CROSS CULTURAL MANAGEMENT

 Culture term originated from Latin language. Culture refers to the way of human interaction.
Culture can be defined as all the ways of life including arts, beliefs and institutions of a
population that are passed down from generation to generation. Culture has been called
"the way of life for an entire society." As such, it includes codes of manners, dress, language,
religion, rituals, art.

It is an comprehensive approach that includes Moral , values , customs, ethics , attitude , behaviour
and habit .

 Features & Characteristics of Culture

Some of the important characteristics of culture has been cited below.

1. Culture is learned
Culture is not inherited biologically but it is leant socially by man in a society. It is not an inborn
tendency but acquired by man from the association of others, e.g. drinking, eating, dressing,
walking, behaving, reading are all learnt by man.

2. Culture is social
It is not an individual phenomena but it is the product of society. It develops in the society through
social interaction. It is shared by the man of society No man can acquire it without the association of
others. Man is man only among men. It helps to develop qualities of human beings in a social
environment. Deprivation of a man from his company is the deprivation of human qualities.

3. Culture is shared
Culture is something shared. It is nothing that an individual can passes but shared by common
people of a territory. For example, customs, traditions, values, beliefs are all shared by man in a
social situation. These beliefs and practices are adopted by all equally.

4. Culture is transmitted
Culture is capable of transmitted from one generation to the next. Parents papas cultural traits to
their children and in return they pass to their children and son on. It is not transmitted through
genes but through language. Language is means to communication which passes cultural traits from
one generation to another.

5. Culture is continuous
It is continuous process. It is like a stream which is flowing from one generation to another through
centuries. “Culture is the memory of human race.”

6. Culture is accumulative
Culture is not a matter of month or a year. It is the continuous process and adding new cultural
traits. Many cultural traits are borrowed from out side and these absorbed in that culture which
adopt it, as culture is accumulative and combines the suitable cultural traits.
7. Culture is integrated
All the cultural aspects are inter-connected with each other. The development of culture is the
integration of its various parts. For example, values system is interlinked with morality, customs,
beliefs and religion.

8. Culture is changing
It remains changing but not static. Cultural process undergoes changes. But with different speeds
from society to society and generation to generation.

9. Culture varies from society to society

Every society has its own culture and ways of behaving. It is not uniform every where but occurs
differently in various societies. Every culture is unique in itself is a specific society. For example,
values, customs, traditions, ideologies, religion, belief, practices are not similar but different in every
society. However the ways of eating, drinking, speaking, greeting, dressing etc are differs from one
social situation to another in the same time.

10. Culture is responsive

Culture is responsive to the changing conditions of a physical world. It intervenes in the natural
environment and helps man from all dangers and natural calamities e.g. our houses are responsible
to give us shelter and safety from storm and heavy rains.

11. Culture is gratifying

It is gratifying and provide all the opportunities for needs and desires satisfaction. These needs may
be biological or social but It is responsible to satisfy it. Our needs are food, shelter, clothing and
desires are status, fame, money, sex etc are all the examples which are fulfilled according to the
cultural ways. In fact it is defined as the process through which human beings satisfy their need.

12. Linked with society

Last but not the least one of the characteristics of culture that culture and society are one and the
same. But if we say that these turn two are twin sister, it would not be wrong. Society is a composite
of people and they interact each other through it.  It is to bind the people within the society.

3 aspects of culture

Culture is pattern of behaviour culture is learned culture is

transmitted

from one generation to

another
 CULTURAL MODEL
1. HOFSTEDE MODEL OF CULTURAL / HOFSTEDE CULTURAL DIMENSION
THEORY

Developed by dutch Management researecher Name Geert Hofstede in 1980.

Main objective of this model was to determine the dimension in which the culture vary.

Power and distance index

Collectivism vs individualism

DIMENSION uncertainity vs avoidance index

Feminity vs Masculinity orieny

t
Short term vs long term

Restraint vs indulgence

 Power distance index (PDI): The power distance index is defined as “the extent to which the
less powerful members of organizations and institutions (like the family) accept and expect
that power is distributed unequally”.
The power distance index considers the extent to which inequality and power are tolerated.
In this dimension, inequality and power are viewed from the viewpoint of the followers –
the lower level.
A high power distance index indicates that a culture accepts inequity and power differences,
encourages bureaucracy, and shows high respect for rank and authority.
A low power distance index indicates that a culture encourages flat organizational structures
that feature decentralized decision-making responsibility, participative management style,
and emphasis on power distribution.

 Individualism vs. collectivism (IDV): This index explores the “degree to which people in a
society are integrated into groups”.
The individualism vs. collectivism dimension considers the degree to which societies are
integrated into groups and their perceived obligations and dependence on groups.
 Individualism indicates that there is a greater importance placed on attaining personal goals.
A person’s self-image in this category is defined as “I.”
Collectivism indicates that there is a greater importance placed on the goals and well-being
of the group. A person’s self-image in this category is defined as “We.”

 Uncertainty avoidance (UAI): The uncertainty avoidance index is defined as “a society’s

tolerance for ambiguity”, in which people embrace or avert an event of something
unexpected, unknown, or away from the status quo.
The uncertainty avoidance index considers the extent to which uncertainty and ambiguity
are tolerated. This dimension considers how unknown situations and unexpected events are
dealt with.
A high uncertainty avoidance index indicates a low tolerance for uncertainty, ambiguity, and
risk-taking. The unknown is minimized through strict rules, regulations, etc.
A low uncertainty avoidance index indicates a high tolerance for uncertainty, ambiguity, and
risk-taking. The unknown is more openly accepted, and there are lax rules, regulations, etc.

 Masculinity vs. femininity (MAS): In this dimension, masculinity is defined as “a preference

in society for achievement, heroism, assertiveness and material rewards for success”. Its
counterpart represents “a preference for cooperation, modesty, caring for the weak and
quality of life”.
The masculinity vs. femininity dimension is also referred to as “tough vs. tender” and
considers the preference of society for achievement, attitude toward sexuality equality,
behavior, etc.
Masculinity comes with the following characteristics: distinct gender roles, assertive, and
concentrated on material achievements and wealth-building.
Femininity comes with the following characteristics: fluid gender roles, modest, nurturing,
and concerned with the quality of life.

 Long-term orientation vs. short-term orientation (LTO): This dimension associates the

connection of the past with the current and future actions/challenges. A poor country that is
short-term oriented usually has little to no economic development, while long-term oriented
countries continue to develop to a level of prosperity.
Long-Term Orientation vs. Short-Term Orientation
The long-term orientation vs. short-term orientation dimension considers the extent to
which society views its time horizon.
Long-term orientation shows focus on the future and involves delaying short-term success or
gratification in order to achieve long-term success. Long-term orientation emphasizes
persistence, perseverance, and long-term growth.
Short-term orientation shows focus on the near future, involves delivering short-term
success or gratification, and places a stronger emphasis on the present than the future.
Short-term orientation emphasizes quick results and respect for tradition.

 Indulgence vs. restraint ( IND ): This dimension refers to the degree of freedom that societal
norms give to citizens in fulfilling their human desires. Indulgence is defined as “a society
that allows relatively free gratification of basic and natural human desires related to
enjoying life and having fun”. Its counterpart is defined as “a society that controls
gratification of needs and regulates it by means of strict social norms”.

The indulgence vs. restraint dimension considers the extent and tendency for a society to
fulfill its desires. In other words, this dimension revolves around how societies can control
their impulses and desires.
 Indulgence indicates that society allows relatively free gratification related to enjoying life
and having fun.
Restraint indicates that society suppresses gratification of needs and regulates it through
social norms.

2. Trompenaars's model of national culture 

Trompenaars's model of national culture differences is a framework for cross-cultural

communication applied to general business and management, developed by Fons
Trompenaars and Charles Hampden-Turner.[1][2] This involved a large-scale survey of
8,841 managers and organization employees from 43 countries.(1993)

Universalism vs particularism

Individualism vs communitarianism

Specific vs diffusive

Dimension Neutral vs affective/ emotional

Achievement vs ascription

Sequentional vs synchoronous time

Internal vs External direction

1. The dimension of Universalism vs. Particularism focuses on how the cultures deal
with laws and their fairness. Universalism tends to ensure that all people are treated
equally and are subject to the same laws, and tends to have thorough documentation
(such as contracts) that are rigidly adhered to and used to resolve conflicts. Such
cultures can be seen as task-focused. In contrast, Particularism allows for different
treatment for different people, based on their circumstances. Documentation is less
structured, and issues are worked through by taking into consideration the
relationships of those involved. Tasks are less important than the relationships that
are fostered during the process.
2. Individualism vs. Communitarianism focuses on the principle of taking care of oneself
versus looking out for the rest of the group. Individualism tends to focus on things
from an individual perspective, considering what will best benefit an individual and
affect their own achievements. In contrast, Communitarianism focuses on the
principles of taking care of the entire group and how everyone will work together to
ensure no one is left behind.
3. Specific vs. Diffuse cultures differ in how they view the appropriate degree of
involvement within aspects of their life. Specific cultures tend to keep their personal
and professional lives completely separate, as the relationships they have with
people should be clearly defined and not intermingled. In contrast, Diffuse cultures
 have relations that are intermingled, so personal and professional lives will mix with
each other.
4. Neutral vs. Emotional focuses on how emotions are displayed. Neutral cultures tend
to ensure that emotions are kept in check and are not shown. This includes things
such as controlling body language and keeping personal and professional
relationships completely separate. In contrast, Emotional cultures share their feelings
with others, use their body language to convey their thoughts, and ensure conflicts
are handled before they become personal.
5. Achievement vs. Ascription compares cultures that view a person's worth based
on performance or on the person's role. Achievement cultures equate someone's
worth to their performance or the actions they have taken, and worth must be
regularly re-proven. In contrast, Ascription cultures base their perceptions of
who a person is on things such as a gender or age. Ascription is when someone
is assumed to be something (e.g., great, crooked, snobby), simply because of a
role they have been provided, for example, stating that a prince is great simply
because he has been born into a royal family, or that someone is crooked simply
because they are a politician.
6. Sequential versus synchronous time
Time can be measured and understood in different ways. We measure past, present and future using
years, months, weeks, days and hours. This concrete measurement of time falls within sequential
time. ” Time is money” is a typical expression that forms part of this culture, just like the eternal race
against clock.
Synchronous time is more abstract and focuses on being able to work on various projects at once. It
does not concern itself with time zones, but is aware that the human body has its own rhythm.
In a synchronous time it is about the rhythm of the group and that of nature. There is, however,  a
risk to doing several things at the same time. It could result in work not being actually completed.

7. Internal direction versus outer direction

In internal-directed versus outer-directed cultures the focus is on how people experience their
environment. Is the environment a threat (ext
ernal) or is it sensible to move with the factors that are caused by society (internal)? The way in
which people experience their environment differs from culture to culture.
People in western cultures are mainly outer-directed and they want to control their environment as
much as possible.
In many non-western cultures it is more about living in harmony with the environment; there are
forces that cannot be controlled or influenced and therefore you have to adapt yourself to these
external circumstances.

e-PGPathshala (inflibnet.ac.in)