Remediating

Brownfield Land

USING CEMENT AND LIME

 Remediating Brownfield Land
PAGE 2

WHAT IS STABILISATION/
The application SOLIDIFICATION?
of S/S provides Stabilisation/solidification, or S/S for short, is a civil engineering based

a remediation ground remediation technique that involves the controlled addition and
mixing of hydraulic binders with contaminated soil to generate a solid

treatment material in which contaminants are rendered immobile and virtually

non-leachable. The resulting solid has enhanced engineering properties
capable of and can be designed to be granular or monolithic.

dealing with Why use S/S?

contaminants so Concerns about the environmental impacts of
continued development of greenfield land have
changes to the practice of landfill. Since July 2004
co-disposal of inert and hazardous waste has not

that they present understandably led to a desire to utilise previously

developed or brownfield sites. The UK Government,
for instance, has advocated that at least 60% of new
been permitted and certain hazardous wastes now
require pre-treatment prior to disposal at landfill.
As a direct consequence of these regulations, the

no significant housing should be located on previously developed

land. The objective to recycle brownfield land for
any development type, whether it is commercial,
availability of suitable landfill sites that accept
contaminated materials has reduced drastically,
increasing not only the cost of disposal but also the

risk of harm. industrial or residential, is accompanied by a need to

immobilise any contaminants present in the soil. The
application of S/S provides a remediation treatment
cost of transporting the material to the landfill site.

These changes to landfill practice and the

capable of dealing with contaminants so that they subsequent cost and logistical problems involved in
present no significant risk of harm. dig and dump mean that S/S is a cost effective and
sustainable alternative, with the added advantage of
Historically, the favoured approach to dealing being able to handle a wide range of contaminants.
with contaminated land was excavation of the
contaminated material and disposal to landfill –
‘dig and dump’. However, the EU Landfill
Directive (1999/31/EC) has forced substantial

In-situ treatment of a contaminated site using rotovating-type plant. The binder, visible in the
background, is being mixed into the soil and the blended material is then compacted.
Courtesy of Halton Borough Council
 Remediating Brownfield Land
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What types of binder are What are the benefits Which contaminants
used for S/S? of S/S using cement and can be remediated using
The principal binders used are: lime? S/S?
• Cement, mainly Portland cement (CEM I) but
including all other common cements (CEM II, CEM The benefits of S/S are considerable: S/S works very effectively with metals and other
III, CEM IV, CEM V) • Robustness – The process is based on well inorganic contaminants and, contrary to commonly
• Quicklime or hydrated lime understood science. held beliefs, can also be used to treat a wide range of
organic contaminants.
• Fly ash, also called pulverised fuel ash (pfa) • Versatility – It can be used on a wide range of
• Ground granulated blastfurnace slag (ggbs) different contaminants and can be tailored to
meet the requirements of the site specific risk
Portland cement, or other common cements, and assessment.

Increasing Effectiveness
lime can be used on its own, in combination with • Tried and tested – It has a proven track record in
each other or in combination with ggbs or fly projects worldwide.
ash. Ggbs and fly ash require a source of alkali, • Engineering benefits – It provides an • Heavy metals
normally provided by cement or lime, to initiate the improvement to the physical characteristics
cementitious reaction. Depending upon the nature of the ground in addition to managing the • PCBs, Dioxins
of the contamination, minor additives may also contamination issues. • PAHs, Phenols
be used to optimise the chemical and/or physical • Simple construction methods – It requires
properties of the soil.
• CR(VI), Cyanide
conventional ground engineering equipment and
ties in well with other site construction activities. • Hydrocarbons, BTEX
• Provides solutions – It offers clearly defined cost • Chlorides
and project programme benefits.
How does S/S using • Sustainable – It can avoid disposal of
contaminated soils to landfill, drastically reduce
cement and lime work? the need to import fill and reduce vehicular
movements to and from site.
S/S facilitates ground remediation by rendering
contaminants immobile and virtually non-leachable. In-situ treatment of a contaminated site.
Although not totally removed or destroyed, S/S The binder has been spread over the surface and is waiting to be mixed into the soil.
removes pathways between contaminants and Courtesy of Halton Borough Council
potential receptors, thereby eradicating associated
risk. The addition of cement and lime to soils
introduces a combination of two separate processes:
• Stabilisation – the production of more
chemically stable constituents;
• Solidification – the imparting of physical/
dimensional stability to contain contaminants
in a solid product and reduce access by external
agents, such as air or rainfall.

The two processes work together and the chemical

and physical changes can be optimised – through
careful selection of binder materials and minor
additives - to achieve the desired remedial
objectives. At the same time as achieving the
remedial objectives the engineering properties
of the soil are improved, thereby facilitating the
development of the site.
Remediating Brownfield Land
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Treatment of a contaminated site using rotovating-type plant. On the right the soil is being dosed with binder, which is then rotovated into the soil.
On the left the blended material is being compacted and the final surface sprayed with a sealant to protect the treated material.

Augers are used for in-situ treatment at a depth of

greater than 5m. HOW IS S/S IMPLEMENTED?
The implementation of S/S is flexible and can be tailored to meet site requirements. It can be carried out either
as an in-situ or ex-situ process depending on the site conditions, the nature of the contamination and other
factors such as access, handling constraints and future intended use of treated materials. For both types of
process, best practice and a high level of construction quality control should be followed in order to ensure the
effectiveness of the remediation.

In-Situ Treatment
In-situ S/S can be carried out in a number of ways and is broadly categorised by the depth of treatment:

The binder is spread over the surface of the ground to be treated at a pre-
determined dose rate and then mixed in using rotovating-type plant. The
< 0.5m Shallow treatment
Allu buckets are an option for in-situ treatment at blended material is then compacted and the reaction between the binder and
intermediate depths (0.5m - 5m). The buckets are the moisture in the soil is allowed to take place.
attached to the arms of excavating-type plant.
Intermediate The binder is mixed into the soil using modified plant. The plant is selected to
0.5 – 5m
treatment suit the specific site conditions and application.

The binder is introduced into the contaminated soil as a dry powder or slurry
using vertical hollow stem augers. The binder is then mixed into the soil as
> 5m Deep treatment
the augers are advanced and/or withdrawn. Often the process uses a nest of
augers which overlap to ensure greater efficacy of mixing and treatment.

Ex-Situ Treatment
Ex-situ S/S is usually undertaken at the contaminated site and can be carried out in a number of ways. In each
case, the contaminated soil is excavated and possibly placed in a temporary stockpile. When the soil is required:
• the binder is introduced and mixed into the soil, before the blended material is taken to a final deposition area, or
• the soil is taken to a final deposition area, where binder is introduced and mixed into the soil.
The inside of a pugmill mixer. Pugmill mixers are used
in purpose-built plant for ex-situ treatment of soil. The excavated soil is transported to a final deposition area, where it is spread in layers,
Rotovator or other along with the binder and mixed using rotovating type plant. The blended material is
driven mobile plant then compacted and the reaction between the binder and the moisture in the soil is
allowed to take place.

The excavated soil is placed in a drum, into which the binder is added and mixed. The
In-drum mixing reaction between the binder and the moisture in the soil is allowed to take place before
the drum, mixing blades and contents are disposed.

The excavated soil is mixed with the binder in a purpose-built plant (mobile or fixed)
for a pre-determined time prior to transportation to a deposition area. The blended
Pugmill / Batchmixer
material is then compacted and the reaction between the binder and the moisture in
the soil is allowed to take place.

Ex-situ S/S is ideal for addressing the problems of ground with buried foundations and situations where the
treated materials are judged to be suitable for reuse as engineered fill.
 Remediating Brownfield Land
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Courtesy of O’Keefe Soil Remediation

Photography: Robby Whitfield, Central Photography

The implementation of S/S is flexible and can

be tailored to meet site requirements.

WHAT IS THE LATEST GUIDANCE FOR THE DESIGN OF S/S?

There are two major documents authored by Guidance on the The Essential Guide
UK based organisations giving guidance on the use use of Stabilisation to Stabilisation/
of S/S to remediate brownfield land. / Solidification for Solidification for
the Treatment of the Remediation of
Contaminated Soil Brownfield Land using
Cement and Lime
Environment Agency
Science Report: A cement and
SC980003/SR1 concrete industry
publication:
CCIP-004

This document was published in September 2004 by This document, which was published in October
the Environment Agency. It was produced as one of 2004 by a cement and lime industry working group,
the outputs from the CASSST (Codes and Standards provides robust guidance on the use of S/S for the
for Stabilisation / Solidification Technology) work remediation of land affected by contamination. The
programme. CASSST is an initiative by the University essential guide is an overview of the whole process,
of Greenwich, together with the Environment from the initial risk assessment to completion of the
Agency and industry, to produce and disseminate remediation.
good practice guidance for consulting engineers,
contaminated land stakeholders and regulators on The document identifies and covers the five stages
the use of S/S technologies. The document covers of a remediation project, namely:
the design, construction, long-term monitoring and • Risk assessment
maintenance of S/S remediated land.
• Remediation strategy
Copies of the science report can be downloaded • Remediation design
from the Environment Agency website • Remediation implementation
www.environment-agency.gov.uk • Remediation completion

Copies of the essential guide can be purchased from

The Concrete Bookshop at a cost of £24.75.
Visit www.concretebookshop.com
or call 01276 608778.
 Remediating Brownfield Land
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CASE STUDY
Hutchinson Street, Widnes
A 2.5 hectare site in Hutchinson Street, Widnes was A comparison of the properties of the contaminated ground prior to and
heavily contaminated as a result of the chemical seven days after treatment.
industries which historically operated in Widnes
and the surrounding area. One particular process
employed in this area was the Le Blanc process, Property Before S/S 7 Days After S/S
which converted common salt into soda ash using
California Bearing Ratio (CBR), % 0-3 50-85
sulphuric acid, limestone and coal. The Le Blanc
process generated large quantities of an alkaline Water Permeability, m/s 10 -6
10 -9
waste known locally as galligu. Deposits of galligu
up to 4m deep exist widely throughout the Widnes/ Arsenic, µg/L 570 <1.0
Runcorn area including the Hutchinson Street site.
Lead, µg/L 1290 <10
In addition to galligu, a geotechnical investigation of
Zinc, µg/L 1570 19-250
the site also revealed elevated levels of heavy metals,
including arsenic, lead and zinc, and the presence of
coal and tar wastes. The measured moisture content
The site as S/S work proceeded. Earthwork operations on top of the S/S treated
of samples ranged from 31% to 138%, whilst pH
Courtesy of Halton Borough Council ground. Courtesy of Halton Borough Council
varied from 2.6 to 12.2. The soil was characterised
as having high water permeability and very low
strength.

Leaching tests demonstrated high levels of arsenic,

lead and zinc and it was concluded that there
existed a significant risk of cross-contamination
of adjacent ground via surface water infiltration.
Contamination of the River Mersey, located only
500m from the site, was also a risk. A scheme
involving excavation and disposal to landfill was
initially proposed to prevent the threat of cross-
contamination, but was subsequently discounted
on the basis of environmental and economic issues.
Instead the contaminated material was treated in-
situ to a depth of 350mm using S/S techniques. The
binder dosage by mass was 6% cement and 0.5%
The finished site.
minor addition. The purpose of the treated galligu
Courtesy of Halton Borough Council
cap was to prevent surface water infiltration into
the underlying material, thus eliminating cross-
contamination. This use of S/S produced a cost
saving of £600,000 compared with dig and dump.
 Remediating Brownfield Land
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CASE STUDY
FURTHER INFORMATION
School Development, CPD presentations on brownfield remediation

Leytonstone, London are available from The Concrete Centre

on request.

Leyton School in Leytonstone was constructed on The measured properties of the treated material Please call 0845 812 0000
a former industrial site contaminated with elevated included a CBR greater than 150% and water or email cpd@concretecentre.com
levels of the toxic metals arsenic, cadmium, lead and permeability in the order of 1x10 -10 m/s. The S/S
mercury and the phytotoxic metals boron, copper, technique produced a material that was of sufficient
nickel and zinc. Investigations carried out on the site strength to permit the reinforced concrete slab for
identified risks of contamination to groundwater the school to be constructed directly upon it, once Specific guidance on the use of cement or
and so the site was remediated using S/S in order to the underlying strata had been vibrocompacted. lime for the remediation of contaminated land
mitigate against the migration of leachate. is available from the manufacturers.
It was estimated that the use of S/S techniques
Over a 15 day period, 12,000 m3 of soil was produced a cost saving of 75% compared with For a list of contact details of cement
treated by the addition of 5% cement by mass in disposal to landfill, and reduced the project duration companies or for general information on
an operation that ensured no off-site disposal of by over 10%. the use of cement for the remediation of
contamination and no importation of fill. contaminated land, please contact the British
Cement Association.
In-situ treatment of the site. The plant doses the soil with binder and then rotovates the soil
immediately, thereby minimising dust levels.
Courtesy of O’Keefe Soil Remediation

www.cementindustry.co.uk

For a list of contact details of lime companies

or for general information on the use of lime
for the remediation of contaminated land,
please contact the British Lime Association.

www.britishlime.org

If you have a general enquiry relating to

the design, use and performance of cement
and concrete contact The Concrete Centre’s
national helpline.

Advice is free and available Monday to Friday

from 8am to 6pm.
Call 0845 812 0000
Email helpline@concretecentre.com

www.concretecentre.com
 CI/SfB

UDC

A site with deep contamination is treated using hollow stem augers which introduce
binder into the soil and then mixes the soil and binder together.
Courtesy of May Gurney Limited

The Concrete Centre,

Riverside House,
4 Meadows Business Park,
Station Approach, Blackwater,
Camberley, Surrey GU17 9AB

National Helpline
0845 812 0000

Ref. TCC/02/03
ISBN 1-904818-17-X
First published 2005
© The Concrete Centre 2005

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