• As the voltage is applied to the transformer by closing
the switch (C.B), a magnetizing current is drawn from
the source.
𝑒(𝑡) = 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑)
𝑑𝑖𝑚(𝑡)
𝐿𝑚 = 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑)
𝑑𝑡

𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑚(𝑡) = න 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑) 𝑑𝑡

19
 Causes of False Differential Currents…
1. Magnetizing Inrush Current During Energization…

𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑚(𝑡) = න 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑) 𝑑𝑡

𝜆(𝑡) = න 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑) 𝑑𝑡

𝜆 𝑡 = 𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑠𝑖 𝑛 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑 + 𝑘

At t = 0, 𝜆 𝑡 = 0 (No residual flux) 𝑘 = 𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑠𝑖 𝑛 𝜑

𝜆 𝑡 = 𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑠𝑖 𝑛 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙 + 𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑠𝑖 𝑛 𝜑

20
 Causes of False Differential Currents…
1. Magnetizing Inrush Current During Energization…
𝜆 𝑡 = 𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑠𝑖 𝑛 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙 + 𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑠𝑖 𝑛 𝜑
• The DC component in the flux-linkage causes saturation
of transformer core.

21
Causes of False Differential Currents…
1. Magnetizing Inrush Current During Energization…
• Because of the losses in the circuit, the magnetizing
current will decay to its nominal small value.
• Time constants of several seconds are common in most
modern power transformers.

22
 Causes of False Differential Currents…
1. Magnetizing Inrush Current During Energization…
• In transformers a very large inrush currents are
possible, depending upon the instant of energization,
and the residual flux in the transformer core.
• Since the inrush current flows only in the primary and
not in the secondary winding of the transformer
• It produces a differential current which is 200 % of the
restraining current, and would cause a false operation of
percentage differential relay regardless of the slope
setting.

23
 Causes of False Differential Currents…
1. Magnetizing Inrush Current During Energization…
 Harmonic Content of the Inrush Current
• The false operation of a %age diff. relay for a
transformer is prevented by taking advantage of the fact
that the inrush current is rich in harmonic components,
• while the fault current is a pure fundamental frequency
component.

24
 Causes of False Differential Currents…
1. Magnetizing Inrush Current During Energization…
 Harmonic Content of the Inrush Current…

𝑖(𝜃) = 𝑖𝑚 (cos 𝜃 − cos 𝛼)

0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝛼 , (2𝜋 − 𝛼) ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋

𝑖 𝜃 =0
𝛼 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ (2𝜋 − 𝛼)
2𝜋 𝛼
1 2
𝑎𝑛 = න 𝑖(𝜃) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃 = න 𝐼𝑚(𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝜃 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝜃)𝑑𝜃
𝜋 𝜋
0 0
25
Causes of False Differential Currents…
1. Magnetizing Inrush Current During Energization…
 Harmonic Content of the Inrush Current…

𝐼𝑚 1 1 1
𝑎𝑛 = sin 𝑛 + 1 𝛼 + sin 𝑛 − 1 𝛼 − 2 cos 𝛼 sin 𝑛𝛼
𝜋 𝑛+1 𝑛−1 𝑛

𝐼𝑚 1
𝑎1 = 𝛼 − sin 2𝛼
𝜋 2

26
Causes of False Differential Currents…
1. Magnetizing Inrush Current During Energization…
 Harmonic Content of the Inrush Current…

27
 Causes of False Differential Currents…
3. Sympathetic Inrush-Current
• This is a somewhat unusual
event, but occurs often
enough.
• Consider a generator, connect-
ed to a bus through a trans-
mission-line having a resist-
ance R and an inductance L.
• The transformer T1 is
energized, and
• the transformer T2 is being
energized by closing the
breaker B. 28
 Causes of False Differential Currents…
3. Sympathetic Inrush-Current…
• As the breaker B closes, an
inrush current is established in
the primary winding of the
transformer T2,
• and is supplied by the
generator through line
impedance.
• Since the generator output is
purely AC, and cannot be
affected.
• The bus A acquires a negative
DC component. 29
 Causes of False Differential Currents…
3. Sympathetic Inrush-Current…
• This results in a negative
change in the flux linkages
of the two transformer
cores.
• As the transformer T2 was
saturating in the positive
direction, the effect of this
flux change is to take T2 out
of saturation,
• and cause a possible
saturation of T1 in the
negative direction.
30
 Causes of False Differential Currents…
3. Sympathetic Inrush-Current…
• The phenomenon which
causes inrush to flow in a
previously energized trans-
former, when a parallel bank is
energized, is known as the
sympathetic inrush.

31
Causes of False Differential Currents…
4. Transformer Over-Excitation…

32
 Causes of False Differential Currents…
4. Transformer Over-Excitation…
• When the Fourier series for this current is calculated, it
turns out that all even harmonics are identically zero.
• The odd harmonics are twice of those computed for
magnetizing inrush current.
• for α = 5o, the 3rd and the 5th harmonics are almost as
strong as the fundamental frequency component.

33
 Causes of False Differential Currents…
5. CT Saturation
• For some external faults,
where the fault currents are
large, it is likely that one of
the CTs may saturate.

34
 Causes of False Differential Currents…
5. CT Saturation
• For some external faults,
where the fault currents are
large, it is likely that one of
the CTs may saturate.
• This waveform contains no
even harmonics, and that
there is a significant third
harmonic component in the
current.

35
Causes of False Differential Currents…
Summary
Harmonic Dominant
Sr. No. Phenomena
Components Harmonics

1. Energizing Inrush 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th,

2nd
Current …
2. Inrush Current due to 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th,
2nd
Fault Removal …
3. Sympathetic Inrush 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th,
2nd
Current …
4. Over-Excitation 3rd, 5th, 7th, … 3rd and 5th
5. CT Saturation 3rd, 5th, 7th, … 3rd
36
 Three-Phase Transformer Protection…
9000 : 5 1000 : 5

34.5 kV 500 kV

500 × 1000
𝐼Δ𝑃 =
3 × 34.5
500 MVA
𝐼Δ𝑃 = 8367.39 𝐴
500 × 1000
𝐼𝑌𝑃 =
3 × 500
𝐼𝑌𝑃 = 577.35 𝐴
 Three-Phase Transformer Protection…
Multi-winding Transformer Protection
• In a 3-ϕ multi-winding transformer the CTs must be
connected in Y on the ∆ side and in ∆ on the Y side.
• This will ensure that the Y∆ phase shifts are
compensated by the CTs.
• The CT ratios are chosen so that
when any two windings are in
service, equal secondary currents
are produced.

38
Three-Phase Transformer Protection…
Multi-winding Transformer Protection…

1100 : 5 300 MVA

500 MVA 500 kV
34.5 kV 9000 : 5

4000 : 5
200 MVA
138 kV

39
Three-Phase Transformer Protection…
Multi-winding Transformer Protection…

1100 : 5

9000 : 5

4000 : 5

40
Nonelectrical Protection
Pressure Devices
• Faults inside an oil-filled transformer tank
• Create pressure waves inside the oil.
• This pressure wave is detected by using either Buchholz
Relay or Sudden Pressure Relay (SPR).
• Both these relays have working principle based on
nonelectrical phenomenon.
Nonelectrical Protection…
Pressure Devices…
Buchholz Relay
• Buchholz relay is one of the
protective device for electrical
transformer from internal faults.
• Buchholz relay is used in
‘conservator’ type of transformer
tanks.
Nonelectrical Protection…
Pressure Devices…
Buchholz Relay…
• It is connected in between pipe from main tank to
conservator tank and it is filled with oil throughout
transformer operation.
• It is used for all power transformers, but not economical
in the case of low rated transformers.
Nonelectrical Protection…
Pressure Devices…
Buchholz Relay…
Nonelectrical Protection…
Pressure Devices…
Buchholz Relay…
Working and Construction of Buchholz Relay
Nonelectrical Protection…
Pressure Devices…
Sudden Pressure Relay (SPR)
• A tank-type construction of
transformer has a gas cushion
at the top of the tank.
• In such a transformer, the
pressure wave is detected by a
SPR (sudden pressure relay)
mounted on the side of the
transformer above the oil level
or on the top of the
transformer tank.
Nonelectrical Protection…
Pressure Devices…
Sudden Pressure Relay (SPR)…
Nonelectrical Protection…
Pressure Devices…
Sudden Pressure Relay (SPR)…
• The mechanical sensor consists
of a bellows and a pressure
equalizer,
• Which together is insensitive to
slow changes of pressure, for
example those caused by
thermal or loading changes in
the transformer.
Nonelectrical Protection…
Pressure Devices…
Sudden Pressure Relay (SPR)…
• However, a pressure wave created by a fault is detected
by the relay, and can be used to trip or alarm.
Protection Systems for Transformers
Tapped Transformer Banks
67L1 67L2
No. 1 No. 2

51T
87B
87T

50
Protection Systems for Transformers
Tapped Transformer Banks
67L1 67L2
No. 1 No. 2

87B
87T 51T

51
Protection Systems for Transformers
Tapped Transformer Banks
MOAB MOAB
No. 1 M M No. 2

MOAB
M

87T 51T

52
Protection Systems for Transformers
Substation Design
345 kV Bus
No. 1 87B1

87OA 63 87T

87B2
138 kV Bus
No. 2
53
Protection Systems for Transformers
Substation Design
345 kV Bus
No. 1 87B1

87OA 63 87T

87B2
138 kV Bus
No. 2
54
Protection Systems for Transformers
Substation Design
345 kV Bus
No. 1
MOAB
M

63 87T

138 kV Bus
No. 2
55
Protection Systems for Transformers
Substation Design
345 kV Bus
No. 1
87B1
MOAB
M

63 87T

87L

138 kV Bus
No. 2
56
Protection Systems for Transformers
Generator- M
Station Design
M

87U GSU RAT

87R
87OA
87G UAT

87UA

57
End Problems
8.1 to 8.4 & 8.6 to 8.7

Excluded Articles
8.9.4 Station Service
END