An American National Standard

Designation: D150 – 11

Standard Test Methods for

AC Loss Characteristics and Permittivity (Dielectric
Constant) of Solid Electrical Insulation1
This standard is issued under the fixed designation D150; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year of
original adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. A
superscript epsilon (´) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.
This standard has been approved for use by agencies of the Department of Defense.

1. Scope* D618 Practice for Conditioning Plastics for Testing

1.1 These test methods cover the determination of relative D1082 Test Method for Dissipation Factor and Permittivity
permittivity, dissipation factor, loss index, power factor, phase (Dielectric Constant) of Mica
angle, and loss angle of specimens of solid electrical insulating D1531 Test Methods for Relative Permittivity (Dielectric
materials when the standards used are lumped impedances. The Constant) and Dissipation Factor by Fluid Displacement
frequency range addressed extends from less than 1 Hz to Procedures
several hundred megahertz. D1711 Terminology Relating to Electrical Insulation
D5032 Practice for Maintaining Constant Relative Humid-
NOTE 1—In common usage, the word relative is frequently dropped. ity by Means of Aqueous Glycerin Solutions
1.2 These test methods provide general information on a E104 Practice for Maintaining Constant Relative Humidity
variety of electrodes, apparatus, and measurement techniques. by Means of Aqueous Solutions
A reader interested in issues associated with a specific material E197 Specification for Enclosures and Servicing Units for
needs to consult ASTM standards or other documents directly Tests Above and Below Room Temperature5
applicable to the material to be tested.2,3
1.3 This standard does not purport to address all of the 3. Terminology
safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the 3.1 Definitions
responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appro- 3.1.1 Use Terminology D1711 for definitions of terms used
priate safety and health practices and determine the applica- in these test methods and associated with electrical insulation
bility of regulatory limitations prior to use. For specific hazard materials.
statements, see 7.2.6.1 and 10.2.1. 3.2 Definitions of Terms Specific to This Standard:
3.2.1 capacitance, C, n—that property of a system of
2. Referenced Documents conductors and dielectrics which permits the storage of elec-
2.1 ASTM Standards:4 trically separated charges when potential differences exist
D374 Test Methods for Thickness of Solid Electrical Insu- between the conductors.
lation 3.2.1.1 Discussion—Capacitance is the ratio of a quantity,
q, of electricity to a potential difference, V. A capacitance value
1
is always positive. The units are farads when the charge is
These test methods are under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee D09 on
Electrical and Electronic Insulating Materials and are the direct responsibility of expressed in coulombs and the potential in volts:
Subcommittee D09.12 on Electrical Tests. C 5 q/V (1)
Current edition approved Aug. 1, 2011. Published August 2011. Originally
approved in 1922. Last previous edition approved in 2004 as D150 – 98R04. DOI: 3.2.2 dissipation factor, (D), (loss tangent), (tan d), n—the
10.1520/D0150-11. ratio of the loss index (k9) to the relative permittivity (k8)
2
R. Bartnikas, Chapter 2, “Alternating-Current Loss and Permittivity Measure-
ments,” Engineering Dielectrics, Vol. IIB, Electrical Properties of Solid Insulating
which is equal to the tangent of its loss angle (d) or the
Materials, Measurement Techniques, R. Bartnikas, Editor, STP 926, ASTM, cotangent of its phase angle (u) (see Fig. 1 and Fig. 2).
Philadelphia, 1987. D 5 k9/k8 (2)
3
R. Bartnikas, Chapter 1, “Dielectric Loss in Solids,” Engineering Dielectrics,
Vol IIA, Electrical Properties of Solid Insulating Materials: Molecular Structure and 3.2.2.1 Discussion—a:
Electrical Behavior, R. Bartnikas and R. M. Eichorn, Editors, STP 783, ASTM
Philadelphia, 1983. D 5 tan d 5 cot u 5 Xp /Rp 5 G/vC p 5 1/vCpRp (3)
4
For referenced ASTM standards, visit the ASTM website, www.astm.org, or
contact ASTM Customer Service at service@astm.org. For Annual Book of ASTM
5
Standards volume information, refer to the standard’s Document Summary page on Withdrawn. The last approved version of this historical standard is referenced
the ASTM website. on www.astm.org.

*A Summary of Changes section appears at the end of this standard.

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 D150 – 11

FIG. 4 Series Circuit

FIG. 1 Vector Diagram for Parallel Circuit 3.2.3.1 Discussion—The relation of phase angle and loss
angle is shown in Fig. 1 and Fig. 2. Loss angle is sometimes
called the phase defect angle.
3.2.4 loss index, k9 (´r9), n—the magnitude of the imaginary
part of the relative complex permittivity; it is the product of the
relative permittivity and dissipation factor.
3.2.4.1 Discussion—a—It may be expressed as:
k9 5 k8 D

5 power loss/~E 2 3 f 3 volume 3 constant! (7)

When the power loss is in watts, the applied voltage is in
volts per centimetre, the frequency is in hertz, the volume is the
cubic centimetres to which the voltage is applied, the constant
FIG. 2 Vector Diagram for Series Circuit has the value of 5.556 3 10−13.
3.2.4.2 Discussion—b—Loss index is the term agreed upon
where: internationally. In the U.S.A. k9 was formerly called the loss
G = equivalent ac conductance, factor.
Xp = parallel reactance, 3.2.5 phase angle, u, n—the angle whose cotangent is the
Rp = equivalent ac parallel resistance, dissipation factor, arccot k9/k8 and is also the angular differ-
Cp = parallel capacitance, and ence in the phase between the sinusoidal alternating voltage
v = 2pf (sinusoidal wave shape assumed). applied to a dielectric and the component of the resulting
The reciprocal of the dissipation factor is the quality factor, current having the same frequency as the voltage.
Q, sometimes called the storage factor. The dissipation factor, 3.2.5.1 Discussion—The relation of phase angle and loss
D, of the capacitor is the same for both the series and parallel angle is shown in Fig. 1 and Fig. 2. Loss angle is sometimes
representations as follows: called the phase defect angle.
D 5 vRsCs 5 1/vR pCp (4) 3.2.6 power factor, PF, n—the ratio of the power in watts,
W, dissipated in a material to the product of the effective
The relationships between series and parallel components sinusoidal voltage, V, and current, I, in volt-amperes.
are as follows: 3.2.6.1 Discussion—Power factor may be expressed as the
cosine of the phase angle u (or the sine of the loss angle d).
Cp 5 Cs/~1 1 D 2! (5)
PF 5 W/VI 5 G/=G2 1 ~vCp!2 5 sin d 5 cos u (8)
2 2 2 2
Rp/Rs 5 ~1 1 D !/D 5 1 1 ~1/D ! 5 1 1 Q (6) When the dissipation factor is less than 0.1, the power factor
3.2.2.2 Discussion—b: Series Representation—While the differs from the dissipation factor by less than 0.5 %. Their
parallel representation of an insulating material having a exact relationship may be found from the following:
dielectric loss (Fig. 3) is usually the proper representation, it is PF 5 D/=1 1 D2 (9)
always possible and occasionally desirable to represent a
capacitor at a single frequency by a capacitance, Cs, in series D 5 PF/=1 2 ~PF! 2
with a resistance, R s (Fig. 4 and Fig. 2). 3.2.7 relative permittivity (relative dielectric constant) (SIC)
3.2.3 loss angle (phase defect angle), (d), n—the angle k8(´r), n—the real part of the relative complex permittivity. It
whose tangent is the dissipation factor or arctan k9/k8 or whose is also the ratio of the equivalent parallel capacitance, Cp, of a
cotangent is the phase angle. given configuration of electrodes with a material as a dielectric
to the capacitance, Cy, of the same configuration of electrodes
with vacuum (or air for most practical purposes) as the
dielectric:
k8 5 C p/Cv (10)
3.2.7.1 Discussion—a—In common usage the word “rela-
tive” is frequently dropped.
3.2.7.2 Discussion—b—Experimentally, vacuum must be
FIG. 3 Parallel Circuit replaced by the material at all points where it makes a

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 D150 – 11
significant change in capacitance. The equivalent circuit of the generally desirable to have the capacitance of the support as
dielectric is assumed to consist of Cp, a capacitance in parallel small as possible, consistent with acceptable mechanical,
with conductance. (See Fig. 3.) chemical, and heat-resisting properties. A low value of permit-
3.2.7.3 Discussion—c—C x is taken to be C p, the equivalent tivity is thus desirable. For the second use, it is desirable to
parallel capacitance as shown in Fig. 3. have a high value of permittivity, so that the capacitor is able
3.2.7.4 Discussion—d—The series capacitance is larger to be physically as small as possible. Intermediate values of
than the parallel capacitance by less than 1 % for a dissipation permittivity are sometimes used for grading stresses at the edge
factor of 0.1, and by less than 0.1 % for a dissipation factor of or end of a conductor to minimize ac corona. Factors affecting
0.03. If a measuring circuit yields results in terms of series permittivity are discussed in Appendix X3.
components, the parallel capacitance must be calculated from 5.2 AC Loss—For both cases (as electrical insulation and as
Eq 5 before the corrections and permittivity are calculated. capacitor dielectric) the ac loss generally needs to be small,
3.2.7.5 Discussion—e—The permittivity of dry air at 23°C both in order to reduce the heating of the material and to
and standard pressure at 101.3 kPa is 1.000536 (1).6 Its minimize its effect on the rest of the network. In high
divergence from unity, k8 − 1, is inversely proportional to frequency applications, a low value of loss index is particularly
absolute temperature and directly proportional to atmospheric desirable, since for a given value of loss index, the dielectric
pressure. The increase in permittivity when the space is loss increases directly with frequency. In certain dielectric
saturated with water vapor at 23°C is 0.00025 (2, 3), and varies configurations such as are used in terminating bushings and
approximately linearly with temperature expressed in degrees cables for test, an increased loss, usually obtained from
Celsius, from 10 to 27°C. For partial saturation the increase is increased conductivity, is sometimes introduced to control the
proportional to the relative humidity voltage gradient. In comparisons of materials having approxi-
mately the same permittivity or in the use of any material under
4. Summary of Test Method such conditions that its permittivity remains essentially con-
4.1 Capacitance and ac resistance measurements are made stant, it is potentially useful to consider also dissipation factor,
on a specimen. Relative permittivity is the specimen capaci- power factor, phase angle, or loss angle. Factors affecting ac
tance divided by a calculated value for the vacuum capacitance loss are discussed in Appendix X3.
(for the same electrode configuration), and is significantly 5.3 Correlation—When adequate correlating data are avail-
dependent on resolution of error sources. Dissipation factor, able, dissipation factor or power factor are useful to indicate
generally independent of the specimen geometry, is also the characteristics of a material in other respects such as
calculated from the measured values. dielectric breakdown, moisture content, degree of cure, and
4.2 This method provides (1) guidance for choices of deterioration from any cause. However, it is possible that
electrodes, apparatus, and measurement approaches; and (2) deterioration due to thermal aging will not affect dissipation
directions on how to avoid or correct for capacitance errors. factor unless the material is subsequently exposed to moisture.
4.2.1 General Measurement Considerations: While the initial value of dissipation factor is important, the
Fringing and Stray Capacitance Guarded Electrodes change in dissipation factor with aging is often much more
Geometry of Specimens Calculation of Vacuum Capacitance significant.
Edge, Ground, and Gap Corrections

4.2.2 Electrode Systems - Contacting Electrodes 6. General Measurement Considerations

Electrode Materials Metal Foil 6.1 Fringing and Stray Capacitance—These test methods
Conducting Paint Fired-On Silver are based upon measuring the specimen capacitance between
Sprayed Metal Evaporated Metal
Liquid Metal Rigid Metal electrodes, and measuring or calculating the vacuum capaci-
Water tance (or air capacitance for most practical purposes) in the
4.2.3 Electrode Systems - Non-Contacting Electrodes same electrode system. For unguarded two-electrode measure-
ments, the determination of these two values required to
Fixed Electrodes Micrometer Electrodes
Fluid Displacement Methods compute the permittivity, kx8 is complicated by the presence of
undesired fringing and stray capacitances which get included in
4.2.4 Choice of Apparatus and Methods for Measuring the measurement readings. Fringing and stray capacitances are
Capacitance and AC Loss illustrated by Figs. 5 and 6 for the case of two unguarded
Frequency Direct and Substitution Methods
Two-Terminal Measurements Three-Terminal Measurements
Fluid Displacement Methods Accuracy considerations

5. Significance and Use

5.1 Permittivity—Insulating materials are used in general in
two distinct ways, (1) to support and insulate components of an
electrical network from each other and from ground, and (2) to
function as the dielectric of a capacitor. For the first use, it is

6
The boldface numbers in parentheses refer to the list of references appended to
these test methods. FIG. 5 Stray Capacitance, Unguarded Electrodes

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 D150 – 11
Only the desired capacitance, Cv, is independent of the
outside environment, all the others being dependent to a degree
on the proximity of other objects. It is necessary to distinguish
between two possible measuring conditions to determine the
FIG. 6 Flux Lines Between Unguarded Electrodes
effects of the undesired capacitances. When one measuring
electrode is grounded, as is often the case, all of the capaci-
tances described are in parallel with the desired Cv- with the
parallel plate electrodes between which the specimen is to be
exception of the ground capacitance of the grounded electrode
placed for measurement. In addition to the desired direct
interelectrode capacitance, Cv, the system as seen at terminals and its lead. If Cv is placed within a chamber with walls at
a-a8 includes the following: guard potential, and the leads to the chamber are guarded, the
capacitance to ground no longer appears, and the capacitance
seen at a-a8 includes Cv and Ce only. For a given electrode
Ce = fringing or edge capacitance, arrangement, the edge capacitance, Ce, can be calculated with
Cg = capacitance to ground of the outside face of each reasonable accuracy when the dielectric is air. When a speci-
electrode, men is placed between the electrodes, the value of the edge
CL = capacitance between connecting leads, capacitance can change requiring the use of an edge capaci-
CLg = capacitance of the leads to ground, and tance correction using the information from Table 1. Empirical
CLe = capacitance between the leads and the electrodes. corrections have been derived for various conditions, and these

TABLE 1 Calculations of Vacuum Capacitance and Edge Corrections (see 8.5)

NOTE—See Table 2 for Identification of Symbols used.
Direct Inter-Electrode Capacitance in Vacuum,
Type of Electrode Correction for Stray Field at an Edge, pF
pF
Disk electrodes with guard-ring: A Ce = 0
Cv 5 ´0 5
t
A
0.0088542
t

p
A 5 d 1 BA g!2
4~ 1
Disk electrodes without guard-ring:
Diameter of the electrodes = diameter of the specimen: where a << t, Ce = (0.0087 – 0.00252 ln t)P

Equal electrodes smaller than the specimen: d12 Ce = (0.0019 kx8 – 0.00252 ln t + 0.0068)P
Cv 5 0.0069541
t
where: kx8 = an approximate value of the specimen permit-
tivity, and a << t.

Unequal electrodes: Ce = (0.0041 kx8– 0.00334 ln t + 0.0122)P

where: kx8 = an approximate value of the specimen permit-
tivity, and a << t.

Cylindrical electrodes with guard-ring: 0.055632 ~l1 1 BA g! Ce = 0

Cv 5
d2
ln
d1

Cylindrical electrodes without guard-ring: 0.055632 l1 t 1

Cv 5 If <
d2 t 1 d1 10
ln Ce = (0.0038 kx8 – 0.00504 ln t + 0.0136)P
d1
P = p (d1+ t)
where kx8 = an approximate value of the specimen permit-
tivity.

A
See Appendix X2 for corrections to guard gap.

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 D150 – 11
TABLE 2 Calculation of Permittivity and Dissipation Factor, Noncontacting Electrodes
Permittivity Dissipation Factor Identification of Symbols
Micrometer electrodes in air (with guard ring): DC = capacitance change when specimen is inserted (+ when
Dx = Dc + Mkx8 DD capacitance increases),
1 C1 = capacitance with specimen in place,
kx8 5 DD = increase in dissipation factor when specimen is inserted,
DC t0
1– Dc = dissipation factor with specimen in place.
C1 t
Df = dissipation factor, fluid,
t0 = parallel-plate spacing, mm,
or, if t0 is adjusted to a new value, t08, such that
t = average thickness of specimen, mm,
DC = 0 M = t0/t – 1,
Cf = kf8Cv capacitance with fluid alone,
t ´0 = permittivity of a vacuum (0.0088542 pF/mm),
kx8 5 A = area of the electrodes, mm2 (the smaller if the two are
t – ~t0 – t08!
unequal),
kf8 = permittivity of fluid at test temperature (= 1.00066 for air
Plane electrodes—fluid displacement: at 23°C, 50 % RH),
Dx = Dc + DDM Cv = vacuum capacitance of area considered (´0A/t0, pF),
kf8 d0 = OD of inner electrode,
kx8 5
1 1 Dx2 d1 = ID of specimen,
d2 = OD of specimen, and
· F ~Cf 1 DC!~1 1 Dc2!
Cf 1 M[Cf – ~Cf 1 DC!~1 1 Dc2! G · F ~Cf 1 DC!~1 1 Dc2!
Cf 1 M[Cf – ~Cf 1 DC!~1 1 Dc2! G d3
g
d1,2,or
= ID of outer electrode
= guard gap, mm
3 = diameter, mm (see sketches)
When the dissipation factor of the specimen is less than about 0.1, the following equations Cv = Vacuum capacitance
can be used: B = 1 - 2d (see Appendix X2.1.3)
(ed. note: ALSO eliminate the 9*9 after B (two places) and
kf8 kx8
kx8 5 Dx 5 Dc 1 M DD the footnote reference to Appendix X2).
DC t0 kf8
1– Ce = edge capacitance
kf8 Cv 1 DC t
ln = natural logarithm
kx8 = specimen permittivity (approximate value for Table 1
CYLINDRICAL ELECTRODES (WITH GUARD RINGS)—FLUID DISPLACEMENT. calculations)
d3 p = perimeter of measuring (low voltage) electrode, mm
kF8

5 6
log l = length of measuring (low voltage) electrode, mm
kx8 5 kx8 d0
Dx 5 Dc 1 DD –1 NOTE—C and D in these equations are the values for the cell and
kf8 d2
DC log d3/d0 log have the potential to require calculations from the readings of the
1– d1
C1 log d2/d1 measuring
circuit (as when using parallel substitution). Refer to Note 3.
Two-fluid method—plane electrodes (with guard ring):

2
DC1 C2 [~Df2 1 1! kf28 – kf18]
~D2x 1 1! kx8 5 kf 18 1 DC1 C2 – DC2 C1
NOTE—In the equation for the two-fluid method, subscripts 1 and 2
Dx 5 ~D2x 1 1! kx8 F S
´0 A 2
tx
DC2 Df2
–
C2 Cf2 D 1
Dj2
kf28 G refer to the first and second fluids, respectively.
NOTE—Values of C in the two-fluid equations are the equivalent
@C2 Cf2 DC1 – C1Cf1 DC2# ~Df2 2
1 1 ! ´0 A 2 kf18 kf28 series values.
tx 5 2 A2= effective area of guarded electrode with specimen in liquid,
@kf28 ~Df2 1 1! – kf18] C1C2Cf1Cf2 = (d + Bg)2 p/4 (See Appendix X2 for corrections to guard gap).

are given in Table 1 (for the case of thin electrodes such as

foil). In routine work, where best accuracy is not required it is
convenient to use unshielded, two-electrode systems and make
the approximate corrections. Since area (and hence Cv) in-
creases of the square diameter while perimeter (and hence Ce)
increases linearly with diameter, the percentage error in per-
mittivity due to neglecting the edge correction decreases with
increasing specimen diameter. However, for exacting measure-
ments it is necessary to use guarded electrodes.
6.2 Guarded Electrodes—The fringing and stray capaci-
tance at the edge of the guarded electrode is practically
eliminated by the addition of a guard electrode as shown in Fig. FIG. 7 Flux Lines Between Guarded Parallel Plate Electrodes
7 and Fig. 8. If the test specimen and guard electrode extend
beyond the guarded electrode by at least twice the thickness of
the specimen and the guard gap is very small, the field capacitance can be calculated with the accuracy limited only by
distribution in the guarded area will be identical with that the accuracy with which the dimensions are known. For these
existing when vacuum is the dielectric, and the ratio of these reasons the guarded electrode (three-terminal) method is to be
two direct capacitances is the permittivity. Furthermore, the used as the referee method unless otherwise agreed upon. Fig.
field between the active electrodes is defined and the vacuum 8 shows a schematic representation of a completely guarded

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 D150 – 11
the density of the material is known, the average thickness can
be determined by weighing. The diameter chosen for the
specimen shall be such as to provide a specimen capacitance
that can be measured to the desired accuracy. With well-
guarded and screened apparatus there need be no difficulty in
measuring specimens having capacitances of 10 pF to a
resolution of 1 part in 1000. If a thick specimen of low
permittivity is to be tested, it is likely that a diameter of 100
mm or more will be needed to obtain the desired capacitance
FIG. 8 Three-Terminal Cell for Solids
accuracy. In the measurement of small values of dissipation
factor, the essential points are that no appreciable dissipation
and shielded electrode system. Although the guard is com- factor shall be contributed by the series resistance of the
monly grounded, the arrangement shown permits grounding electrodes and that in the measuring network no large capaci-
either measuring electrode or none of the electrodes to accom- tance shall be connected in parallel with that of the specimen.
modate the particular three-terminal measuring system being The first of these points favors thick specimens; the second
used. If the guard is connected to ground, or to a guard terminal suggests thin specimens of large area. Micrometer electrode
on the measuring circuit, the measured capacitance is the direct methods (6.3.2) can be used to eliminate the effects of series
capacitance between the two measuring electrodes. If, how- resistance. Use a guarded specimen holder (Fig. 8) to minimize
ever, one of the measuring electrodes is grounded, the capaci- extraneous capacitances.
tance to ground of the ungrounded electrode and leads is in
6.4 Calculation of Vacuum Capacitance—The practical
parallel with the desired direct capacitance. To eliminate this
shapes for which capacitance can be most accurately calculated
source of error, surround the ungrounded electrode with a
are flat parallel plates and coaxial cylinders, the equations for
shield connected to guard as shown in Fig. 8. In addition to
which are given in Table 1. These equations are based on a
guarded methods, which are not always convenient or practical
uniform field between the measuring electrodes, with no
and which are limited to frequencies less than a few megahertz,
techniques using special cells and procedures have been fringing at the edges. Capacitance calculated on this basis is
devised that yield, with two-terminal measurements, accuracies known as the direct interelectrode capacitance.
comparable to those obtained with guarded measurements. 6.5 Edge, Ground, and Gap Corrections—The equations for
Such methods described here include shielded micrometer calculating edge capacitance, given in Table 1, are empirical,
electrodes (7.3.2) and fluid displacement methods (7.3.3). based on published work (4) (see 8.5). They are expressed in
6.3 Geometry of Specimens—For determining the permit- terms of picofarads per centimetre of perimeter and are thus
tivity and dissipation factor of a material, sheet specimens are independent of the shape of the electrodes. It is recognized that
preferable. Cylindrical specimens can also be used, but gener- they are dimensionally incorrect, but they are found to give
ally with lesser accuracy. The source of the greatest uncertainty better approximations to the true edge capacitance than any
in permittivity is in the determination of the dimensions of the other equations that have been proposed. Ground capacitance
specimen, and particularly that of its thickness. Therefore, the cannot be calculated by any equations presently known. When
thickness shall be large enough to allow its measurement with measurements must be made that include capacitance to
the required accuracy. The chosen thickness will depend on the ground, it is recommended that the value be determined
method of producing the specimen and the likely variation experimentally for the particular setup used. The difference
from point to point. For 1 % accuracy a thickness of 1.5 mm between the capacitance measured in the two-terminal arrange-
(0.06 in.) is usually sufficient, although for greater accuracy it ment and the capacitance calculated from the permittivity and
is desirable to use a thicker specimen. Another source of error, the dimensions of the specimen is the ground capacitance plus
when foil or rigid electrodes are used, is in the unavoidable gap the edge capacitance. The edge capacitance can be calculated
between the electrodes and the specimen. For thin specimens using one of the equations of Table 1. As long as the same
the error in permittivity can be as much as 25 %. A similar error physical arrangement of leads and electrodes is maintained, the
occurs in dissipation factor, although when foil electrodes are ground capacitance will remain constant, and the experimen-
applied with a grease, the two errors are not likely to have the tally determined value can be used as a correction to subse-
same magnitude. For the most accurate measurements on thin quently measured values of capacitance. The effective area of
specimens, use the fluid displacement method (6.3.3). This a guarded electrode is greater than its actual area by approxi-
method reduces or completely eliminates the need for elec- mately half the area of the guard gap (5, 6, 18). Thus, the
trodes on the specimen. The thickness must be determined by diameter of a circular electrode, each dimension of a rectan-
measurements distributed systematically over the area of the gular electrode, or the length of a cylindrical electrode is
specimen that is used in the electrical measurement and shall increased by the width of this gap. When the ratio of gap width,
be uniform within 61 % of the average thickness. If the whole g, to specimen thickness, t, is appreciable, the increase in the
area of the specimen will be covered by the electrodes, and if effective dimension of the guarded electrode is somewhat less

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 D150 – 11
than the gap width. Details of computation for this case are entire surface, by cutting out a narrow strip (0.5 mm is
given in Appendix X2. possible) by means of a compass equipped with a narrow
cutting edge.
7 7.2.2 Conducting Paint—Certain types of high-conductivity
7. Electrode Systems
7.1 Contacting Electrodes—It is acceptable for a specimen silver paints, either air-drying or low-temperature-baking va-
to be provided with its own electrodes, of one of the materials rieties, are commercially available for use as electrode mate-
listed below. For two-terminal measurements, the electrodes rial. They are sufficiently porous to permit diffusion of mois-
shall either extend to the edge of the specimen or be smaller ture through them and thereby allow the test specimen to
than the specimen. In the latter case, it is acceptable for the two condition after application of the electrodes. This is particu-
electrodes to be equal or unequal in size. If they are equal in larly useful in studying humidity effects. The paint has the
size and smaller than the specimen, the edge of the specimen disadvantage of not being ready for use immediately after
must extend beyond the electrodes by at least twice the application. It usually requires an overnight air-drying or
specimen thickness. The choice between these three sizes of low-temperature baking to remove all traces of solvent, which
electrodes will depend on convenience of application of the otherwise has the potential to increase both permittivity and
electrodes, and on the type of measurement adopted. The edge dissipation factor. It is often also not easy to obtain sharply
correction (see Table 1) is smallest for the case of electrodes defined electrode areas when the paint is brushed on, but this
extending to the edge of the specimen and largest for unequal limitation usually can be overcome by spraying the paint and
electrodes. When the electrodes extend to the edge of the employing either clamp-on or pressure-sensitive masks. The
specimen, these edges must be sharp. Such electrodes must be conductivity of silver paint electrodes is often low enough to
used, if attached electrodes are used at all, when a micrometer give trouble at the higher frequencies. It is essential that the
electrode system is employed. When equal-size electrodes solvent of the paint does not affect the specimen permanently.
smaller than the specimen are used, it is difficult to center them 7.2.3 Fired-On Silver—Fired-on silver electrodes are suit-
unless the specimen is translucent or an aligning fixture is able only for glass and other ceramics that can withstand,
employed. For three-terminal measurements, the width of the without change, a firing temperature of about 350°C. Its high
guard electrode shall be at least twice the thickness of the conductivity makes such an electrode material satisfactory for
specimen (6, 7). The gap width shall be as small as practical use on low-loss materials such as fused silica, even at the
(0.5 mm is possible). For measurement of dissipation factor at highest frequencies, and its ability to conform to a rough
the higher frequencies, electrodes of this type are likely to be surface makes it satisfactory for use with high-permittivity
unsatisfactory because of their series resistance. Use microm- materials, such as the titanates.
eter electrodes for the measurements. 7.2.4 Sprayed Metal—A low-melting-point metal applied
7.2 Electrode Materials: with a spray gun provides a spongy film for use as electrode
material which, because of its grainy structure, has roughly the
7.2.1 Metal Foil—Lead or tin foil from 0.0075 to 0.025 mm
same electrical conductivity and the same moisture porosity as
thick applied with a minimum quantity of refined petrolatum,
conducting paints. Suitable masks must be used to obtain sharp
silicone grease, silicone oil, or other suitable low-loss adhesive
edges. It conforms readily to a rough surface, such as cloth, but
is generally used as the electrode material. Aluminum foil has
does not penetrate very small holes in a thin film and produce
also been used, but it is not recommended because of its
short circuits. Its adhesion to some surfaces is poor, especially
stiffness and the probability of high contact resistance due to
after exposure to high humidity or water immersion. Advan-
the oxidized surface. Lead foil is also likely to give trouble
tages over conducting paint are freedom from effects of
because of its stiffness. Apply such electrodes under a smooth-
solvents, and readiness for use immediately after application.
ing pressure sufficient to eliminate all wrinkles and to work
7.2.5 Evaporated Metal—Evaporated metal used as an elec-
excess adhesive toward the edge of the foil. One very effective
trode material has the potential to have inadequate conductivity
method is to use a narrow roller, and to roll outward on the
because of its extreme thinness, and must be backed with
surface until no visible imprint can be made on the foil. With
electroplated copper or sheet metal. Its adhesion is adequate,
care the adhesive film can be reduced to 0.0025 mm. As this
and by itself it is sufficiently porous to moisture. The necessity
film is in series with the specimen, it will always cause the
for using a vacuum system in evaporating the metal is a
measured permittivity to be too low and probably the dissipa-
disadvantage.
tion factor to be too high. These errors usually become
7.2.6 Liquid Metal—Use mercury electrodes by floating the
excessive for specimens of thickness less than 0.125 mm. The
specimen on a pool of mercury and using confining rings with
error in dissipation factor is negligible for such thin specimens
sharp edges for retaining the mercury for the guarded and
only when the dissipation factor of the film is nearly the same
guard electrodes, as shown in Fig. 9. A more convenient
as that of the specimen. When the electrode is to extend to the
arrangement, when a considerable number of specimens must
edge, it shall be made larger than the specimen and then cut to
the edge with a small, finely ground blade. A guarded and
guard electrode can be made from an electrode that covers the

7
Additional information on electrode systems can be found in Research Report
RR:D09-1037 available from ASTM Headquarters. FIG. 9 Guarded Specimen with Mercury Electrodes

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 D150 – 11
be tested, is the test fixture shown in Fig. 4 of Test Method electrodes are used. However, these limitations are likely to be
D1082. There is some health hazard present due to the toxicity removed if the electrode system is filled with a liquid (see
of mercury vapor, especially at elevated temperatures, and 7.3.3).
suitable precautions shall be taken during use. In measuring 7.3.2 Micrometer Electrodes—The micrometer-electrode
low-loss materials in the form of thin films such as mica system, as shown in Fig. 10, was developed (8) to eliminate the
splittings, contamination of the mercury has the potential to errors caused by the series inductance and resistance of the
introduce considerable error, and it will normally be necessary connecting leads and of the measuring capacitor at high
to use clean mercury for each test. Wood’s metal or other frequencies. A built-in vernier capacitor is also provided for
low-melting alloy can be used in a similar manner with a use in the susceptance variation method. It accomplishes this
somewhat reduced health hazard. by maintaining these inductances and resistances relatively
7.2.6.1 Warning—Mercury metal-vapor poisoning has long constant, regardless of whether the test specimen is in or out of
been recognized as a hazard in the industry. The exposure the circuit. The specimen, which is either the same size as, or
limits are set by government agencies and are usually based smaller than, the electrodes, is clamped between the electrodes.
upon recommendations made by the American Conference of Unless the surfaces of the specimen are lapped or ground very
Governmental Industrial Hygienists.8 The concentration of flat, metal foil or its equivalent must be applied to the specimen
mercury vapor over spills from broken thermometers, barom- before it is placed in the electrode system. If electrodes are
eters, and other instruments using mercury can easily exceed applied, they also must be smooth and flat. Upon removal of
these exposure limits. Mercury, being a liquid with high the specimen, the electrode system can be made to have the
surface tension and quite heavy, will disperse into small same capacitance by moving the micrometer electrodes closer
droplets and seep into cracks and crevices in the floor. This together. When the micrometer-electrode system is carefully
increased area of exposure adds significantly to the mercury calibrated for capacitance changes, its use eliminates the
vapor concentration in the air. The use of a commercially corrections for edge capacitance, ground capacitance, and
available emergency spill kit is recommended whenever a spill connection capacitance. In this respect it is advantageous to use
occurs. Mercury vapor concentration is easily monitored using it over the entire frequency range. A disadvantage is that the
commercially available sniffers. Make spot checks periodically capacitance calibration is not as accurate as that of a conven-
around operations where mercury is exposed to the atmo- tional multiplate variable capacitor, and also it is not a direct
sphere. Make thorough checks after spills. reading. At frequencies below 1 MHz, where the effect of
7.2.7 Rigid Metal—For smooth, thick, or slightly compress- series inductance and resistance in the leads is negligible, the
ible specimens, rigid electrodes under high pressure can capacitance calibration of the micrometer electrodes can be
sometimes be used, especially for routine work. Electrodes 10 replaced by that of a standard capacitor, either in parallel with
mm in diameter, under a pressure of 18.0 MPa have been found the micrometer-electrode system or in the adjacent capacitance
useful for measurements on plastic materials, even those as arm of the bridge. The change in capacitance with the specimen
thin as 0.025 mm. Electrodes 50 mm in diameter, under in and out is measured in terms of this capacitor. A source of
pressure, have also been used successfully for thicker materi- minor error in a micrometer-electrode system is that the edge
als. However, it is difficult to avoid an air film when using solid capacitance of the electrodes, which is included in their
electrodes, and the effect of such a film becomes greater as the calibration, is slightly changed by the presence of a dielectric
permittivity of the material being tested increases and its having the same diameter as the electrodes. This error can be
thickness decreases. The uncertainty in the determination of practically eliminated by making the diameter of the specimen
thickness also increases as the thickness decreases. It is less than that of the electrodes by twice its thickness (3). When
possible that the dimensions of a specimen will continue to no electrodes are attached to the specimen, surface conductiv-
change for as long as 24 h after the application of pressure. ity has the potential to cause serious errors in dissipation factor
7.2.8 Water—Water can be used as one electrode for testing measurements of low loss material. When the bridge used for
insulated wire and cable when the measurements are made at measurement has a guard circuit, it is advantageous to use
low frequency (up to1000 Hz, approximately). Care must be guarded micrometer electrodes. The effects of fringing, and so
taken to ensure that electrical leakage at the ends of the
specimen is negligible.
7.3 Non-Contacting Electrodes:
7.3.1 Fixed Electrodes—Specimens of sufficiently low sur-
face conductivity can be measured without applied electrodes
by inserting them in a prefabricated electrode system, in which
there is an intentional air gap on one or both sides of the
specimen. Assemble the electrode system rigidly and ensure
that it includes a guard electrode. For the same accuracy, a
more accurate determination of the electrode spacing and the
thickness of the specimen is required than if direct contact

8
American Conference of Governmental Hygienists, Building D-7, 6500 Glen-
way Ave., Cincinnati, OH 45211. FIG. 10 Micrometer-Electroder System

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 D150 – 11
forth, are almost completely eliminated. When the electrodes in the electrode cell. It is also necessary to control the
and holder are well made, no capacitance calibration is temperature to at least 0.1°C. This can be achieved by
necessary as the capacitance can be calculated from the providing the cell with cooling coils (13).
electrode spacing and the diameter. The micrometer itself will
require calibration, however. It is not practicable to use 8. Choice of Apparatus and Methods for Measuring
electrodes on the specimen when using guarded micrometer Capacitance and AC Loss
electrodes unless the specimen is smaller in diameter than the
8.1 Frequency Range—Methods for measuring capacitance
guarded electrode.
and ac loss can be divided into three groups: null methods,
7.3.3 Fluid Displacement Methods—When the immersion resonance methods, and deflection methods. The choice of a
medium is a liquid, and no guard is used, the parallel-plate method for any particular case will depend primarily on the
system preferably shall be constructed so that the insulated operating frequency. The resistive- or inductive-ratio-arm ca-
high potential plate is supported between, parallel to, and pacitance bridge in its various forms can be used over the
equidistant from two parallel low-potential or grounded plates, frequency range from less than 1 Hz to a few megahertz. For
the latter being the opposite inside walls of the test cell frequencies below 1 Hz, special methods and instruments are
designed to hold the liquid. This construction makes the required. Parallel-T networks are used at the higher frequencies
electrode system essentially self-shielding, but normally re- from 500 kHz to 30 MHz, since they partake of some of the
quires duplicate test specimens. Provision must be made for characteristics of resonant circuits. Resonance methods are
precise temperature measurement of the liquid (9, 10). Cells used over a frequency range from 50 kHz to several hundred
shall be constructed of brass and gold plated. The high- megahertz. The deflection method, using commercial indicat-
potential electrode shall be removable for cleaning. The faces ing meters, is employed only at power-line frequencies from 25
must be as nearly optically flat and plane parallel as possible. to 60 Hz, where the higher voltages required can easily be
A suitable liquid cell for measurements up to 1 MHz is shown obtained.
in Fig. 4 of Test Method D1531. Changes in the dimensions of 8.2 Direct and Substitution Methods—In any direct method,
this cell are necessary to provide for testing sheet specimens of the values of capacitance and ac loss are in terms of all the
various thicknesses or sizes, but such changes shall not reduce circuit elements used in the method, and are therefore subject
the capacitance of the cell filled with the standard liquid to less to all their errors. Much greater accuracy can be obtained by a
than 100 pF. For measurements at frequencies from 1 to about substitution method in which readings are taken with the
50 MHz, the cell dimensions must be greatly reduced, and the unknown capacitor both connected and disconnected. The
leads must be as short and direct as possible. The capacitance errors in those circuit elements that are unchanged are in
of the cell with liquid shall not exceed 30 or 40 pF for general eliminated; however, a connection error remains (Note
measurements at 50 MHz. Experience has shown that a 4).
capacitance of 10 pF can be used up to 100 MHz without loss 8.3 Two- and Three-Terminal Measurements—The choice
of accuracy. Guarded parallel-plate electrodes have the advan- between three-terminal and two-terminal measurements is
tage that single specimens can be measured with full accuracy. generally one between accuracy and convenience. The use of a
Also a prior knowledge of the permittivity of the liquid is not guard electrode on the dielectric specimen nearly eliminates
required as it can be measured directly (11). If the cell is the effect of edge and ground capacitance, as explained in 6.2.
constructed with a micrometer electrode, specimens having The provision of a guard terminal eliminates some of the errors
widely different thicknesses can be measured with high accu- introduced by the circuit elements. On the other hand, the extra
racy since the electrodes can be adjusted to a spacing only circuit elements and shielding usually required to provide the
slightly greater than the thickness of the specimen. If the guard terminal add considerably to the size of the measuring
permittivity of the fluid approximates that of the specimen, the equipment, and it is possible to increase many times the
effect of errors in the determination of specimen thicknesses number of adjustments required to obtain the final result.
are minimized. The use of a nearly matching liquid and a Guard circuits for resistive-ratio-arm capacitance bridges are
micrometer cell permits high accuracy in measuring even very rarely used at frequencies above 1 MHz. Inductive-ratio-arm
thin film. bridges provide a guard terminal without requiring extra
7.3.3.1 All necessity for determining specimen thickness circuits or adjustments. Parallel-T networks and resonant
and electrode spacing is eliminated if successive measurements circuits are not provided with guard circuits. In the deflection
are made in two fluids of known permittivity (12, 13, 18). This method a guard can be provided merely by extra shielding. The
method is not restricted to any frequency range; however, it is use of a two-terminal micrometer-electrode system provides
best to limit use of liquid immersion methods to frequencies for many of the advantages of three-terminal measurements by
which the dissipation factor of the liquid is less than 0.01 nearly eliminating the effect of edge and ground capacitances
(preferably less than 0.0001 for low-loss specimens). but has the potential to increase the number of observations or
7.3.3.2 When using the two-fluid method it is important that balancing adjustments. Its use also eliminates the errors caused
both measurements be made on the same area of the specimen by series inductance and resistance in the connecting leads at
as the thickness will not always be the same at all points. To the higher frequencies. It can be used over the entire frequency
ensure that the same area is tested both times and to facilitate range to several hundred megahertz. When a guard is used, the
the handling of thin films, specimen holders are convenient. possibility exists that the measured dissipation factor will be
The holder can be a U-shaped piece that will slide into grooves less than the true value. This is caused by resistance in the

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 D150 – 11
guard circuit at points between the guard point of the measur- since each has the potential to be from 2 to 40 % of the
ing circuit and the guard electrode. This has the potential to specimen capacitance. With the present knowledge of these
arise from high contact resistance, lead resistance, or from high capacitances, there is the potential for an error of 10 % in
resistance in the guard electrode itself. In extreme cases, the calculating the edge capacitance and an error of 25 % in
dissipation factor will appear to be negative. This condition is evaluating the ground capacitance. Hence the total error
most likely to exist when the dissipation factor without the involved can range from several tenths of 1 % to 10 % or more.
guard is higher than normal due to surface leakage. Any point However, when neither electrode is grounded, the ground
capacitively coupled to the measuring electrodes and resis- capacitance error is minimized (6.1). With micrometer elec-
tively coupled to the guard point can be a source of difficulty. trodes, it is possible to measure dissipation factor of the order
The common guard resistance produces an equivalent negative of 0.03 to within 60.0003 and a dissipation factor of the order
dissipation factor proportional to ChCl Rg, where Ch and Cl are of 0.0002 to within 60.00005 of the true values. The range of
guard-to-electrode capacitances and Rg is the guard resistance dissipation factor is normally 0.0001 to 0.1 but it is possible for
(14). it to extend above 0.1. Between 10 and 20 MHz it is possible
8.4 Fluid Displacement Methods—The fluid displacement to detect a dissipation factor of 0.00002. Permittivity values
method has the potential to be employed using either three- from 2 to 5 are able to be determined to 62 %. The accuracy
terminal or self-shielded, two-terminal cells. With the three- is limited by the accuracy of the measurements required in the
terminal cell, it is possible to determine directly the permittiv- calculation of direct interelectrode vacuum capacitance and by
ity of the fluids used. The self-shielded, two-terminal cell errors in the micrometer-electrode system.
provides many of the advantages of the three-terminal cell by 9. Sampling
nearly eliminating the effects of edge and ground capacitance,
and it has the potential to be used with measuring circuits 9.1 See materials specifications for instructions on sam-
having no provision for a guard. If it is equipped with an pling.
integral micrometer electrode, the effects on the capacitance of 10. Procedure
series inductance in the connective leads at the higher frequen-
10.1 Preparation of Specimens:
cies will potentially be eliminated.
10.1.1 General—Cut or mold the test specimens to a
8.5 Accuracy—The methods outlined in 8.1 contemplate an suitable shape and thickness determined by the material
accuracy in the determination of permittivity of 61 % and of specification being followed or by the accuracy of measure-
dissipation factor of 6(5 % + 0.0005). These accuracies de- ment required, the test method, and the frequency at which the
pend upon at least three factors: the accuracy of the observa- measurements are to be made. Measure the thickness in
tions for capacitance and dissipation factor, the accuracy of the accordance with the standard method required by the material
corrections to these quantities caused by the electrode arrange- being tested. If there is no standard for a particular material,
ment used, and the accuracy of the calculation of the direct then measure thickness in accordance with Test Methods D374.
interelectrode vacuum capacitance. Under favorable conditions The actual points of measurement shall be uniformly distrib-
and at the lower frequencies, capacitance can be measured with uted over the area to be covered by the measuring electrodes.
an accuracy of 6(0.1 % + 0.02 pF) and dissipation factor with Apply suitable measuring electrodes to the specimens (Section
an accuracy of 6(2 % + 0.00005). At the higher frequencies 7) (unless the fluid displacement method will be used), the
these limits have the potential to increase for capacitance to choice as to size and number depending mainly on whether
6(0.5 % + 0.1 pF) and for dissipation factor to three-terminal or two-terminal measurements are to be made
6(2 % + 0.0002). Measurements of dielectric specimens pro- and, if the latter, whether or not a micrometer-electrode system
vided with a guard electrode are subject only to the error in will be used (7.3). The material chosen for the specimen
capacitance and in the calculation of the direct interelectrode electrodes will depend both on convenience of application and
vacuum capacitance. The error caused by too wide a gap on whether or not the specimen must be conditioned at high
between the guarded and the guard electrodes will generally temperature and high relative humidity (Section 7). Obtain the
amount to several tenths percent, and the correction can be dimensions of the electrodes (of the smaller if they are
calculated to a few percent. The error in measuring the unequal) preferably by a traveling microscope, or by measur-
thickness of the specimen can amount to a few tenths percent ing with a steel scale graduated to 0.25 mm and a microscope
for an average thickness of 2 mm, on the assumption that it can of sufficient power to allow the scale to be read to the nearest
be measured to 60.005 mm. The diameter of a circular 0.05 mm. Measure the diameter of a circular electrode, or the
specimen can be measured to an accuracy of 60.1 %, but dimensions of a rectangular electrode, at several points to
enters as the square. Combining these errors, the direct obtain an average.
interelectrode vacuum capacitance can be determined to an 10.1.2 Micrometer Electrodes—It is acceptable for the area
accuracy of 60.5 %. Specimens with contact electrodes, mea- of the specimen to be equal to or less than the area of the
sured with micrometer electrodes, have no corrections other electrodes, but no part of the specimen shall extend beyond the
than that for direct interelectrode capacitance, provided they electrode edges. The edges of the specimens shall be smooth
are sufficiently smaller in diameter than the micrometer elec- and perpendicular to the plane of the sheet and shall also be
trodes. When two-terminal specimens are measured in any sharply defined so that the dimensions in the plane of the sheet
other manner, the calculation of edge capacitance and deter- is able to be determined to the nearest 0.025 mm. It is
mination of ground capacitance will involve considerable error, acceptable for the thickness to have any value from 0.025 mm

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 D150 – 11
or less to about 6 mm or greater, depending upon the maximum charge even after disconnection of the voltage source. Thor-
usable plate spacing of the parallel-plate electrode system. The oughly instruct all operators as to the correct procedures for
specimens shall be as flat and uniform in thickness as possible, performing tests safely. When making high voltage tests,
and free of voids, inclusions of foreign matter, wrinkles, or any particularly in compressed gas or in oil, it is possible for the
other defects. It has been found that it is more convenient and energy released at breakdown to be sufficient to result in fire,
accurate to test very thin specimens by using a composite of explosion, or rupture of the test chamber. Design test equip-
several or a large number of thicknesses. The average thickness ment, test chambers, and test specimens so as to minimize the
of each specimen shall be determined as nearly as possible to possibility of such occurrences and to eliminate the possibility
within 60.0025 mm. In certain cases, notably for thin films of personal injury. If the potential for fire exists, have fire
and the like but usually excluding porous materials, it will be suppression equipment available.
preferable to determine the average thickness by calculation NOTE 2—The method used to connect the specimen to the measuring
from the known or measured density of the material, the area circuit is very important, especially for two-terminal measurements. The
of the specimen face, and the mass of the specimen (or connection method by critical spacing, formerly recommended in Test
specimens, when tested in multiple thicknesses of the sheet), Methods D150 for parallel substitution measurements can cause a
obtained by accurate weighing on an analytical balance. negative error of 0.5 pF. A similar error occurs when two-terminal
specimens are measured in a cell used as a guard. Since no method for
10.1.3 Fluid Displacement—When the immersion medium eliminating this error is presently known, when an error of this magnitude
is a liquid, it is acceptable for the specimen to be larger than the must be avoided, an alternative method must be used, that is, micrometer
electrodes if the permittivity of the standard liquid is within electrodes, fluid immersion cell, or three-terminal specimen with guarded
about 1 % of that of the specimen (see Test Method D1531). leads.
Also, duplicate specimens will normally be required for a cell NOTE 3—Detailed instructions for making the measurements needed to
of the type described in 7.3.3, although it is possible to test a obtain capacitance and dissipation factor and for making any necessary
corrections due to the measuring circuit are given in the instruction books
single specimen at a time in such cells. In any case, the supplied with commercial equipment. The following paragraphs are
thickness of the specimen preferably shall not be less than intended to furnish the additional instruction required.
about 80 % of the electrode spacing, this being particularly
10.2.2 Fixed Electrodes—Adjust the plate spacing accu-
important when the dissipation factor of the material being
rately to a value suitable for the specimen to be tested. For
tested is less than about 0.001.
low-loss materials in particular, the plate spacing and specimen
10.1.4 Cleaning—Since it has been found that in the case of thickness shall be such that the specimen will occupy not less
certain materials when tested without electrodes the results are than about 80 % of the electrode gap. For tests in air, plate
affected erratically by the presence of conducting contaminants spacings less than about 0.1 mm are not recommended. When
on the surfaces of the specimens, clean the test specimens by a the electrode spacing is not adjustable to a suitable value,
suitable solvent or other means (as prescribed in the material specimens of the proper thickness must be prepared. Measure
specification) and allow to dry thoroughly before test (15). This the capacitance and dissipation factor of the cell, and then
is particularly important when tests are to be made in air at low carefully insert and center the specimen between the electrodes
frequencies (60 to 10 000 Hz), but is less important for of the micrometer electrodes or test cell. Repeat the measure-
measurements at radio frequencies. Cleaning of specimens will ments. For maximum accuracy determine DC and DD directly,
also reduce the tendency to contaminate the immersion me- if possible with the measuring equipment used. Record the test
dium in the case of tests performed using a liquid medium. temperature.
Refer to the ASTM standard or other document specifying this 10.2.3 Micrometer Electrodes—Micrometer electrodes are
test for cleaning methods appropriate to the material being commonly used with the electrodes making contact with the
tested. After cleaning, handle the specimens only with tweezers specimen or its attached electrodes. To make a measurement
and store in individual envelopes to preclude further contami- first clamp the specimen between the micrometer electrodes,
nation before testing. and balance or tune the network used for measurement. Then
10.2 Measurement—Place the test specimen with its at- remove the specimen, and reset the electrodes to restore the
tached electrodes in a suitable measuring cell, and measure its total capacitance in the circuit or bridge arm to its original
capacitance and ac loss by a method having the required value by moving the micrometer electrodes closer together.
sensitivity and accuracy. For routine work when the highest 10.2.4 Fluid Displacement Methods—When a single liquid
accuracy is not required, or when neither terminal of the is used, fill the cell and measure the capacitance and dissipation
specimen is grounded, it is not necessary to place the solid factor. Carefully insert the specimen (or specimens if the
specimen in a test cell. two-specimen cell is used) and center it. Repeat the measure-
10.2.1 Warning— Lethal voltages are a potential hazard ments. For maximum accuracy determine DC and DD directly,
during the performance of this test. It is essential that the test if possible with the measuring equipment used. Record the test
apparatus, and all associated equipment electrically connected temperature to the nearest 0.01°C. Remove specimens
to it, be properly designed and installed for safe operation. promptly from the liquid to prevent swelling, and refill the cell
Solidly ground all electrically conductive parts which it is to the proper level before proceeding to test additional speci-
possible for a person to contact during the test. Provide means mens. Equations for calculation of results are given in Table 2.
for use at the completion of any test to ground any parts which Test Method D1531 describes in detail the application of this
were at high voltage during the test or have the potential for method to the measurement of polyethylene. When a guarded
acquiring an induced charge during the test or retaining a cell of ruggedized construction, with provision for precise

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 D150 – 11
temperature control, such as recommended in Method B of Test and dissipation factor. When extra capacitances have been
Method D1531 is available, greater accuracy can be obtained included in the measurements, such as edge capacitance, and
by measuring the specimen in two fluids. This method also ground capacitance, which have the potential to occur in
eliminates the need to know the specimen dimensions. The two-terminal measurements, the observed parallel capacitance
procedure is the same as before except for the use of two fluids will be increased and the observed dissipation factor will be
having different permittivities (12, 13, 18). It is convenient to decreased. Corrections for these effects are given in Appendix
use air as the first fluid since this avoids the necessity for X1 and Table 1.
cleaning the specimen between measurements. The use of a
guarded cell permits the determination of the permittivity of 11. Report
the liquid or liquids used. When either the one- or two-fluid 11.1 Report the following information:
method is used, greatest accuracy is possible when the permit- 11.1.1 Description of the material tested, that is, the name,
tivity of one liquid most nearly matches that of the specimen. grade, color, manufacturer, and other pertinent data,
11.1.2 Shape and dimensions of the test specimen,
NOTE 4—When the two-fluid method is used, the dissipation factor can
be obtained from either set of readings (most accurately from the set with 11.1.3 Type and dimensions of the electrodes and measuring
the higher kf8). cell,
11.1.4 Conditioning of the specimen, and test conditions,
10.3 Calculation of Permittivity, Dissipation Factor, and
11.1.5 Method of measurement and measurement circuit,
Loss Index—The measuring circuits used will give, for the
11.1.6 Applied voltage, effective voltage gradient, and fre-
specimen being measured at a given frequency, a value of
quency, and
capacitance and of ac loss expressed as Q, dissipation factor, or
11.1.7 Values of parallel capacitance, dissipation factor or
series or parallel resistance. When the permittivity is to be
power factor, permittivity, loss index, and estimated accuracy.
calculated from the observed capacitance values, these values
must be converted to parallel capacitance, if not so expressed, 12. Precision and Bias
TABLE 3 Calculation of Capacitance—Micrometer Electrodes
Parallel Capacitance Definitions of Symbols
Cp = C8 − Cr + Cvr C8 = calibration capacitance of the micrometer electrodes at the spacing to which the electrodes are reset,
Cvr = vacuum capacitance for the area between the micrometer electrodes, which was occupied by the specimen, calculated
using Table 1,
Cr = calibration capacitance of the micrometer electrodes at the spacing r, and
r = thickness of specimen and attached electrodes.
The true thickness and area of the specimen must be used in calculating the permittivity. This double calculation of the vacuum capacitance can be avoided with
only small error (0.2 to 0.5 % due to fringing at the electrode edge), when the specimen has the same diameter as the electrodes, by using the following procedure
and equation:
Cp = C8 − Cv + Cvt Cv = calibration capacitance of the micrometer electrodes at the spacing t,
Cvt = vacuum capacitance of the specimen area, and
t = thickness of specimen

by the use of Eq 5. The equations given in Table 3 can be used 12.1 Precision—It is not practicable to make a statement
in calculating the capacitance of the specimen when microm- about the precision of any one test method set forth herein
eter electrodes are used. The equations given in Table 2 for the since precision is influenced by the material being tested and
different electrode systems can be used in calculating permit- the choice of apparatus used for the measurement. Users of
tivity and dissipation factor. When the parallel substitution these test methods for specific materials are encouraged to seek
method is used, the dissipation factor readings must be statements of precision in standards applicable to specific
multiplied by the ratio of the total circuit capacitance to the materials (see Section 8 also).
capacitance of the specimen or cell. Q and series or parallel 12.2 Bias—No statement about the bias of any one or all of
resistance also require calculation from the observed values. these test methods can be made.
Permittivity is:
k x8 5 Cp/C v (11) 13. Keywords
Expressions for the vacuum capacitance (6.4) for flat parallel 13.1 ac loss; capacitance: parallel, series, fringing, stray;
plates and coaxial cylinders are given in Table 1. When the ac conductance; contacting electrodes; dielectric; dielectric con-
loss is expressed as series resistance or parallel resistance or stant; dissipation factor; electrical insulating material; elec-
conductance, calculate the dissipation factor using the relations trode; fluid displacement; frequency; fringing capacitance;
given in Eq 3 and 4 (See 3.1.2.1). Loss index is the product of guarded electrode; Hz; loss angle; loss factor; loss tangent;
dissipation factor and permittivity (See 3.4). non-contacting electrodes; permittivity; phase angle; phase
10.4 Corrections—The leads used to connect the specimen defect angle; power factor; Q; quality factor; reactance: paral-
to the measuring circuit have both inductance and resistance lel, series; relative permittivity; resistance: parallel, series; tan
which, at high frequencies, increase the measured capacitance (delta); thickness

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 D150 – 11
APPENDIXES

(Nonmandatory Information)

X1. CORRECTIONS FOR SERIES INDUCTANCE AND RESISTANCE AND STRAY CAPACITANCES

X1.1 The increase in capacitance due to the inductance of the observed dissipation factor will be decreased. Designating
the leads and of dissipation factor due to the resistance of the these observed quantities by the subscript, m, the corrected
leads is calculated as follows: values are calculated as follows:
DC 5 v2LsCp2 (X1.1) Cp 5 C m 2 ~ Ce 1 C g ! (X1.2)
DD 5 R svCp D 5 CmDm/Cp
5 CmDm/ [Cm 2 ~Ce 1 Cg!#
where:
Cp = true capacitance of the capacitor being measured,
Ls = series inductance of the leads, X1.3 The expression for dissipation factor assumes that the
Rs = series resistance of the leads, and extra capacitances are free from loss. This is essentially true for
v = 2p times the frequency, Hz. ground capacitance except at low frequencies, and also for
edge capacitance when the electrodes extend to the edge of the
NOTE X1.1—L and R can be calculated for the leads used, from specimen, since nearly all of the flux lines are in air. The
measurements of a physically small capacitor, made both at the measuring
equipment terminals and at the far end of the leads. C is the capacitance
permittivity and loss index are calculated as follows:
measured at the terminals, DC is the difference between the two k8 5 Cp/Cv 5 [Cm 2 ~Ce 1 Cg!#/Cv (X1.3)
capacitance readings, and R is calculated from the measured values of C k9 5 CmDm/Cv
and D.

X1.2 While it is desirable to have these leads as short as X1.4 When one or both of the electrodes are smaller than
possible, it is difficult to reduce their inductance and resistance the specimen, the edge capacitance has two components. The
below 0.1 µH and 0.05 V at 1 MHz. The high-frequency capacitance associated with the flux lines that pass through the
resistance increases with the square root of the frequency. surrounding dielectric has a dissipation factor which, for
Hence these corrections become increasingly important above isotropic materials, is the same as that of the body of the
1 MHz. When extra capacitances have been included in the dielectric. There is no loss in the capacitance associated with
measurements, such as edge capacitance, Ce, and ground the flux lines through the air. Since it is not practicable to
capacitance, Cg, which may occur in two-terminal measure- separate the capacitances, the usual practice is to consider the
ments, the observed parallel capacitance will be increased and measured dissipation factor to be the true dissipation factor.

X2. EFFECTIVE AREA OF GUARDED ELECTRODE

X2.1 A guarded electrode has a gap between the measuring the guarded measuring electrode; l/k8, the permittivity of the
electrode and the guard electrode. That gap has definite medium between the high-voltage and low-voltage electrodes;
dimensions which define a gap area. and k8g, the permittivity of the medium in the gap. The
X2.1.1 The effective area of a guarded electrode is greater effective factors are:
than its actual area. In most guarded electrode systems, the X2.1.4.1 Ratio g/t
increase is approximately 50 % of the guard-gap area. X2.1.4.2 The ratio a/g
X2.1.2 To obtain the effective area of an electrode system X2.1.4.3 The ratio k8/k8g
using a guarded electrode, increase each of the following
X2.2 Exact equations for calculating 2d/g for certain ratios
dimensions by the width of the air gap, and use these increased
of k8/kg8 and a/g (16) are shown in Eq X2.1-X2.3:
dimensions in the formula for the area:
(a) the diameter of a circular measuring electrode, X2.3 The fraction of the guard gap to be added to the
(b) each dimension of a rectangular measuring electrode, overall electrode dimension before calculating the effective
(c) the length of a cylindrical measuring electrode. electrode area is B = 1 − 2d/g. Taking into account (b) and (c)
X2.1.3 For those cases in which the ratio of the gap width, in X2.1.2 (16), B may be calculated from the empirical
g, to the electrode separation, t, (approximately the thickness of equation in Eq X2.4.
the specimen) is appreciable, the increase in the dimension of A is a function of the ratio a/g. When a/g = 0 (thin electrodes),
the guarded electrode is less than the gap width by a quantity A = 1. When a/g is one or greater than one (thick electrodes),
identified as the guard-gap correction. The guard-gap correc- A approaches the limit 0.8106 (exactly 8/p2). Intermediate
tion symbol is: 2d. values of A can be read from Fig. X2.1.
X2.1.4 The guard-gap correction is affected by g, the
guard-gap width; t, the electrode separation distance which X2.4 The ratio of ln B from Eq X2.2 to ln B Eq X2.1 is very
approximates the thickness of the specimen; a, the thickness of nearly 1.23 for g/t # 10. Therefore, the necessity for evaluating

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 D150 – 11

FIG. X2.1 A versus a/g

Eq X2.2 can be eliminated by writing Eq X2.4 as shown in Eq gap this maximum error would give a 0.0025-mm error in
X2.5. electrode diameter or electrode dimension. For a 25-mm
electrode this would be an error of 0.02 % in area.
X2.5 Values of B calculated from Eq X2.5 will differ from
the exact values by a maximum of 0.01. For a 0.25-mm guard

2d 2
g
5 tan21
p
g
2t
2 SD
2t
pg
ln 1 1 F S DG
g 2
2t
(X2.1)
where:
k8 5 kg8, a/g → `
2d 2t ~=p 2 1!2
5 (X2.2)
g pg 2=p
pg ln p p 2 1
5 1
2t 2 2=p
where:
k8 5 kg8,a/g → 0
2d
g
5
4t
pg
ln coshS D
pg
4t
(X2.3)

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 D150 – 11
where:
k8 .. kg8, a/g any value

k8
B 5 antiln
5 lnB~k8..kg8!
3 k8 1 ~lnB~k8 .k 8!
g
A lnB~k8 5 kg8, a/g → 0! 2 4
2 1 kg8 (X2.4)

k8
B 5 antiln
5 lnB~k8..kg8!
3 k8 1 ~lnB~k8 ..k 8!
g
1.23 3 A lnB ~k8 5 kg8, a/g →`! 2 4
2 1 kg8 (X2.5)

X3. FACTORS AFFECTING PERMITTIVITY AND LOSS CHARACTERISTICS

X3.1 Frequency will produce a dissipation factor that varies inversely with
X3.1.1 Insulating materials are used over the entire electro- frequency, and that becomes infinite at zero frequency (dotted
magnetic spectrum, from direct current to radar frequencies of line in Fig. X3.1).
at least 3 3 1010 Hz. There are only a very few materials, such X3.2 Temperature
as polystyrene, polyethylene, and fused silica, whose permit-
tivity and loss index are even approximately constant over this X3.2.1 The major electrical effect of temperature on an
frequency range. It is necessary either to measure permittivity insulating material is to increase the relaxation frequencies of
and loss index at the frequency at which the material will be its polarizations. They increase exponentially with temperature
used or to measure them at several frequencies suitably placed, at rates such that a tenfold increase in relaxation frequency may
if the material is to be used over a frequency range. be produced by temperature increments ranging from 6 to
X3.1.2 The changes in permittivity and loss index with 50°C. The temperature coefficient of permittivity at the lower
frequency are produced by the dielectric polarizations which frequencies would always be positive except for the fact that
exist in the material. The two most important are dipole the temperature coefficients of permittivity resulting from
polarization due to polar molecules and interfacial polarization many atomic and electronic polarizations are negative. The
caused by inhomogeneities in the material. Permittivity and temperature coefficient will then be negative at high frequen-
loss index vary with frequency in the manner shown in Fig. cies, become zero at some intermediate frequency and positive
X3.1 (17). Starting at the highest frequency where the permit- as the relaxation frequency of the dipole or interfacial polar-
tivity is determined by an atomic or electronic polarization, ization is approached.
each succeeding polarization, dipole or interfacial, adds its X3.2.2 The temperature coefficient of loss index and dissi-
contribution to permittivity with the result that the permittivity pation factor may be either positive or negative, depending on
has its maximum value at zero frequency. Each polarization the relation of the measuring to the relaxation frequency. It will
furnishes a maximum of both loss index and dissipation factor. be positive for frequencies higher than the relaxation frequency
The frequency at which loss index is a maximum is called the and negative for lower frequencies. Since the relaxation
relaxation frequency for that polarization. It is also the fre- frequency of interfacial polarization is usually below 1 Hz, the
quency at which the permittivity is increasing at the greatest corresponding temperature coefficient of loss index and dissi-
rate and at which half its change for that polarization has pation factor will be positive at all usual measuring frequen-
occurred. A knowledge of the effects of these polarizations will cies. Since the dc conductance of a dielectric usually increases
frequently help to determine the frequencies at which measure- exponentially with decrease of the reciprocal of absolute
ments should be made. temperature, the values of loss index and dissipation factor
X3.1.3 Any dc conductance in the dielectric caused by free arising therefrom will increase in a similar manner and will
ions or electrons, while having no direct effect on permittivity, produce a larger positive temperature coefficient.
X3.3 Voltage
X3.3.1 All dielectric polarizations except interfacial are
nearly independent of the existing potential gradient until such
a value is reached that ionization occurs in voids in the material
or on its surface, or that breakdown occurs. In interfacial
polarization the number of free ions may increase with voltage
and change both the magnitude of the polarization and its
relaxation frequency. The dc conductance is similarly affected.
X3.4 Humidity
X3.4.1 The major electrical effect of humidity on an insu-
lating material is to increase greatly the magnitude of its
interfacial polarization, thus increasing both its permittivity
FIG. X3.1 Typical Polarizations (17) and loss index and also its dc conductance. These effects of

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 D150 – 11
humidity are caused by absorption of water into the volume of film formed on the surface will be thicker and more conduct-
the material and by the formation of an ionized water film on ing, and water will penetrate more easily into the volume of the
its surface. The latter forms in a matter of minutes, while the material.
former may require days and sometimes months to attain
X3.7 Deterioration
equilibrium, particularly for thick and relatively impervious
materials (15). X3.7.1 Under operating conditions of voltage and tempera-
ture, an insulating material may deteriorate in electric strength
X3.5 Water Immersion because of the absorption of moisture, physical changes of its
surface, chemical changes in its composition, and the effects of
X3.5.1 The effect of water immersion on an insulating ionization both on its surface and on the surfaces of internal
material approximates that of exposure to 100 % relative voids. In general, both its permittivity and its dissipation factor
humidity. Water is absorbed into the volume of the material, will be increased, and these increases will be greater the lower
usually at a greater rate than occurs under a relative humidity the measuring frequency. With a proper understanding of the
of 100 %. However, the total amount of water absorbed when effects outlined in X3.1-X3.6, the observed changes in any
equilibrium is finally established is essentially the same under electrical property, particularly dissipation factor, can be made
the two conditions. If there are water-soluble substances in the a measure of deterioration and hence of decrease in dielectric
material, they will leach out much faster under water immer- strength.
sion than under 100 % relative humidity without condensation.
X3.8 Conditioning
If the water used for immersion is not pure, its impurities may
be carried into the material. When the material is removed from X3.8.1 The electrical characteristics of many insulating
the water for measurement, the water film formed on its surface materials are so dependent on temperature, humidity, and water
will be thicker and more conducting than that produced by a immersion, as indicated in the paragraphs above, that it is
100 % relative humidity without condensation, and will require usually necessary to specify the past history of a specimen and
some time to attain equilibrium. its test conditions regarding these factors. Unless measure-
ments are to be made at room temperature (20 to 30°C) and
unspecified relative humidity, the specimen should be condi-
X3.6 Weathering
tioned in accordance with Practice D618. The procedure
X3.6.1 Weathering, being a natural phenomenon, includes chosen should be that which most nearly matches operating
the effects of varying temperature and humidity, of falling rain, conditions. When data are required covering a wide range of
severe winds, impurities in the atmosphere, and the ultraviolet temperature and relative humidity, it will be necessary to use
light and heat of the sun. Under such conditions the surface of intermediate values and possibly to condition to equilibrium.
an insulating material may be permanently changed, physically X3.8.2 Methods of maintaining specified relative humidities
by roughening and cracking, and chemically by the loss of the are described in Practices D5032 and E104.
more soluble components and by the reactions of the salts, X3.8.3 Specifications for conditioning units are given in
acids, and other impurities deposited on the surface. Any water Specifications E197.

X4. CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS OF TYPICAL MEASURING CIRCUITS

X4.1 The simplified circuits and equations presented in should be consulted for the exact diagram, equations, and
Figs. X4.1-X4.9 are for general information only. The instruc- method of measurement to be used.
tion book accompanying a particular piece of equipment

Method of Balance
Vary C1 and R2 with S1 in position M to obtain minimum de-
Equations flection in Detector D. Repeat with S1 in position G by varying
Cx = (R1/R2)Cs CF and RF. Repeat the above until the detector shows no
Dx = vR1C1 change in balance by switching S1 to M or G.

NOTE 1—This type of bridge is especially useful for high-voltage measurements at power frequencies as almost all of the applied voltage appears across
the standard capacitor, Cs, and the specimen, Cx. The balancing circuits and detector are very nearly at ground potential.
FIG. X4.1 High-Voltage Schering Bridge

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 D150 – 11

Equations Method of Balance

Cx = (R1/R2)Cs Set ratio of R1 to R2 (range) and vary Cs and C1 to ob-
Dx = vC1R1 tain balance.
FIG. X4.2 Low-Voltage Schering Bridge, Direct Method

Equations Method of Balance

Cx = DCs Vary C1 and Cs, without and with the specimen connected,
DCs = Cs8 − Cs to obtain balance. Symbols used for the initial balance, with
Dx = (Cs8/DCs)DC1vR1 the ungrounded lead to the unknown disconnected, are
DC1 = C1 − C18 primed.
FIG. X4.3 Low-Voltage Schering Bridge, Parallel Substitution Method

Equations
Cx = (L1/L2)Cs Method of Balance
Gx = (L1/L2)Gs Set ratio of L1 to L2 (range) and adjust Cs and Gs to obtain
Dx = (Gs/vCs) balance.
FIG. X4.4 Inductive-Ratio-Arm (Transformer) Circuit

Equations
Cx = Cs8 − Cs = DCs Method of Balance
Gx = (R5v2C1C2/Cs)(C4 − C48) Balance without and rebalance with unknown con-
= DGx nected, using Cs and C4. Symbols used for the
Dx = Gx/vCx = DGx/vDCs initial balance are primed.
FIG. X4.5 Parallel-T Network, Parallel Substitution Method

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 D150 – 11

Method of Balance
Equations Adjust to resonance, without and with the specimen, not-
Cx = DCs ing I, maximum V and Cs. With a standard I, V on the
DCs = Cs1 − Cs2 VTVM can be calibrated in terms of Q, since Q = V/IR.
Qx = (DCs/Cs1)(Q1Q2/DQ) Subscripts 1 and 2 denote first and second balance re-
DQ = Q1 − Q2 spectively.
FIG. X4.6 Resonant-Rise (Q-Meter) Method

Method of Balance
Equations Adjust C1 so maximum resonance V8 is just
Cx = DCv under full scale. Note exact V8 and capaci-
DCv = Cv8 − Cv tance Cv8. Adjust Cv so that Va( = 0.707 V8)
(Cv1 − Cv2) is first on one side of the resonance V8 and
Dx = [(C8v1 − C8v2)/2Cx]·(V8 − V)/V then on the other. Record Cv1 and Cv2. Re-
or peat last process with Cx connected, noting
Dx = [(Cv1 − Cv2) − (C8v1 − C8v2)]/2Cx Cv1 and Cv2x, Cv and V.
FIG. X4.7 Susceptance-Variation Method

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 D150 – 11

Equations
Cx = (I/vV) 3 =1 2 ~cos u!2 Method
Cos ux = W/VI Using proper scale multiplier, read indications with unknown
Dx = cos u/ =1 2 ~cos u!2 connected.

NOTE—This method is for use at power frequencies. Instrument corrections should be applied and an unusually sensitive wattmeter is required due to
small losses. Errors from stray fields should be eliminated by shielding. Accuracy depends on combined instrument errors and is best at full scale.
FIG. X4.8 Voltmeter-Wattmeter-Ammeter Method

Equations Method of Balance

Cx = C1 Adjust C1 and C2 to obtain null.
1
Rx 5
vC2
C2
Dx 5
C1
Assumption: The amplitudes of V1, V2 and V3 are
equal.

NOTE—This circuit requires a source providing at least two outputs, one in quadrature phase relationship with the others. A third phase, 180 deg from
the reference, if not available directly from the source, can be achieved by means of an inverting, unity-gain operation amplifier. This circuit is useful
from frequencies as low as 0.001 Hz (with proper detector) to as high as 10 kHz (with appropriate corrections for phase errors). Accuracy to within 0.1 %
of Cx is easily attained using a fully shielded (three-terminal) system. Shield is not shown.
FIG. X4.9 Ultra-Low-Frequency Bridge Using Multiphase Source.

REFERENCES

(1) Hector, L. G. and Woernley, D. L., “The Dielectric Constants of Eight Electrical Insulation (NRC), October, 1959, and reviewed in Insula-
Gases”, Physical Review , PHRVA, Vol 69, February 1964, pp. tion, INULA, November, 1959, p. 26.
101–105. (10) Maryott, A. A., and Smith, E. R., “Table of Dielectric Constants of
(2) Ford, L. H., “The Effect of Humidity on the Calibration of Precision Pure Liquids,” NBS Circular No. 514, 1951.
Air Capacitors”, Proceedings, PIEEA, Institution of Electrical Engi- (11) Hartshorn, L., Parry, J. V. L., and Essen, L., “The Measurement of the
neers (London), Vol 96, Part III, January 1949, pp. 13–16. Dielectric Constant of Standard Liquids,” Proceedings, PPSBA,
(3) Essen, L. and Freome, K. O., “Dielectric Constant and Refractive Physical Soc. (London), Vol 68B, July, 1955, pp. 422–446.
Index of Air and Its Principal Constituents at 24,000 Mc/s”, Nature, (12) Harris, W. P., and Scott, A. H., “Precise Measurement of the
NTRWA, Vol 167, March 31, p. 512. Dielectric Constant by the Two-fluid Technique,” 1962 Annual
(4) Scott, A. H., and Curtis, H. L., “Edge Correction in the Determination Report, Conference on Electrical Insulation, NAS-NAC, p. 51.
of Dielectric Constant,” Journal of Research, JNBAA, Nat. Bureau (13) Endicott, H. S., and McGowan, E. J., “Measurement of Permittivity
Standards, Vol 22, June, 1939, pp. 747–775. and Dissipation Factor Without Attached Electrodes,” 1960 Annual
(5) Amey, W. G., and Hamburger, F., Jr., “A Method for Evaluating the Report, Conference on Electrical Insulation, NAS-NAC.
Surface and Volume Resistance Characteristics of Solid Dielectric (14) Harris, W. P., “Apparent Negative Impedances and their Effect on
Materials,” Proceedings, ASTEA, Am. Soc. Testing Mats., Vol 49, Three-terminal Dielectric Loss Measurements,” 1965 Annual Report,
1949, pp. 1079–1091. Conference on Electrical Insulation, NAS-NRC Publication 1356.
(6) Field, R. F., “Errors Occurring in the Measurement of Dielectric (15) Field, R. F., “The Formation of Ionized Water Films on Dielectrics
Constant,” Proceedings, ASTEA, Am. Soc. Testing Mats., Vol 54, Under Conditions of High Humidity,” Journal Applied Physics,
1954, pp. 456–478. JAPIA, Vol 17, May, 1946, pp. 318–325.
(7) Moon, C., and Sparks, C. M., “Standards for Low Values of Direct (16) Lauritzen, J. I., “The Effective Area of a Guarded Electrode,” 1963
Capacitance,” Journal of Research, JNBAA, Nat. Bureau Standards, Annual Report, Conference on Electrical Insulation, NAS-NRC
Vol 41, November, 1948, pp. 497–507. Publication 1141.
(8) Hartshorn, L., and Ward, W. H., “The Measurement of the Permittivity (17) Murphy, E. J., and Morgan, S. O., “The Dielectric Properties of
and Power Factor of Dielectrics at Frequencies from 104 to 108 Cycles Insulating Materials,” Bell System Technical Journal , BSTJA, Vol
per Second,” Proceedings, PIEEA, Institution of Electrical Engineers 16, October, 1937, pp. 493–512.
(London), Vol 79, 1936, pp. 597–609; or Proceedings of the Wireless (18) Endicott, H. S., “Guard Gap Corrections for Guarded-Electrical
Section, Ibid., Vol 12, March, 1937, pp. 6–18. Measurements and Exact Equations for the Two-Fluid Method of
(9) Coutlee, K. G., “Liquid Displacement Test Cell for Dielectric Constant Measuring Permittivity and Loss,” Journal of Testing and Evalua-
and Dissipation Factor up to 100 Mc,” presented at Conference on tion, JTEVA, Vol 4, No. 3, May 1976, pp. 188–195.

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 D150 – 11

SUMMARY OF CHANGES

Committee D09 has identified the location of selected changes to this specification since the last issue,
D6096 – 98R04, that may impact the use of this specification. (Approved August 1, 2011.)

(1) Revised 3. (2) Revised text throughout.

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