Analytical photogrammetry 3rd year

Chapter Three
3 Image Measurement and Corrections to Photo Coordinates
3.1.Image Measurement
The solution of most photogrammetric problems generally requires some type of photographic
measurement. For certain problems the measurements may simply be the lengths of lines between imaged
points. However, rectangular coordinates of imaged points are the most common type of photographic
measurement, and they are used directly in many photogrammetric equations. Photographic measurements
are usually made on positives printed on paper, film, or glass, or in digital images manipulated on a
computer. Equipment used for making photographic measurements varies from in expensive simple scales
to very precise and complex machines that provide computer compatible digital output.

3.1.1 Coordinate system for image measurement

For metric camera with side fiducial marks the commonly adopted reference system for photographic
coordinates is the rectangular axis system formed by joining opposite fiducial marks with straight lines.

Figure 3-1 Photographic coordinate system based on side fiducials .

The position of any image on a photograph, such as point a of Fig. 2-1, is given by its rectangular
coordinates xa and ya, where xa is the perpendicular distance from the y axis to a and ya is the perpendicular
distance from the x axis to a. Similarly, the photographic position of image point b is given by its
rectangular coordinates xb and yb.

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 The x- axis is usually arbitrarily designated as the fiducial line most nearly parallel with the
direction of flight, positive in the direction of flight.
 The positive y- axis is 900 counter clockwise from positive x-axis
 In the context of aerial photography, fiducial marks are small registration marks located along the
outside of an aerial photograph. There are typically four or eight numbered marks
During the camera calibration process, the positions of the fiducial marks are measured precisely. The
principal point of the image can be derived from the intersection of the fiducial marks. Fiducial marks are
also important in the early stages of the photogrammetric processing, when the system establishes the
relationship between "film" coordinate spaces and "pixel" coordinates space (solving for interior
orientation). This process involves either physically or automatically measuring the fiducial marks.
Rectangular coordinates of imaged points are common type of photographic measurement;
They are used in many different types of computations. As an example, they are used to calculate the photo
distance between two points by using simple analytical geometry

a
ya

xb

yb
b

Fig 3.2 Photo distance between two points

The photo distance ab

ab  ( xb  xa ) 2  ( yb  ya ) 2

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3.1.2 Trilaterative method

It is possible to obtain photo coordinates using the simple scale but without cutting or scratching fiducial
lines. In this procedure called Trilaterative method the distance such as D 1, D2 ,D3and D4 may be measured
from fiducial marks to an image point as illustrated in figure below.

 From photo coordinate of the fiducial marks obtained in camera calibration, coordinate of image
points may then be calculated using trigonometry
 This procedure is applicable with corner as well as side fiducial marks.

o
1 xa 3
δ ф
D1
θ

ya a
D2

2
Figure 3.3 .Trilaterative method of photo coordinates measurement

D12  ( x 2  x1 ) 2  ( y 2  y1 ) 2
 D12  D 2 2
2 2
D1
cos 
2 D1 D212
 D12  D 2 2
2 2
D1
  cos 1 ( )
2 D1 D2
12
o2
  tan 1 ( )
o1
   
x a  x1  D1 cos
y a  y1  D1 sin 

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Example
Suppose that calibrated coordinates of fiducial mark 1 and 2 of the above figure are x1=-
113.00mm,y1 =0.00mm x2 =0.00mm y2 = =-113.00mm calculate xa and ya if D1 and D2 are measured as
189.89 mm and 100.47mm respectively

Solution

D12=√

=√
= 159.81mm

From cosine law

Cosθ =

=
= 0.84859
θ =Cos-1(0.84859)
=31.9410
Also

δ= tan-1( = tan-1 (

δ =450
Then
ɸ= δ - θ
=450- 31.9410
=13.059 0
xa=x1 +D1 cos ɸ and ya=y1+D1 sin ɸ
=-113.00mm + 189.89cos13.0590

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xa= 71.979mm
ya= 0.00mm +189.89sin13.0590
ya= 42.906 mm

3.2. Photographic process

 The photographic process is also called as dark room process. It has five steps. They are
1. Developing 2. Stop bath
3. Fixing 4. Washing 5. Drying
3.2.1. Developing
 The exposed emulsion is immersed inside a chemical solution is called Developer.
 A developer reduces the grains of silver halide to make free black silver.
 Generally, the time of developing is 1-15 minutes. It depends on the temperature of the developer.
3.2.2. Stop bath
 Developing process is stopped by stop bath process.
 Stop bath is an acidic solution which neutralizes the basic developer.
 The emulsion is immersed in stop bath for few seconds only.
3.2.3. Fixing
 All these silver halide grains do not change into free silver in the process of developing.
 The remaining undeveloped silver grains will be developed in the fixing process.
 Fixing bath also hardens the emulsion.
 The normal immersion time is 10-20 minutes.
3.2.4. Washing
 The emulsion is washed in clear running water to clean remaining chemical.
 If the chemicals are not washed out fully, then chemicals will cause dots or haziness on the image.
 Normal washing time is 10-20 minutes.
3.2.5. Drying
 Film is dried to remove the water droplets from the emulsion and backing material.
 The resulting product of photographic process is ‗Negative‘

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 Cross section of colour film:

 Colour film consists of three layers of silver halide.
 The top layer is sensitive to blue light.

Layer sensitive to blue light

Figure 3.4: Cross
section of Colour Blue blocking filter
Film
Layer sensitive to blue & green light
Layer sensitive to blue & red light

 The second layer is sensitive to blue and green light.

 The third layer is sensitive to blue and red light.
 There is a blue blocking filter is built in between the emulsion of first two layers why because it
prevents the blue light from entering it into the other two layers. So that the three layers will be
sensitive only to blue, green and red lights respectively from the top.

3.3. Corrections to Atmospheric Refraction

Refraction:
 When a light passes from one transmitting medium to other medium, that light ray undergoes some
variations in its velocity in accordance with the composition of substance present in the second
medium through which the light passes.
 It is well known that the density of the atmosphere decrease with increasing altitude,because of this
condition light rays does not travel in straight line through atmosphere.The coming light ray from
point A of the figure makes an α with the vertical.
 Photogrammetry equations assume the light rays travel in staright paths and to compensate for the
known refracted paths corrections are applied to the image coordinates.

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Figure 3.5 .Atmospheric refraction in aerial photography.

In the above figure, If a straight path had been followed by the light ray from object point A, then its image
should have been at a’

 The angular distortion due to refraction is ∆α and linear distortion on the photograph is ∆r.
 The magnitude of refraction distortion increases with increasing fly height and with increasing ∆α as
a function of α is
∆α =ktanα
Where
α- the angle between the vertical and the light ray and
k- a value which depends up on the flying height above mean sea level and the elevation of
object point
There are several different approaches to calculating a value for k, with most assuming a standard
atmosphere
A convenient method adopted from the manual of photogrammetry is to compute k by
K=(7.4x10-4)(H-h)[1-0.02(2H-h)]
Where
H (km) - the Flying height of the camera above MSL

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ha (km) - elevation of the Object above MSL

The unit of k is degree
The procedure for computing atmospheric refraction correction to image coordinate on the vertical photos
beings by computing radial distance(r) from the principal point to the image.

r= √ – radial distance from PP

tanα= r/f
∆α =k r/f
The radial distance r’ from PP to corrected image can be
r’= f tan(α-∆α)

Change in radial distance ∆r=r-r’

The components of ∆r

Δr
 x  x'
r
Δr
y  y'
r

Example
A vertical photograph taken from a flying height of 3500 m above mean sea level contains the image a of
object point A at coordinates (with respect to the fiducial system) xa = 73.287 mm and ya = –101.307 mm.
If the elevation of object point A is 120 m above mean sea level and the camera had a focal length of
153.099 mm, compute the x′ and y′ coordinates of the point, corrected for atmospheric refraction.

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Solution
Compute r by
r= √

Solve for α.
tanα= r/f

Compute K
K= (7.4x10-4)(H-h)[1-0.02(2H-h)]

Compute Δα
∆α =k r/f

Compute r′
r’= f tan(α-∆α)

Compute Δr
Δr =r –r‘

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Compute δx and δy

Subtract the corrections δx and δy from x and y, respectively to obtain corrected coordinates x‘ and y‘.

3.4. Correction for Earth Curvature

 Traditionally, in analytical photogrammetry, corrections were commonly applied to measured photo
coordinates to compensate for the effects of earth curvature. The rationale for this notion is that
elevations of points are referenced to an approximately spherical datum (i.e., mean sea level)
whereas photogrammetric equations assume that the zero-elevation surface is a plane. In addition, if
horizontal coordinate systems such as state plane coordinates are used in object space, the axis
system is also curved, although it is curved primarily in only one direction (either east-west or north
south). It has long been recognized that the practice of making earth curvature corrections to
measured photo coordinates is not theoretically correct. However, it has also long been accepted
that using the correction generally leads to more accurate results than ignoring it, particularly in
determining elevations.
 The primary problem with the earth curvature correction is that because of the nature of map
projection coordinates, correcting photo coordinates for earth curvature will degrade the accuracy of
either X or Y object space coordinates, depending upon the map projection used.
 Mathematical derivation of the relationships between image and object space are based on the
assumption that for both spaces, 3-D cartesian coordinate systems are employed.

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 Ground control points may not directly be available in such a system; they must first be
transformed, say from a State Plane coordinate system to a cartesian system.
 The X and Y coordinates of a State Plane system are cartesian, but not the elevations.
 Approximate the datum by a sphere, radius R = 6372.2 km.

Figure3.6. Correction for Earth Curvature

Correction on Image

aa'=ds=HS' ³ ∕2Rf²
Correction on map

ZP'=ZP-S²∕2R
Where
s'—radial distance of image point from the vertical
H — flaying Hight above the ground
S — distance of point ―P‖ from the vertical
R — radius of the earth

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3.5. Correction for Lens Distortion

 Lens distortion causes imaged positions to be displaced from their ideal locations. The
mathematical equations that are used to model lens distortions are typically comprised of two
components: symmetric radial distortion and decentering distortion.
 In modern precision aerial mapping cameras, lens distortions are typically less than 5 μm and are
only applied when precise analytical photogrammetry is being performed.
 Symmetric radial lens distortion is an unavoidable product of lens manufacture, although with
careful design its effects can be reduced to a very small amount. Decentering distortion, on the other
hand, is primarily a function of the imperfect assembly of lens elements, not the actual design.
 Historically, metric aerial mapping cameras had significantly larger amounts of symmetric radial
lens distortion than decentering distortion.
 The radial distortion value was the radial displacement from the ideal location to the actual image of
the collimator cross, with positive values indicating outward displacements. The approach used for
determining radial lens distortion values for these older calibration reports was to fit a polynomial
curve to a plot of the displacements (on the ordinate) versus radial distances. The form of the
polynomial, based on lens design theory, is

Where
Δr is the amount of radial lens distortion,
r is the radial distance from the principal point, and
k1, k2, k3, and k4 are coefficients of the polynomial.
The coefficients of the polynomial are solved by least squares using the distortion values from the
calibration report. To correct the x, y position of an image point, the distance r from the image point to the
principal point is computed and used to compute the value of Δr from above equation
This is done by first converting the fiducial coordinates x and y, to coordinates ̅ and ̅ , relative to the
principal point.
̅ = x- xp
̅= y-yp

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 radial lens distortion has the component of Δr, δx & δy

Example
A camera calibration report specifies the calibrated focal length f=153.206mm and coordinates of
the calibrated principal point as xp =0.008mm & yp =-0.001mm. The report also lists mean radial
lens distortion values given in column (a) and (b) of table below. Using these calibration values,
compute the corrected coordinates for an image point having coordinates x=62.579mm, y=-80.916
relative to fiducial axes.
(a)Field angle(θ),o (b)∆r, mm (c)r,m
7.5 0.004 0.0202
15 0.007 0.0411
22.5 0.007 0.0635
30 0.001 0.0885
35 -0.003 0.1075
40 -0.004 0.1286

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Solution
Compute r & write in column (c)
r=f tanθ
 r7.5 = 153.206 tan 7.5= 0.0202
 r15 = 153.206 tan 15= 0.0411

 r22.5= 153.206 tan 22.5= 0.0635

 r30=153.206 tan 30 = 0.0885

 r35=153.206 tan 35 = 0.1075

 r40 =153.206 tan 40 = 0.1286

Write in Matrix form:

A X L

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By using least square method

X  AT A1 AT L

The value of k is k1 = 0.2296

K2 = -35.89
K3 = 1018
K4 = 12100
 Compute the distance between from the principal point to the image point.
x' = xp = 62.597-0.008 = 62.571mm = 0.062571m.
y' = yp = -80.916-(-0.008) = -80.915mm = -0.080915m.

r = √0.062571² + (-0.080915²)

= 0.1023m
Compute ∆r

∆r=-0.0021mm
Compute δx & δy
δx= -0.0013mm
δy= 0.0017mm
Compute Corrected Coordinate xc & yc
xc=62.572mm
yc=-80.917mm
 the Corrected Coordinate is (62.572, -80.917)mm

 Lens design in modern aerial mapping cameras has evolved to such a level that symmetric
radial lens distortion is of the same order of magnitude as decentering distortion, and camera
calibration reports have been adapted to accommodate this change. For example, the
mathematical model used in the current USGS calibration procedure, known as the
Simultaneous Multi-camera Analytical Calibration (SMAC), computes both symmetric

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radial and decentering distortion parameters directly by least squares. Principal point
coordinates and focal length are also determined in the solution. The USGS camera
calibration report lists polynomial coefficients for symmetric radial lens distortion (k0, k1,
k2, k3, k4), and decentering distortion (p1, p2, p3, p4). It also gives calibrated principal point
coordinates (xp, yp). To compute coordinates (xc, yc) corrected for these systematic errors,
the

 Compute,̅,̅ and r by respectively by using the following equation

and

Eqs .1

Eqs .2

Eqs .3

Eqs .4

…………………….….Eqs .5

…………………………Eqs .6

In Eqs. ( .1) through ( .6), and are coordinates of the image relative to the principal pointas computed and
r is the radial distance from the image to the principal point as computed by using r we compute k0, k1, k2,
k3, and k4 are coefficients of symmetric radial lens distortion from the calibration report; p1, p2, p3, and p4
are coefficients of decentering distortion from the calibration report; δx and δy are the symmetric radial
lens distortion corrections to and , respectively; and Δx and Δy are the decentering distortion corrections
to and , respectively.

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Example
The parameters of a current USGS camera calibration report are given in the following table. Using these
calibration values, compute the corrected coordinates for an image point having coordinates x = –47.018
mm, y = 43.430 mm relative to the fiducial axes.

Solution
Compute,̅,̅ and r by respectively by using the following equation

and

Compute symmetric radial lens distortion corrections δx and δy, using the Eqs. (.1) and (.4), respectively

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Compute decentering distortion corrections Δx and Δy, using Eqs. (.3) and (.4), respectively

Compute the corrected coordinates xc and yc, using Eqs. (.5) and (.6), respectively

3.6. Correction for film shrinkage and expansion

The nominal amount of shrinkage or expansion present in the photograph can be determined by Comparing
Measured Photographic distance between opposite fiducial marks with corresponding values determined in
camera Calibration

o If xm and ym are measured fiducial distance on the positive, and x c and yc are corresponding calibrated
fiducial distance then the corrected photo coordinate of any point a calculated as

The ratio is scale factor in x-direction x 

x ' a   c  xa
The ratio is scale factor in y-direction  xm 
y 
y ' a   c  ya
 ym 
Where
x ' a , y ' a  Correctedimage coordinate
xa , ya  measured image coordinate
xc , yc  Calibrated fiducial dis tan ce
xm , ym  Measured fiducial dis tan ce

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Example
On a Paper-print positive, the measured distance between fiducials (1 & 3) was 226.4mm & y between fiducials
(2&4) was 225.693mm. These x and y distances determined in camera calibration were 225.433 & 225.693mm,
respectively. Calculate shrinkage corrected coordinates of points a, b, and c whose coordinates were measured on the
paper print

Point x,mm y,mm Corrected x,mm Corrected y,mm

A 20.3 -92.1 20.21329 -92.3837

B 48.6 85.8 48.39242 86.06426
C -111.1 -102.5 -110.625 -102.816

Solution: x   225.433 
x ' a   c  xa x 'i    xi  0.995729xi
 xm   226.4 
y   225.693 
y ' a   c  ya y 'i    y i  1.00308 y i
 225.0 
 ym 
x'ₐc = 0.995729 * 20.3 = 20.21329mm

y'ₐc = 1.00308 * (-92.1) = 92.3837mm

x'b = 48.39242mm , y'b = 86.06426mm

x'c 110.625mm , y'c = -102.816mm

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CHAPTER 4
Introduction to Analytical Photogrammetric Principles
4.1. Collinearity Condition:
Collinearity is the condition that the exposure station, any object point, and its photo image all lie along
a straight line in three-dimensional space. The collinearity condition is illustrated in Fig.1, where L, a,
and A lie along a straight line. Perhaps the most fundamental and useful relationship in analytical
photogrammetry is the collinearity condition.

Figure -1.The collinearity condition

Let;
XL, YL, ZL- Coordinate of exposure station

XA, YA, ZA- coordinate of object point A

xa,ya,za- coordinate of image point a of the object point A with respect to x,y photo coordinate system( of
which the principal point O is the origin correction compensation for it is applied later)

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Coordinate of image point a be xa‘,ya‘za‘ in arotated image plane x‘y‘z‘ which is parallel to the object
coordinate system, transformation of (xa‘,ya‘za‘) to (xa,ya,za) is accomplished by using rotation equations.

Figure -2. Image coordinate system rotated so that it is parallel to the object space coordinate


The orientation of a single photograph consisting of the six orientation elements, x'0, y'0, z'0,
ɷ, ϕ, k.
 Consider
R the rotational matrix as functions of the angles ɷ, ϕ, k.
x'0, y'0 and z'0 are the coordinates of the exposure station.
‘f’ is the focal length of camera.
λ'i is the scaling factor.
 The equations of coordinate conversion between object and photo can be used:

XA= XL + λRX'ɑ …………………………………………Eq 1

= +λ * ………………………….Eq 2

= λ * …………………………………….Eq 3

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 Eq (3) divided by λR

= λ ……………………………Eq 4

= 1 ∕λ ……………………………….Eq 5

If Z'ɑ = -f and expand the matrix

X'ɑ = 1 ∕λ (Y11(XA-XL) + Y21(YA-YL) + Y31(ZA-ZL)) ………..Eq 6

Y'ɑ = 1 ∕λ (Y12(XA-XL) + Y22(YA-YL) + Y32(ZA-ZL)) ………..Eq 7
-f = 1 ∕λ (Y13(XA-XL) + Y23(YA-YL) + Y33(ZA-ZL))…………Eq 8
To eliminate f and λ divide Eq 6 by Eq 8 and Eq 7 by Eq 8

X'ɑ = -f (Y11(XA-XL) + Y21(YA-YL) + Y31(ZA-ZL))

(Y13(XA-XL) + Y23(YA-YL) + Y33(ZA-ZL))
Collinearity Equation
Y'ɑ = -f (Y12(XA-XL) + Y22(YA-YL) + Y32(ZA-ZL))
(Y13(XA-XL) + Y23(YA-YL) + Y33(ZA-ZL))

4.2. Applications of collinearity

A). Resection. Resection is the process of recovering the exterior orientation of a single photograph from
image measurements of ground control points. In a spatial resection, the image rays from total ground
control points (horizontal position and elevation known) are made to resect through the lens nodal point
(exposure station) to their image position on the photograph.

B). Intersection. Intersection is the process of photogrammetrically determining the spatial position of
ground points by intersecting image rays from two or more photographs. If the interior and exterior
orientation parameters of the photographs are known, then conjugate image rays can be projected from the
photograph through the lens nodal point (exposure station) to the ground space. Two or more image rays
intersecting at a common point will determine the horizontal position and elevation of the point. Map
positions of points are determined by the intersection principle from correctly oriented photographs.

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Some other Application

Automobile Construction
Machine Construction, Metalworking, Quality Control
Mining Engineering Objects in Motion
Shipbuilding Structures and Buildings
Traffic Engineering Biostereometrics

4.3. Space Resection by Collinearity

 Space resection is a method of determining the six elements of exterior orientation (ω, ϕ, κ, XL, YL,
and ZL) of a photograph.
 This method requires a minimum of three control points, with known XYZ object space coordinates,
to be imaged in the photograph.
 If the ground control coordinates are assumed to be known and fixed, then the linearized forms of
the space resection collinearity equations for a point A are

Where
J and K are equal to xa –xao and ya - yao respectively
bij- partial derivatives with respect to the unknown parameters
dω,dφ,dκ.dXL,dYL,dZL_ are unknown correction and
vxa and vya_residuals of the observation xa and ya after the first iteration, (the correction added to the initial
value) and new values of the parameters are obtained.
4.3. Coplanarity Equation
 In most photogrammetric problems, object points are recorded on two or more
photographs.
 For two photos, the two conjugate rays defined on each object point must be coplanar. The
corresponding mathematical condition, known as the coplanarity equation.
 This equation implies that the two camera stations, the two image points, and the object point are in
a same epipolar plane.

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 The coordinates of the object point do not appear in the equation, so no approximations for the
coordinates are needed.
 Coplanarity is the condition that the two-exposure station of a stereo pair, any object points and its
corresponding image points on the two photo all lie in a common plane

 BX(V1W2-V2W1) + BY(U1W2-U2W1) + BZ(U1V2-U2V1) = 0 Is Coplanarity Equation

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