Module 3: Waves &

Thermodynamics
Wave Properties
Mechanical Waves

Mechanical waves transfer energy from one place to another through a

medium over a very large distance without the net transfer of matter.

The particles of matter can only move up and down or forwards and
backwards. There are two different types of mechanical waves; transverse
and longitudinal waves.

Transverse Waves
Transverse waves cause particles to vibrate up and down the medium
perpendicular to the direction of the wave energy.

Longitudinal Waves
Longitudinal waves cause particles to vibrate forward and backwards
parallel to the direction of wave energy. Compression is an area where
particles of matter come together. Rarefaction is the area where particles
of matter spread out.

Module 3 Waves & Thermodynamics 1

 Wave Properties

Amplitude

Amplitude is the maximum displacement of particles from the rest

position.

Phase

Phase is when particles have the same displacement and are moving in
the same transverse direction.

Wavelength

Wavelength (λ) is the distance between any two successive points in

phase.

Frequency

Frequency (f) is the number of cycles that pass a given point per
second. Is measured in hertz (Hz).

Wavenumber

Wavenumber (k) – is equivalent to the number of waves occurring over

a specified distance
2π
k= λ
where:

k = wavenumber (m−1 )

λ = wavelength (m)

Period

Period T is the time taken for any point to go through one complete
cycle. The period is inversely proportionate to frequency.
1
T = f

where:

T = period (s)

f = frequency (Hz)

The Wave Equation

The relationship between speed, frequency and wavelength of a wave

gives us the equation:

Module 3 Waves & Thermodynamics 2

 v = f λ
where:

v = speed (m/s)

f = frequency (Hz)

λ = wavelength (m)

Wave Behavior
Reflection

Reflection is the change in direction of a wave front at an interface.

When a transverse wave pulse reaches a hard surface, such as a fixed end
of a rope, the wave is bounded back or reflected. If the end of the rope is
fixed is inverted, or referred to as a 180 degree change of phase

When a wave pulse reaches an end of a rope that is free to move, the pulse
returns with no change of phase

Module 3 Waves & Thermodynamics 3

 The normal is an imaginary line perpendicular to the surface. The angle of
incidence is the angle between the incident ray and the normal. The angle
of reflection is the angle between the reflected ray and the normal. The law
of reflection states that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of
reflection.
When rays hit an irregular surface it is known as a diffuse reflection
because each point on the surface reflects the ray different directions.

Refraction
Refraction is the change in the direction of a wave caused by the change in
speed. This change in speed occurs when a wave enters a new medium.

When a wave enters a denser medium and slows down it will bend towards
the normal. When a wave enters a less denser medium and speeds up it will
bend away from the normal.

Module 3 Waves & Thermodynamics 4

 When the speed of the wave changed its wavelength will also change
correspondingly, but its frequency will remain the same since waves cannot
be gained or lost.

Diffraction

Diffraction occurs when a plane wave passes through a narrow opening.

The wave will then bend around the opening.

If the wavelength is much smaller than the gap, the degree of diffraction is
less.

Module 3 Waves & Thermodynamics 5

 Wave Superposition

When waves of the same nature (either longitudinal or transverse) and in

the same medium pass through each other, wave superposition occurs.
Depending on the two waves at any point, constructive interference or
destructive interference may occur.
A constructive interference will create a resultant wave with a larger
amplitude.

A destructive interference will create a resultant wave with a smaller

amplitude.

When two pulses have been combined their amplitudes can be

algebraically summed to give the amplitude of the resultant pulse.

Module 3 Waves & Thermodynamics 6

 Although the wave pulses interact when they meet, passing through each
other does not permanently alter the shape, amplitude or speed of either
pulse.

Standing Waves

When wave pulse reaches a fixed end, it is refleacted back 180 degrees out
of its phase (crests are reflected as trouphs and troughs are reflected as
crests). Imagine creating a series of waves in a rope that is fixed at the
other end. As the rope shakes, waves travel in both directions along it.
The new waves travelling down the rope interfere with the ones getting
reflected back which creates a random pattern. However, shaking the rope
at just the right frequency will create a new wave that interferes with the
reflection so that the two superimposed waves create a single, larger
amplitude wave called a standing wave.
These standing waves appear to not be travelling but just simply oscillate
up and down. When two waves with the same amplitude and frequency
travel in opposite direction in the same medium, standing waves occur.

Module 3 Waves & Thermodynamics 7

 The nodes are points where destructive interference always occurs. They
are points which have no motion. Antinodes are places where the particle
will each a maximum displacement. They are points with the most motion.

The frequencies at which standing waves are produced are called resonant
frequencies of the rope. Stading waves are produced only when two waves
of equal amplitude and frequency, travelling the oppsoite direction are
super imposed. Stadning waves are examples of resonance. They occur
only at the natural or resonant frequencies of vibration of the particular
medium.

Resonance

All objects that can vibrate tend to do so at a specific frequency known as

their natural frequency or resonant frequency. Resonance is when an
object is exposed to vibrations at a frequency known as the driving
frequency equal to their resonant frequency.
Resonance occurs when a weak vibration from one object causes a strong
vibration in another. If the amplitude of motion of the vibrations becomes
too great, the object can be destroyed.
Two very significant effects occur when the natural resonant frequency of
an object is matched by the driving frequency.

The amplitude of the oscillations within the resonating object increases

dramatically.

The maximum possible energy from the source creating the forced
vibration is transferred to the resonating object.

Sound Waves
Sound

Sound waves are longitudinal waves which require a medium to travel

through. Sound waves transfer energy through vibrations of molecules.
They consist of a series of compressions (regions of increased air pressure)
and rarefactions (regions of decreased air pressure).

Module 3 Waves & Thermodynamics 8

 A pitch of a sound depends on its frequency. An increase in frequency is
perceived as an increase in pitch. The volume of a sound depends on its
amplitude. An increase in amplitude is perceived as an increase in volume.

Intensity

Intensity is a measure of the rate at which energy passes through an area

of space each second. It is a scalar quantity and measured in watts per
square meter (W m−2 ). 1 W m−2 = 1 J s−1 m−2 .

The intensity of a sound is equivalent to the volume of the sound.

P
I=
4πr 2
where,

I = intensity (W m−2 )

P = power W

r = distance from source (m)

Inverse Square Law

If you double the distance from the source (from r to 2r), the sound energy
is now spread over twice the distance in 2D or 4 times the size at distance
r. Spreading the energy over a larger area decreases the intensity
proportionally.

Module 3 Waves & Thermodynamics 9

 This relationship between intensity and distance is referred to as the
inverse square law.

1
I α 
r2
The Doppler Effect

The doppler wave is a phenomenon of waves that occurs whenever there is

relative movement between the source and an observer.
This causes an increase in frequency when the relative movement is
towards the observer and a decrease in frequency when the relative
movement is away from the observer. The actual frequency of the wave
source does not changes.

The doppler effect exist because when the source is moving toward the
observer, each wave crest is emitted from a position closer to the observe
than the crest of the previous wave causing waves to bunch up.

When the source if moving away from the observer, each wave crest is
emitted from a psition further from the observer than the crest of the
previous wave causing waves to spread out.

The observed frequency of the wave can be calculated using:

′ (vwave + vobserver )
f =f
(vwave − vsource )

where,
′
f = observed frequency (Hz)
f = original frequency (Hz)

vwave = speed of waves (ms−1 )

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 vobserver = speed of observer (ms−1 )
vsource = speed of source (ms−1 )
If the observer is moving towards the source then vobserver is positive and
negative if it is moving away.

If the source is moving towards the observer then vsource is positive and
negative if it is moving away.

Beats
When sounder waves of identical wavelength and amplitude superimpose -
it creates louder sounds when constructive interference occurs and softer
sounds when destructive interference occurs.

A beat is a regular pulse-like sound. The beat frequency is equal to the

difference in frequencies:

fbeat = ∣f1 − f2 ∣

where,

fbeat = frequency of resultant wave (Hz)

f1 = frequency of wave 1 (Hz)
f2 = frequency of wave 2 (Hz)
Harmonics

The resonant frequencies produced in complex vibration of multiple staing

waves are termed harmonics. The lowest and simplest form of vibration,
with one antinode, is called the fundamental frequency. Higher-level
harmonics are referred to as overtones.

String Fixed At Both Ends

The wavelength of a standing wave fixed at both ends can be

calculated using:

Module 3 Waves & Thermodynamics 11

 2l
λ=
n
where,

λ = wavelength (m)
l = length of string (m)

n = number of harmonic / antinodes

The frequency of a standing wave fixed at both ends can be calculated

using:

nv
f=
2l
where,

f = frequency of wave (Hz)

n = number of harmonics / antinodes

v = velocity of wave (m/s)

l = length of string (m)

String Fixed At One End

The wavelength of a standing wave fixed at one end can be calculated

using:

4l
λ=
n
where,

λ = wavelength (m)

Module 3 Waves & Thermodynamics 12

 l = length of string (m)

n = number of harmonic / antinodes

The frequency of a standing wave fixed at one end can be calculated

using:

nv
f=
4l
where,

f = frequency of wave (Hz)

n = number of harmonics / antinodes

v = velocity of wave (m/s)

l = length of string (m)

Ray Model Of Light

The Law Of Reflection
When a light ray strikes an object, the light is absorbed and transmitted,
andy remaining light is reflected. Regular reflection occurs from a very even
surface.

Parallel rays of light falling on the surface remain parallel when reflected.
Diffuse reflection occurs from a rough or uneven sruface. Parallel rays of
light falling on the surface are reflected diffusely.
The law of reflection states that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle
of reflection.

Plane Mirrors
The type of image seen in a plane mirror is known as a virtual image. A
virtual image is one that is formed where light rays appear to cross. The
virtual image formed is upright (same orientation), the same size and the
same distance away from the mirror as the object.

Module 3 Waves & Thermodynamics 13

 Intensity

Intensity is a measure of the rate at which energy passes through an area

of space. The intensity of light corresponds to its brightness. The SI unit of
luminous intensity if the candela (cd).

Assume that the light energy at distance r represents the intensity of I1 . At

2r, the same amount of energy is passed through an area four times larger
than at r meaning that the light at this point will be only 1/4 as bright.
Therefore, the intensity of the light is inversely proportionate to the square
of the distance from the light source.

1
I α 
r2
where,

I = intensity (cd)

r = distance from light source (m)

The relationship between the intensity of light at two points at different

distances is given by:

I1 r12 = I2 r22

where,

I1 = intensity at point 1 (cd)

r1 = distance of point 1 from light source (m)
I2 = intensity at point 2 (cd)

Module 3 Waves & Thermodynamics 14

 r2 = distance of point 2 from light source (m)
Refraction

Refraction of light occurs when light passes from one medium to another
and it either speed up or slows down. This change in speed causes the
light to change direction.
The speed change of light depends on the type of material. The refractive
index of a medium is defined as the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum
to the speed of light in the medium.

c
nx =
vx

where,

nx = refractive index of medium

c = speed of light in a vacuum

vx = speed of ligt in the medium

The refractive index of a vacuum is exactly 1. Similarly, the refractive index
of air is approximately equal to 1. The determine the change in speed as it
refracts use:

n1 v1 = n2 v2

where,

n1 = refractive index of first material

v1 = speed of light in the first material
n2 = refractive index of second material
v2 = speed of light in the second material
Snell's Law
Snell's law can be mathematically represented as:

n1 sin i = n2 sin r

where,

n1 = refractive index of incident medium

Module 3 Waves & Thermodynamics 15

 i = angle of incidence

n2 = refractive index of refracting medium

r = angle of refraction

Total Internal Reflection

When light passes into a denser medium, it is refracted towards the normal.
Conversely, when light passes into a lesser dense medium, it is refracted
away from the normal.
As the angle of incidence increases the angle of reflection gets closer to 90
degrees. Eventually, the critical angle is referred to the angle of incidence
when the angle of refraction equals 90 degrees and the light is refracted
along with the interface between two mediums.
If the angle of incidence is increased further than the critical angle then the
light ray does not undergo refraction but instead, it is reflected. This
phenomenon is known as total internal reflection.

When light travels from medium x into air or vacuum, the critical angle is
given by:

1
sin ic =
nx

where,

ic = critical angle

Module 3 Waves & Thermodynamics 16

 nx = refractive index of incident material
Dispersion
When white light travels from one material to another, each colour travels at
a slightly different speed in the new medium and therefore each colour is
refracted a slightly different amount.

Each colour of light has a different refractive index in a material meaning

when a beam of white light travels from air into another medium, the white
light splits up into a spectrum of colours. This phenomenon is called
dispersion.

Curved Mirrors

Curved mirrors are classified as either converging or diverging. A

converging mirror causes parallel rays of light striking it to be focused to a
point in front of the mirror known as the focus or focal point.

A diverging mirror causes parallel rays of light to spread out away from the
virtual focus behind the mirror. Concave mirrors are converging and convex
mirror are diverging. The law of reflection applies at each point on the
mirror's surface.

Module 3 Waves & Thermodynamics 17

 The distance from the mirror to the focus is the focal length, f, of the mirror.
It depends on the radius of curvature of the mirror. For a spherical mirror,
the focal point is halfway between the centre of curvature of the mirror,
and it's surface.

The focal length of a mirror can be given by:

1
f= r
2
where,

r = radius of curvature of the mirror (m)

f = focal length of the mirror (m)

Concave Mirrors

The type of image formed by a concave mirror depends on the distance

between the object and the mirror relative to the focal length of the mirror.

Module 3 Waves & Thermodynamics 18

 An image formed on the same side of the mirror as the object is known as a
real image. Real images can be enlarged or diminished depending on the
position of the object. Real images formed by a concave mirror are always
inverted. When the object is placed closer to the mirror than the focal
length, an enlarged virtual image is formed and appears behind the mirror.

Convex Mirrors
A convex mirror always produces an upright, diminshed, virtual images
regardless of the objects position. The position of the object simply
determines the size and position of the image.

The Mirror Formula

The position of the image of an object viewed using a curved mirror can be
detrmined using the mirror formula:

1 1 1
= +
f u v

where,

f = focal length of mirror (cm)

u = distance between object and mirror (cm)

v = distance between image and mirror (cm)

Module 3 Waves & Thermodynamics 19

 The focal length of a concave mirro will be positive and for a convex mirror
it is negative. A negative image distance indicates it is a virtual image and a
positive image distance implies a real image.

Curved Lenses
A lens is a transparent material shaped in order to cause light to bend in a
particular way. The two main types of lenses are bi convex lens and bi
concave lens. A bi concave lens causes light to converge while a bi
concave lens causes light to diverge.

Each lens has 2 focal point on either side and a special point called optical
centre. A light ray that passes through the optimal centre of the lens
experiences no refraction. The distance between focal point and optimal
centre is called focal length. The principal axis is a line that passes through
the two focal point and the optical centre.

Module 3 Waves & Thermodynamics 20

 The Lens Formula
The position and nature of the image formed by a curved lens can also be
calculated using:

Module 3 Waves & Thermodynamics 21

 1 1 1
= +
f u v

where,

f = focal length of lens (cm)

u = distance between object and mirror (cm)

v = distance between image and mirror (cm)

The focal length of a convex lens will be positive and for a concave lens it is
negative. A negative image distance indicates it is a virtual image and a
positive image distance implies a real image.

Magnification

Magnification refers to the ratio between the size of the image and the size
of the object.

hi v
M= =
ho u

where,

M = magnification

hi = height of the images (cm)

ho = height of the object (cm)
u = distance between object and mirror (cm)

v = distance between image and mirror (cm)

Thermodynamics
Kinetic Particle Model
The kinetic particle model states that:

All matter is made up of very small particles called atoms

These particles are in constant motion

No kinetic energy is lost or gained overall during collisions between

particles

There are forces of attraction and repulsion between particles

Module 3 Waves & Thermodynamics 22

 The distance between the particles in a gas are large compared to the
size of the particle

The kinetic energy model applies to all the states of matter: solid, liquid and
gas.

Heat

Heating is the transfer of thermal energy from a hotter body to a colder one
and can be observed by the change in temperature, change in state and
the expansion of the substance.
When a substance is heated, the particles gain either kinetic energy (move
faster) or potential energy (move away from equilibrium position).
Internal energy refers to the total kinetic and potential energy of the
particles within a substance. Heating changes the internal energy by
affecting the kinetic and / or the potential energy in a substance.
If there is a net gain in kinetic energy, an increase in the total internal
energy results in the increase in temperature.
If there us a net gain in potential energy, an increase in the total internal
energy results in the change of state or expansion of the substance.

Kelvin Scale
The kelvin scale provided the triple point of water, a reliable fixed point,
where combination of temperature and air pressure allows all three states
of water to co exist.

Absolute zero is at the bottom of the kelvin scale where all molecular
motion ceases and the internal energy is at the lowest point of a substance.

The Zeroth Law Of Thermodynamics

Module 3 Waves & Thermodynamics 23

 The zeroth of thermodynamics states that if two objects are in thermal
contacts, they will transfer energy until thermal equilibrium is reached.
When two objects are in thermal contact, energy can flow between them.
Thermal equilibrium is when there is no longer a flow of energy between
two objects in thermal contact.
If objects A and B are each in thermal equilibrium with object C, then
objects A and B are in thermal equilibrium with each other.
two objects in thermal equalibrium with each other must be at the same
temperature.

The First Law Of Thermodynamics

The first law of thermodynamics state that energy simply changes from
one form to another and the total internal energy is a system is constant
The internal energy of the system can be changed by heating or cooling, or
by work being done on or by the system.

ΔU = Q  −  W

where,

ΔU = change in internal energy J

Q = heat energy transferred J

W = work being done J

If heat energy is added to the system, Q > 0. If heat energy is taken away
from the system, Q < 0

If work is being done by the system, W > 0. If work is being done on the
system, W < 0

Changing Temperature

The temperature of a substance is a measure of the average kinetic energy

of the particles inside the substance.
To increase temperature, the kinetic energy of its particles must increase
which happens when the heat is transferred to that substance. The amount
of temperature increases depends on a number of factors.

The greater the mass of a substance, the greater the energy required to
change the kinetic energy of all the particles.

Module 3 Waves & Thermodynamics 24

 ΔQ α m

where,

ΔQ = heat energy transferred J

m = mass of substance being heated (kg)

The more heat that is transferred to a substance, the more the

temperperature of that substance increases

ΔQ α ΔT

where,

ΔQ = heat energy transferred K

ΔT = change in temperature C or K
The specific heat capacity of a material, c, is the amount of energy that
must be transferred to change the temperature of 1kg of the material by 1K
or 1C

Q = mcΔT

where,

Q = heat energy transferred K

m = mass of the object (kg)

ΔT = change in temperature C or K
c = specific heat capacity of the object J / kg K

Latent Heat

Latent heat is the energy required to change the state of a substance. Its
the energy that has to be added or removed in order for the material to
change state. When a substance changes state, its temperature remains
constant

Q=m×L

where,

Q = heat energy transferred J

Module 3 Waves & Thermodynamics 25

 m = mass (kg)

L = latent heat J / kg)

Latent Heat Of Fusion Melting)

As thermal energy is transferred to a solid, the temperature increases and
particles within the solid gain internal energy. When the solid begins to
melt, particles move further apart, reducing the strength of the bonds
holding them in place.

At this point, instead of increasing the temperature, the energy increases

the potential energy of the particles, reducing the intermolecular forces. No
change in temperature occurs, as all the energy supplied is used in
reducing these forces between particles.
The amount of energy required to melt a solid is equal to the amount of
potential energy released when the liquid reforms into a sold. This is
termed the latent heat of fusion

Q = mLf usion

where,

Q = heat energy transferred J

m = mass of object (kg)

Lf usion = latent heat of fusion J / kg)

Latent Heat Of Vaporisation Boiling)
It takes much more energy to convert a liquid to a gas than a solid to a
liquid because the intermolcular bond must be broken. During the change
of state, all energy supplied is used in overcoming intermolecular bonds.
The temperature will no rise until all the liquid state is converted to a gas.

The amount of energy required to change a liquid to a gas is equal to the

potential energy released when the gas return to a liquid. This is termed
latent heat of vaporisation.

Q = mLvapour

where,

Q = heat energy transferred J

Module 3 Waves & Thermodynamics 26

 m = mass of object (kg)

Lvapour = latent heat of fusion J / kg)

Evaporation & Cooling
Evaporation is the process of liquid water turning into vapour at room
temperature. Whenever evaporation occurs, higher-energy particles
escape the surface of the liquid, leaving the lower-energy particles behind.
As a result, the average kinetic energy of the particles remaining in the
liquid drops and the temperature decreases

The rate of evaporation of a liquid depends on:

The volatility of the liquid: more-volatile liquids evaporate faster

The surface area: greater evaporation occurs when greater surface

areas are exposed to the air

The temperature: hotter liquids evaporate faster

The humidity: less evaporation occurs in more humid conditions

The air movement: if a breeze is blowing over the liquid’s surface,

evaporation is more rapid.

Conduction

Conduction is the process by which heat is transferred from one place to

another without the net movement of particles. Conduction can occur
within or between materials in thermal contact

Materials that conduct heat readily are called good conductors while
materials that conduct heat poorly are called insulators. A material's ability
to conduct depends on how conduction occurs within the material.

Module 3 Waves & Thermodynamics 27

 Conduction can occur in 2 ways:

Energy transfer through atomic / moelcular collision

If one part of a material is heated, then particles in that region vibrate
more rapidly interfering with neighboring particles. This interaction
passes on the kinetic energy through the system via bond between
particles.

This process is slows and is used mainly in poor conductors or

insulators

Energy transfer by free electrons

Metals have delocalised electrons which are not directly in a chemical

bond and belong to the whole lattice. If a part of the metal is heated,
not only will the positive ions gain energy but also the electrons.

This process is fast since electrons are small and light so even a small
energy gain results in a very large gain in velocity resulting in heat
getting transferred through the material.

Thermal conductivity is a material ability to conduct heat. It is measured in

watts per meter per kelvin W / m K.

Q kA ΔT
=
t d
where,
Q
t = rate of heat energy transferred J / s or W

k = thermal conductivity of material W / m K

A = surface area perpendicular to the direction of heat flow (m2 )

ΔT = temperature difference K or C
d = thickness of material (m)

Factors affecting thermal conduction include:

The material's thermal conductivity. The greater it is the more rapidly it

conducts heat energy

Temperature difference. Greater the temperature difference results in a

faster rate of energy transfer

Module 3 Waves & Thermodynamics 28

 Thickness of material. Thicker materials require a greater number of
collisions between particles or movement of electrons to transfer
energy.

Surface area. Increasing the surface area to volume ratio increases the
number of particles involved in the transfer process, increasing rate of
conduction.

Convection

Convection is the transfer of thermal energy within a fluid by the movement

of hot areas from one place to another through the mass movement of
particles within a systems.
As a fluid heats, the particles gain kinetic energy and push apart due to the
increased vibrations which cause the density of the fluid to decrease the
fluid rises. The colder fluid is denser and hence falls, moving in to take the
warmer fluid's place. A convection current forms when there is warm fluid
rising and cool fluid falling.

Factors affecting convection include:

The temperature difference between the heat source and the

convective fluid.

The surface area exposed to the convective fluid.

Radiation

Radiation or electromagnetic radiation is a means of transfer of heat

without the movement of matter. Electromagnetic radiation travel at the
speed of light and when it hits an object, it is partially reflected, transmitted
and absorbed.
The absorption part transfers thermal energy to the absorbing object
causing rise in temperature. All objects, that are at a temperature above

Module 3 Waves & Thermodynamics 29

 absolute zero, emit electromagnetic radiation.

The wavelength and frequency of the emitted radiation depend on the

internal energy of the object. The higher the temperature of an object, the
higher the frequency and shorter the wavelength of the electromagnetic
wave.

All objects both emit and absorb thermal energy by radiation. If an object
absorbs more than it emits, its temperature increases. If an object emits
more than it absorbs, its temperature falls. If no temperature changes occur
than the object and its surroundings are at thermal equilibrium.

Factors that effect radiation emission and absorption include:

Surface area: the more exposed surface area the highe the rate of
radiant transfer

Temperature: the greater the difference between the temperature, the

greater the rate of energy transfer by radiation

Wavelength

Colour & Texture

Module 3 Waves & Thermodynamics 30