Chapter 1 Sets and Basic Operations on Sets 1.1 INTRODUCTION The concept of a set aj ;ppears in all branches of mathematics. This concept formalizes the idé i jea of grouping objets together and viewing them a5 a snae en This chapter introduces this notion of « members. We also investigate three ba i eee 8 sic operations on sets, that is, the operations union, nechltbough logic is formally treated in Chapter 10, we indicate here the close relationship between set theory and logic by showing how Venn diagrams, pictures of sets, can be used to determine the validity of certain arguments. The relation between set theory and logic will be further explored when we discuss Boolean algebra in Chapter 11. 1.2. SETS AND ELEMENTS ‘A set may be viewed as any well-defined collection of objects; the objects are called the elements or members of the set. "Although we shall study sets as abstract entities, we now list ten examples of sets (1) The numbers 1, 3, 7, and 10. (2) The solutions of the equation x° ~ 3x~2=0. 3). The vowels of the English alphabet: a, , i, 0, u- (4) The people living on the earth. (5) The students Tom, Dick, and Harry (6) The students absent from school. (1) The countries England, France, and Denmark. (8) The capital cities of Europe. (9) The even integers: 2, 4, 6, --- (10) The rivers in the United States. Observe that the sets in the odd-numbered examples are defined, tha is, specified of presented, by actually isting its members; and the sets in the even-numbered examples ae defined by stating properties aetilee which decide whether or not a particular object is a member of the set Notation A set will usually be denoted by a capital letter, such as, AB XYoeeey whereas lower-case letters, a, b,¢,X,),2)-- will usually be used to denote elements of sets. . “There ave essentially two ways to specify a particular set, as indicated above, One wa, if possible, is to list its elements. For example, A= {a,6,i, 0, u} means that A is the set whose elements are the letters a i, 0, u. Note that the elements are separated by Commas and enclosed in braces { }. This is sometimes called the tabular form of a set. 1[CHAP I § ON SETS 18 AND BASIC OPERATIONS ON SE that is, ts in the set, characterize the element oe js to state those properties which chart he element theca rice themenbersf the sl but not by nonmembers. Conse, fr properties held by the members ofthe : Be {vs vis an even integer, x > 0} which reads Bis the set of x such that x is an even integer and x > 0 is used to denote a sometimes i ly sare the positive even integers, A letter, usually 2, is Us I * and the comma as “and”, Thi It denotes the set B whose elem typical member of the set; the colon is read as “such aa called the ser-builder form ot property method of specifying. set. a ‘Two sets 4 and B ate equal written A = 2 if they both have the sume elements, tha si y element which belongs to A also belongs to B, and vice versa. The negation of A= B is The statement “p is an element of A" or, equivalently, the statement “p belongs to A” pea We also write abed to state that both a and 6 belong to A. ‘The statement that p is not an element of A, that of p€ A, is written , the negation pea Remark: "It is common practice in mathematics to put a vertical line "|" of slanted line “/" through symbol to indicate the opposite or negative meaning of the symbol. EXAMPLE 1.1 (@) The set A above can also be written as isa letter in the English alphabet, x is a vowel) Observe that b ¢ 4, € € A, and pg A. (6) We cannot list all the elements of the above set B, although we frequently specify the set by writing B= (24,6...) where we assume everyone knows what we mean, Observe that 8 € B, but 9 ¢ 2. A= (0) Let = (x:x7~ 3x42 0). In other words, £ consists of those numbers which are solutions of the equation &° = 3x +2=0, sometimes caled the solution set ofthe given equation. Since the solutions are led 2 oe could also write E = {1,2}. (d) Let B= (x:x?-3x42=0), F= (2,1), and G= {1,2,2,1,6/3}. Then E = F = G since each consists Precisely of the elements 1 and 2. Observe that a set does not depend on the way in which its elements are isplayed. A set remains the same even if ts elements are repeated or rearranged. Some sets of numbers will occur very often in the text, and so we use special symbols for them Unless otherwise specified, we will let: N= the set of nonnegative integers: 0, 1, P = the set of positive integers: 1,2,3, Z= the set of integers: ...,—2,—1,0,1,2, Q= the set of rational numbers R = the set of real numbers C= the set of complex numbersSETS AND BASIC OPERATIONS ON SETS 4 Even if we can li le , list the members of the nena? of 8 Set it may not be practical to do s0, For example, we would not Set of people born in the world durin, f- luring the year 1976 although theoretically it is fou cececamile Such alist. Thats, we describe ase by Inte eo only the st cont Otherwise we describe a set by the property which characterizes its elements. sa 1.3 UNIVERSAL SET, EMPTY SET All sets under investigation in an \y application of set thec re met ntainec large fixed set called the universal set a ‘For example, in plone seco nua’ in some d the 1 of universe. For example, in plane geometry, the universal set Consists of all the points in the plane, and in human population studies the universal set consist ofall he People in the world, We will denote the universal set by U unless otherwise specified. Given a universal set U anc id a property P, there may be no element in U which has the property P. For example, the set S= (x: xis a positive integer, ? = 3} has no elements since no positive integer has the required property. This set with no elements is called the empty set or null set, and is denoted by @ (based on the Greek letter phi). There is only one empty set: If $ and T are both empty, then S = since they have exactly the same elements, namely, none. 14 SUBSETS ‘Suppose every element in a set A is also an element of a set B; then A is called a subset of B. We also say that A is contained in B or B contains A. This relationship is written ACB ot BDA If 4 is not a subset of B, that is, if at least one element of A does not belong to B, we write AZ B or BLA. EXAMPLE 1.2 (0) Consider the sets A=(135,89), B= (1235.7, C= (1,5) ‘Then CC A and CC Bsince 1 and 5, the elements of C, ae also elements of A and B. But B A since some of its elements, eg., 2 and 7, do not belong to A. Furthermore, since the elements in the sets A,B,C must also ‘belong to the universal set U, i is clear that U must at least contain the set (1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9) (#) Let P,N,Z,Q,R be defined as in Section 1.2. Then: PONCZCQCR (€)_ The set E-= (2,4,6) is a subset of the set F = (6,2,4}, since each number 2, 4, and 6 belonging to E also belongs to F. In fact, = F. Similarly, it can be shown that every set is a subset of itself.a thar SETS AND ASIC OPERATIONS ON SETS : ated: ‘The following properties of sets should be not sold ong we (0) Bvety set d isa subset of the universal set U since, by definition, all the elements of n Also the empty set © is a subset of A, selon wat (i) Every set is u subset of itself since, trivially, the elements of cs then len i) int of 1 bel (ii) Wevery element of a belongs to a set H, and every element y : every element of 4 belongs to C, In other words, if 4 C Band AC C, then AC C IAG Band BE 4, then A and have the same elements, ie, d= H, Conversely, if A = M then AG Band BC A since every set is w subset of itself, ‘We state these results formally. ‘Theorem Lot: (i) For any set A, we have CAC U. (ii) For any set A, we have A CA. (i) WAC Band BCC, then ACC. (iv) d= Bitand only if C Band BC A, Proper Subset F4S B, then itis still possible that d = B, When AC B but A By we say that 4 isa proper subset of B. We will write AC # when A is a proper subset of B Tor example, suppose B= (123), Cm (1,32) Then 4 and Bare both subsets of C; but is a proper subset of C, wherens Mis nota proper subset of C: Disfoint Sets Two sets A and B are disjoint if they have no elements in common, For example, suppose A= {12}, 8= (2,46), Cm (4,5,6,7} Note that 4 and B are not disjoint since they both contain the element 2, Similarly, # and C are not disjoint since they both contain the element 4, among others. On the ether hand, 4 and C are disjoint since they have no element in common. We note that if two sels-4 and Dre disjoint sets then neither is a subset of the other (unless one is the empty set), 0) 1.5. VENN DIAGRAMS in the rectangle. If A C B, then the disk representing A will be entirely within the disk representing 2, as in Fig, I-l(a). If A and B are disjoint, i.e., have no elements in ‘common, then the disk representing A will be separated from the disk representing B, as in Fig. 1-1(b), On the other hand, if 4 and B are two arbitrary sets, itis possible that some elements are in A but Rot B. some elements are in B but not 4, some are in both 4 and 8, and some are in neither A nor B; hence, in general, we represent A and B as in Fig, |-I(0). v u @ASB (0) and Bare disjoint o Fig. 1-1CHAP. I) SETS AND BASIC OPERATIONS ON SETS u 1.6 SET OPERATIONS ‘The reader has learned to add, subtract, and multiply in the ordinary arithmetic of numbers: that is to each pair of numbers a and b, we assign a number a +b called the sum of a and b, a number a = b called the difference of a and b, and a number ab called the product of a and b, These assignmen's 216 called the operations of addition, subtraction, and multiplication of numbers. This section defines © number of set operations, including the basic operations of union, intersection, and diference of sets, where new sets will be assigned to pairs of sets A and B. We will see that set operations have many properties similar to the above operations on numbers, Union and Intersection “The union of two sets A and B, denoted by AU B, i the set of all elements which belong (o 4 or B: that is, AUB={x:x€ A orx€ B) Here “or” is used in the sense of and/or. Figure 1-2(a) is a Venn diagram in which 4 U B is shaded “The intersection of two sets A and B, denoted by 4B, is the set of all elements which belong to both A and B; that is, ANB={x:x€ A and x€ B) Figure 1-2(6) is a Venn diagram in which 41 B is shaded. Recall that sets A and B are said to be disjoint if they have no elements in common. Accordingly using the above notation, A and B are disjoint if A B = @, the empty set. (aya U Bissaded (AN Bi shaded Fig. 12 EXAMPLE 1.3 (o) Let A= (1,234). B= O4 6,7), C= (2,3,8,9}. Then AUB=(L2345,6.7), 408 = (3,4) AUC = (1,2:3,4,8,9}, ANC = (2,3) BUC=(2.345.6,2.89}, BNC= GB) (8) LELU denote the set of students ata university, and let Mf and F denote, respectively the set of male and femle students atthe university, Then MUF=U since each student in U is ether in M or in F. On the other hand, MOF=@ since no student belongs to both Mf and F.SETS AND BASIC OPERATIONS ON SETS [CHAP | ‘The following properties of the union and intersection of sets should be noted: (Every element xin A B belongs to both A and B; hence x belongs to A and x belon AMBisa subset of A and of B, that is, AMBCA and ANBCB (Gi) An element x belongs to the union AU B if x belongs to A or x belongs to B; hence every element in A belongs to AUB, and also every element in B belongs to AUB. That is, g8 to. B. Thus ACAUB and BOAUB We state the above results formally. ‘Theorem 1,2: For any sets A and B, we have ANBCACAUB and ANBCBCAUB The operation of set inclusion is also closely related to the operations of union and intersection, as shown by the following theorem, proved in Problem 1.13. ‘Theorem 1.3: The following are equivalent: ACB, ANB Other conditions equivalent to A C Bare given in Problem 1.51. AUB=B Complement Recall that all sets under consideration at a particular time are subsets of a fixed universal set U. ‘The absolute complement, or. simply, complement ofa set A, denoted by 4°, isthe set of elements which belong to U but which do not belong to A; that is, Aa (x:x€U,xg A} Some texts denote the complement of A by A’ or A. Figure 1-3(a) is a Venn diagram in which A° is shaded. > a a()a UY J oF wana vere error ets exAMPLE 14 fo) LeU (odes) the Engh ape be theives st and et Malabede), Beleleh V=laeios) Then aya) and B= (a,b. bin ¥.2} U, F* consints of the nonvowels, called consonants Recall that Q denotes the set of rational numbers antl, Since V consists of the vowel (8) Suppose the set R of real numbers is the universal set Hence Q' will denote the se of irational numbersCHAP. 1) SETS AND BASIC OPERATIONS ON SETS ’ (e) LeU be the set of students at a universi LeU be te “university, and suppose M and F denote, respectively, the male and female MnP Difference and Symmetric Difference Let A and B be sets. The relative comy i . The 1 nplement of B with respect to A or, simply, the difference of A and B, denoted by A\B, is the set of elements which belong to A but which do not itong te B; that is, wh ANB = {x:x€ Arg B} The set A\B is read" minus B”. Many texts denote A\B by A — ~ 2B. Fi i a es \B by A~ Bor A~ B. Figure 1-3(6) isa Venn The symmetric difference of the sets A and B, denoted by A @ B, consists of those elements which belong to 4 or B but not to both A and B. That is, ’ A@B=(AUB)\(ANB) or A@B=(A\B)U(B\A) Figure 1-3(c) is a Venn diagram in which A @ B is shaded. The fact that (AUB)\(ANB) = (A\B)U(B\A) is proved in Problem 1.18. EXAMPLE 1.5 Consider the sets A=(1234}, B= (45.67, C= (6,7.8,9) Then A\B= {1,2}, B\C= (3,45), A= (56.7), CB = (8,9) Also, A@B={1,2,5,6,7) and BOC=(3,4,5,8,9} int. This means A\CHA, C\d=C, A@C=AUC Note that 4 and C are di 1.7 ALGEBRA OF SETS, DUALITY Sets under the above operations of union, intersection, and complement satisfy various laws (iden- are listed in Table I-1. In fact, we formally sta tities) wl Theorem 1.4: Sets satisfy the laws in Table 1-1. Each of the laws in Table 1-1 follows from an equivalent logical law. Consider, for example, the proof of DeMorgan’s law: (AUB) = {x:x¢ (A or B)} = (xix g A and xg B) = AOE lent (DeMorgan’s) logical la = (VQ) S7PAW9 ind". Sometimes Venn diagrams are used to Here we use the equi Here ~ means “not”, V means “or”, and A means illustrate the laws in Table 1-1 (cf. Problem 1.16).[cHar 4 SITS AND BASIC OPERATIONS ON ’ sens (la) AUAwA Z _ 7 ae An(Boc) (2a) (4umuc=au(aue) ca (0) Auae nA (4a) AU(HOE) = (AUAA(AUC) (4b) Tote) annular 7 entity (50) AUG =A (36) ANU A (6a) AUU=0 (0) Ang=p Tnvotuton aw () fa a ‘Complement ta (Ba) AA =U (i) Ana (9a) Um 0) gnu p———— DeMorga’s laws (100) (AUB = Ane (10) (Anay = aur Duality The identities in Table 1-1 are arranged in pairs, as, for example, (2a) and (2b). We now consider the prineiple behind this arrangement. Let £ be an equation of set algebra. ‘The dual E* of Eis the equation obtained by replacing each occurrence of U,N,U,@ in E by ,U,5,U, respectively. For example, the dual of (UNA)U(~BNA)=A is (BUA)N(BUA) =A Observe that the pairs of laws in Table I-1 are duals of each other. It isa fact of set algebra, called the principle of duality, that, if any equation £ is an identity, then its dual £* is also an identity. 1.8 FINITE SETS, COUNTING PRINCIPLES. A set is said to be finite if t contains exactly m distinct elements where m denotes some nonnegative integer. Otherwise a set is said to be infinite. For example, the empty set and the set of letters of the English alphabet are finite sets, whereas the set of even positive integers {2,4,6,...) is infinite. [Infinite sets will be studied in detail in Chapter 6.) The notation n(4) or |4| will denote the number of elements in a finite set A First we begin with a special case. Lemma 1.5: Suppose A and B are finite disjoint sets. Then AU B is finite and (AUB) = n(A) +n(0)CHAP. 1) SETS AND BASIC OPERATIONS ON SETS In counting the elements of AU B, first count The only other elements of no element of B is in A, so the Remark: A set C is called the disjoint union of A and B if C=AUB and Ana=g Lemma 1.5 tells us that, in such a case, n(C) = n() + n(B). Special Cases of Disjoint Unions ‘There are two special cases of disjoint unions which occur frequently. (1) Given any set 4, then the universal 1 Set U is the disjoint union of 4 and its complement 4°. Thus, by Lemma 1.5, n(U) = m(A) +n(4) ‘Accordingly, bringing n() to the other side, we obtain the following useful result, ‘Theorem 16: Let A be any set in a finite universal set U. Then (A) For example, if there are 20 male students in a class of 35 students, then there are 35 - 20 = 15 female students, (2) Given any sets A and B, we show (Problem 1.37) that 4 is the disjoint union of A\B and 41 B. This is pictured in Fig. 1-4, Thus Lemma 1.5 gives us the following useful result. ‘Theorem 1.7: Suppose A and B are finite sets, Then n(A\B) = n(4) — (4B) For example, suppose an archery class A contains 35 students, and 15 of them are also in a bowling class B. Then n(A\B) = n(A) ~ n(4B) = 35-15 = 20 That is, there are 20 students in the class A who are not in class B. 7 y Mia siaded Fig. 14 Inctuslon-Exelusion Principle There is also a formula for n(4U B) even when they are not disjoint, called the inclusion-exclusion principle. Namely:(char ua SETS AND BASIC OPERATIONS ON SETS « 1 ‘Theorem 1.8: Suppose A and B are finite sets. Then ANB and AUB are finite, and ‘That is, we find the number of elements in 4 or B (or both) by first adding, 1nd) and (5) (nelsin) ‘and then subtracting n(4 1 B) (exclusion) since the elements in AB were counted twice. ‘We can apply this result to get a similar result for three sts. Corollary 1.9: Suppose 4, B,C are finite sets. Then AU BUC is finite and MAU BUC) = nA) + n(B) + n(C) ~ n(4.0 B) = n(A NC) = n(BAC) +m(ANBAC) Mathematical induction (Section 1.11) may be used to further generalize this result to any finite ‘number of finite sets, EXAMPLE 1.8 Consider the following data among 110 students in college dormitory 30 students are on a lst A (taking Accounting), 35 students are on a lst B (taking Biology), 20 students are on both lists. Find the number of students: (a) on lst or B, (8) on exactly one of the two lists, (c) on neither ls (0) We seek n(4UB). By Theorem 1.8, (AUB) =m(4) +9(8) ~n(ANB) =30-435—20-=48 "nother words, we combine the two is nd then cot out the 2 student names wich appear tice (©) Mw 4 contains 30 names and 20of them aeons; bene 3-20 = 10 names are only ont, Tet m(A\B) = H(A) nA) = 30-20 = 10 eee contain 35 names and 20 of them are at A ene 38 ~ 20 ~ 15 names ate only on at Tats (BVA) = n(B) ~m(AUB) = 35-2015 Thus there ate 10-415 = 25 students on exactly on of he two lt, (<)_ Ths students on neither the list nor the B list form the set 4°71 BF. By DeMorgan's law, 4° = (aay. Hence (ASE) = n((AUBY') = m(U)—n(4U B) = 110-45 = 65 EXAMPLE 1.7 Consider the following data for 120 mathematic students: 65 study French, 20 study French and German, 45 study German, 25 study French and Russian 42 study Russian, 15 study Germa 8 study all chee languages LAP, G. and denote the sts of students studying French, German, and Rusia, respectively, (@) Find the number of students studying a least one ofthe thre languages, i. ind a(F UGU R), (0) Fillin the correct number of students in each ofthe eight regions ofthe Venn diagram of Fig 15) C) Find the number & of students studying: (1) exactly one language, (2) exactly two languages (a) By Coroliary 1.9, MEUGUR) = n{F) + (6) + m(R) ~ (FOG) —m(E NR) ~ (G0 R) -nENGOR) = 65445442 20-25-1548 = 100” SETS AND BASIC OPERATIONS ON SETS uy aN ve © ® Fig. 1-5 (8) Using 8 study all three languages and 100 stud at a ‘and 100 study at least one language, the remaining seven regions of the required Venn diagram Fig. 1-5(6) are obtained as follows: ining even eens of 15~8 =7 study German and Russian but not French, 25-8 =17 study French and Russian but not German, 20 ~8 = 12 study French and German but not Russian, 42~17-8-7= 10 study only Russian, 45 — 12-8 —7= 18 study only German, 65 — 12-8 ~ 17 = 28 study only French, 20 — 100 = 20 do not study any of the languages. (©) Use the Venn diagram of Fig. 1-5(6) to obtain: () k=28+18+10= 56, 2) k=12+1747=36 1.9 CLASSES OF SETS, POWER SETS Given a set S, we may wish to talk about some of its subsets. Thus we would be considering a “set of sets”. Whenever such a situation arises, to avoid confusion, we will speak of a class of sets or a collection of sets. If' we wish to consider some of the sets in a given class of sets, then we will use the term subclass or subcollection. EXAMPLE 1.8 Suppose S = {1,2,3,4). Let of be the class of subsets of S which contain exactly three elements of S. Then of (1,23). 1,24}, (1,34), (2.3.49) “The elements of of are the sets {1,2,3}. (112.4), (1,344). and (2.3.4) Let & be the class of subsets of S which contain 2 and two other elements of S. Then = ((1,2.3)(1,24),2.3.4)] ‘The elements of @ are (1,23). (1,24), and {2,3,4). Thus @ is a subelass of 5f. (To avoid confusion, we will usually enclose the sets of a class in brackets instead of braces.) Power Sets Fora given set S, we may speak about the clas of all subsets of S. This class is called the power set of S, and it will be denoted by 9(S). If Sis finite then so is #(S). In fact, the number of elements in (9(S) is 2 raised to the power of n(S); that is, n(9(s)) = 2°) This is the reason 9(S) is called the power set of S; itis also sometimes denoted by Pap)(ch SETS AND BASIC OPERATIONS ON SETS on 2 EXAMPLE 1.9 Suppose S = {1,23}. Then AS) = [OANA (23) 2.3} S1 Note thatthe empty set Qf belongs to 9S) since @ is a subset of S. Similarly $ belongs to Y(S). Asexpected from the above remark, 9(S) has 2? = 8 elements. 1.10 ARGUMENTS AND VENN DIAGRAMS ; Many verbal statements are essentially statements about sets and they can therefore be described by ‘Venn diagrams. Hence Venn diagrams can sometimes be used to determine whether or not an arg! is valid. This is illustrated in the following example. EXAMPLE 1.10 Show that the following argument (adapted from a book on logic by Lewis Carroll, the author of Alice in Wonderland) is v ‘Si: My saucepans are the only things T have that are made of tin Sy: [find all your presents very useful. ‘Sy: None of my saucepans is of the slightest use, ‘St Your presents to me are not made of tin, (The statements 5), S;, and S, above the horizontal line denote the assumptions, and the statement S below the line denotes the conclusion. The argument is valid ifthe conclusion S follows logically from the assumptions S}, S;. and 5) By, things are di in objects are contained in the set of saucepans and by $} the set of saucepans and the set of useful int: hence draw the Venn diagram of Fig. 1-6. aS Fig. 16 By Sj the set of “your presents” is a subset of the set of useful things; hence draw Fig. Fig. 1-7 The conclusion is clearly valid by the Venn diagram in Fig. 1-7 because the set of “your presents" is disjoint from the set of tin objects.CHAP. 1) SETS AND BASIC OPERATIONS ON SETS 1.11 MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION Consider the set P= {1 . A(n) is defined on P it ms ' hee 7 Positive integers (or counting numbers). We say that an assertion many proofs, follows, false for each n € P. An essential property of P, which is used in Principle of cine eres tatecton I: Let A(n) be an assertion defined on P, that is, A(n) is true or 2 1. Suppose 4(n) has the following two properties: ()A(1) is true. 2) A(n+ 1) is true whenever A(n) is true. Then A(n) is true for every n> 1. " eas not as principle, In fact, this principle is usually given as one of the axioms when P EXAMPLE 1.11 Let A(n) be the assertion that the sum of the first 1 odd integers is n?; that is, An): V4 34S ¢004(Q2n- 1 ae? [The nth odd integer is 2n — 1 and the next odd integer is 2n + 1.] Observe that A(n) is true for n= 1, that is, AQ): 1=P Assuming A(m) is true, we add 2n+ 1 to both sides of A(n), obtaining: 14345424 Qr- D+ Orta M + Qnt = (nth However, this is A(n-+ 1). That is, A(n-+ 1) is true whenever 4(n) is true. By the principle of mathematical induction, A(n) is true for all m 21 ‘There is another form of the principle of mathematical induction which is sometimes more con- venient to use. Although it appears different, it is really equivalent to the above principle of induction. Principle of Mathematical Induction II: Let A(n) be an assertion defined on the set P of positive integers which satisfies the following two conditions: (1) (1) is true. (2) A(n) is true whenever A(k) is true for 1 Sk 1 ‘The above two principles may also be stated in terms of subsets of P rather than in terms of assertions defined on P. (See Problem 1.40.) Although the languages are different, they are logically equivalent. Remark: Sometimes one wants to prove that an assertion A is true for a set of integers of the form {aatl,a+2,...} where ais any integer, possibly 0. This can be done by simply replacing 1 by the integer a in either of the above principles of mathematical induction. 1.12. AXIOMATIC DEVELOPMENT OF SET THEORY ‘Any axiomatic development of a branch of mathematics begins with the following: (1) undefined terms, (2) undefined relations, (3) axioms relating the undefined terms and undefined relations.(char ‘SETS AND BASIC OPERATIONS ON SETS “ axioms and defiitOns sur. It begins with he lops theorems based upon the en roe eta example, the axiomatic development of Pane following a “points” and “lines” are undel Se iat” Pei ao, equal, "ne contains «Pi ‘Two of the many axioms of Euclidean geometry follow: is an undefined relation, ‘Axiom 1; Two distinct points are on one and only one line. int i on. ‘Axiom 2; Two distinct lines cannot contain more than one point in comm ‘The axiomatic development of set theory begins with the following: (1) “element” and “set” are undefined terms; @) “element belongs to a set” is the undefined relation. ‘Two of the axioms (called principles) of set theory follow: Principle of Extension: Two sets A and B are equal if and only if they have the same elements, that is, if every element in A belongs to B and every element in B belongs to A Principle of Abstraction: Given any set U and any property P, there is a set A such that the elements of A are exactly those elements in U which have the property P: that is, A= {x:x€U, P(x) is true} There are other axioms which are not listed. As our treatment of set theory is mainly intuitive, especially Part I, we will refrain from any further discussion of the axiomatic development of set theory. Solved Problems SETS AND SUBSETS 1.1. Which of these sets are equal: {r,1,3}, {5,t.n5}. {5,407}, {5,705,092 ‘They are all equal. Order and repetition do not change a set. 1.2. List the elements of the following sets where P = {1,2,3,. (@) A={x:xeP,3 I.SETS AND BASIC OPERATIONS ON SETS (my 26 1.38. Prove the following assertion (for n 2 0): An): L424 B42 4 1-4, Assuming A(n) is true, we add 2°"! araertle gt 142" a rry-t aay rue. By the principle of induction, A(n) is true for cepted to both sides of A(n), obtaining A(0) is true since 1 1424242 +e which is A(m + 1). Thus A(n-+ 1) is true whenever A(n) ist all n 20. 1.36, Prove: (a) n? > 2n+1 forn>3, (b) nl>2" forn> 4. (a) Since 3? = 9 and 2(3) +1 = 7, the formula is true form = 3. Using n? > 2n + 1 in the second step and 2n> 1 im the fourth step, we have (n+ UP a rP 42m 1D (Ant 1) + Int Lm In 24 2B MII = Ant 1) HT ‘Thus the formula is true for n+ 1. By induction, the formula is true for all n > 3. (6) Since 4! = 1-2+3+4 = 24 and 24 = 16, the formula is true for n = 4. Assuming n! > 2” we have (n+ I) = nll + 1) 2 2m 1) 222) = 2"! Thus the formula is true for n+ 1. By induction, the formula is true for all n > 4, MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS 1.37, Show that A is the disjoint union of 4\B and 41 B; that is, show that: (a) A =(A\B)U(ANB), (6) (A\B)N(ANB)=_. (a) By Problem 1.12, A\B = ANB". Using the distributive law and the complement law, we get (A\B)U (ANB) = (ANB) U(ANB) = AN (UB) = ANU =A (0) Also, (A\B) 1 (ANB) = (ANB) (ANB) = AN(B NB) = ANG =~. 1,38, Prove Corollary 1.9. Suppose A, B, C are finite sets. Then AU BUC is finite and n(A U BUC) = n(A) +1(B) +n(C) — n(A 0B) ~ nA NC) ~ n(BNC) +n(ANBNC) Clearly AU BUC is finite when 4, B, C are finite. Using (AUB)NC=(ANC)U(BNC) and (AN B)N(BNC) = ANBNC and using Theorem 1.8 repeatedly, we have n(AUBUC) = (AUB) +n(C) -nl(ANC)U(BNC)} = [n(A) + m(B) = (A.B) +0(C) - [nA NC) + (BNC) ~ MAN BNC) = n(A) +n(B) +0(C) - nA B) ~ n(A NC) = (BAC) +n(AN BNC) as required.ue “12 880 BASIC OPERATIONS on SETS 19. Aset A of real numbers XE M for every xin A. (Such see bounded (Such @ number ap ‘from above if there exists a number M such that () Supom ded Sune S called an upper bound of Af.) and My. What can be suid about th (b) Suppose C and D are sets of real the union and intersection of C am: bounded from above with respective upper bounds Mf, he union and intersection of A and B? numbers which are unbounded. What ean be sid about a) Be (0) own ie union and intersection are bounded from above. Infact, th age of Af and My iv always an ae AUB, and the smaller of My and Mf is always an upper bound for ADB. ion of C and D must be unbounded, but the intersection could be either bounded or unbounded. 140. Restate the Principle of Mathematical Induction I and lin terms of sets rather than assertions (a) Principle of Mathematical Induction I: Let S be a subset of P = (1,2,...} with two properties () 1€S. Q) Ine Sthennstes. Then S =P. (6) Principle of Mathematical Induction II: Let S be a subset of P = {1,2,...} with two properties Q) TES. Q) I{1,2,...."-1} CS, then ne S. Then S = P. Supplementary Problems SETS AND SUBSETS 1.41, Which of the following sets are equal? A= {xix -4x4+3=0) Ca (x:x€P,x<3)} B= {x:x7-3x+2=0} D={x:x€ P,x is odd,x <5) 4 113} 1.42, List the elements of the following sets if the universal set is U = {@,b,¢,...,y,2}. Furthermore, identify which of the sets, if any, are equal. x: xis a vowel) C = (x: x precedes f in the alphabet} B= (x: xis letter in the word “little”} D = {x:xisa letter in the word “title"} 143. Let A= (12.89, B= (24,68), C={13,5,7,9}, D= (345), E= (3,5) Which of the above sets can equal a set X under each of the following conditions? (a) X and Bare () XCA bux ZC. (6) XCD bu XZ B. (a) xCCbuxg A.SIC OPERATIONS ON SE! 8 SETS AND BA si lowing sets: - ahewe 144, Cont en pe era ee . Insert the correct symbol, C oF Z, between each pair of Sets (a) DA (AB (e) BC (2) C.D (DE (a) D,A DCH) BD SET OPERATIONS 145, Let U = (1,2,3,...,8,9) be the universal set and let: = {135,79} A=(125,6), 8= (2,57 Find: (a) AM Band ANC, (6) AUBand AUC, (¢) A and C- For the sets in Problem 1.45, find: (a) A\B and A\C, (b) A@Band AGC. 1.46, 1.47, For the sets in Problem 1.45, find: (a) (AUC)\B. (6) (AUB), (6) (BOC)\A. 1.48. Let A = {a,b,c,d,e}, B= {a,6,d,f,g}, C= (b,c,¢,8,h}, D = (d,eS.8,h}. Find: (a) AUB (anc (e) C\D (g) AGB )CnD (AND) D\A_— (AWE 149, For the sets in Problem 1.48, find: (a) AN(BUD) — (e)(AUD\C—(e) (C\AN\D_——(g) (AN D)\(BUC) (6) B\(CUD) (@BnCND — Y)(ABD)\B_ (A) (A\C) NBD) 1.50. Let A and B be any sets. Prove AUB is the disjoint union of A\B, ANB, and B\A 151. Prove the following: (a) AC Bif and only if ans =o (8) AC Bit and only if A°U (Compare with Theorem 1.3.) (6) AG Bit and only if BC A° (d) AC Bifand only if A\B=g 1.52. Prove the absorption laws: (a) AU(ANB) =A, (6) AN(AUA) =A. 1.53. The formula A\B = A1 BF defines the difference operation in terms of the operations of intersection and complement. Find a formula that defines the union 4 UB in terms of the operations of intersection and complement. 154. (a) Prove: AN(B\C) = (AN B)\(ANC). (b) Give an example to show that AU (B\C) # (AUB)\(AUC) 155. Prove the following properties of the symmetric difference: (a) A®(BOC)=(A@B)OC (Associative law) (6) 4@B=B@A (Commutative law) () IA@B=A@C, then B=C (Cancellation law) (d) AN(BOC)=(ANB)S(ANC) (Distributive law)ve 77 OTUASIC OPERATIONS ON sets » N DIAGRAMS, vent ALGEBRA OF SETS, DUALITY 156 The Venn disgram in Fig. 1-17 shows sts 4,2, C. si hade the followis WAGLO. eH aniency the following sets (0 (Aven (auc), a Y — 1.57. Write the dual of each equation: (2) 4=(BnA)u(Ans), (6) (ANB)U(AN Ulan BULAN) =U 1.58. Use the laws in Table 1-1 to prove: ()(ANB)ULANB) =A, (6) AUB= (AN BULA NA)ULANB) FINITE SETS AND THE COUNTING PRINCIPLE 1.59. Determine which of the following sets are finite (4) lines parallel to the x axis, (4) animals living on the earth, (6) leters in the English alphabet, (6) circles through the origin (0,0), (c) months in the year, () positive multiple of 5 1.60. Given n(U) = 20, n(A) = 12, n(B)=9, n(AB)=4, Find: (a) (AUB), (0) mA“), (€) M(B), (4) M(A\B). —(€) *(D)- ‘Among the 90 students in a dormitory, 35 own an automobile, 40 own a bicycle, and 10 have both an 161. automobile and a bicycle. Find the number of the students who (a) do not have an automobile. (€) have neither an automobile nor a bicycle; (6) have an automobile or a bicycle; (d) have an automobile or a bicycle, but not both. 1.62. Among 120 Freshmen at a college, 40 take mathematics, 50 take English, and 15 take both mathematics and English. Find the number of the Freshmen who: (a) do not take mathematics; (d) take English, but not mathematics: (6) take mathematics or English; (@) take exactly one of the two subjects; (c) take mathematics, but not English; _(f) take neither mathematics nor English.1.03, SETS AND BASIC OPERATIONS ON SETS (CHAP wuto dealer was conducted to sce which of three AA survey on a sample of 25 new cars being sold at local auto mich of re populst options, airconditioning (4), radio (R), and power windows (W'), were already istalicd The survey found 15 had air-conditioning —_$ had air-conditioning and power windows 12 had radio 9 had air-conditioning and radio Vi had power windows 4 had radio and power windows 3 had all three options Find the number of cars that had: (a) only power windows, (b) only air-conditioning, (c) only radio, (d) radio and power windows but not air-conditioning, (¢) ait-conditioning and radio, but not power windows, (/) only one of the options, (f) at least one option, (A) none of the options CLASSES OF SETS, POWER SETS. 164 Leta 16s. 1.67. the elements of A and determine whether each of the following state (0.6). (e). {de }) true of false ments (jaca (eed (thet) CA (ey) BEA COalcA (MleEA GV) {lab CA (OCA Let 8 = (©, {1}, (2.3}.(3.4)]. List the elements of B and determine whether each of the following state ments is true of false (@leB — (){Ihew (O(2INCR GH OCA MICE 2308 WoEA (BVA Let d = {1,2,3,4,5}. (a) Find the power set 9(A) of A. (b) Find the subcollection # of (A) where each element of # consists of 1 and (wo other elements of A. Find the power set %(A) of the set A in Problem 1.64. Suppose A is a finite set and n() = m. Prove that 9(4) has 2” elements ARGUMENTS AND VENN DIAGRAMS 1.69, 1.70. Draw a Venn diagram for the following assumptions: Sy: No practical car is expensive Sy: Cars with sunroofs are expensive, Sy: All wagons are practical Use the Venn diagram to determine whether or not each of the following is a valid conclusion (a) No practical car has a sunroof. (c) No wagon has a sunroof. (4) All practical cars are wagons. (d) Cars with sunroofs are not practical Venn diagram for the following assumptions: Sy: [planted all my expensive trees last year Sy. All my fruit trees are in my orchard. Sy: No tree in my orchard was planted last year Draw Use the Venn diagram to determine whether or not each of the following is a valid conclusion: (c) No fruit tree is expensive. (a) The fruit trees were planted last year. (d) Only fruit trees are in the orchard (b) No expensive tree is in the orchard. Lect Vtectu “Leet Teen Leet Leet cc =all SUIS ANI Maste op MERA TIONS ON SE 15 pet eC H Ven AGT AITO the olin 8ssunptions si Sr Uronder to he a teacher, Sv No eotte All poets tte poor HE MUSE graduate from catlepe BE pradduate is poor (oe the Vern ainpriiy tes de termine to! Teaee ‘tether © not each ofthe fllowin a valid eonclowom Mot poor (1) College graduates do not hecome poets (H Morte me mot teachers. (a) very poor nes a pet 7 Venw a Venn diggrany for the following assumptions Si: All mathematicians are interesting people ‘Sy Only uninteresting people become insurance salespersons yy very genius is « mathematician Use the Venn dling (No tw determine whether of not each of the following 18 # valid conclusion beenus is an insurance salesperson. (HAusutance salespersons ave tot mathematicians, (e) Every interesting person is a geni MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION VAN Prowe PEA Oe n= ane) WA Powe Py Ta (n= 2) = n(n = 1) Aas Prove by ys DOMED 76 Prove Pa yg MENGE , f= al "a for n> 0, Prove: (a) da = 177. Prove Given a? = Land a? = ala for n> 0. Pr Answers to Supplementary Problems: La, We Ce BaP, de D= Gall Wad A= {ae ou B= d= (hi te) a,b,c de} 448, (a) Cand B (b) Dand Bs (0) A B,D; (a) none Me MG MS (CE ME (IG WS Gi NE Coe (1,2,3,5,6,7.9}5 {ay ANB = {2,5}. ANC = (Sh (b) AUB = {1,2,5,6,7}, AUC (I (e) A= (ATAROD C= (2.46.8) Lab (a) A\M = (1.6}. AVC (2615 (6) AB (16,7) ADC 2,3,6,7,9)32 1a. Las, Las, 153. 34, 1.56. 1s? 159, 1.60, a. 162, 1.63. SETS AND BASIC OPERATIONS ON SETS lenar i (2) 11,3,6,7.9}. (0) 84,89}. (6) 8,9) (@) fa.brede Sah ()feshk Ce) (bal: (A) (deeds (e) (eke vel eee GBl Mehl: C0) aah: (A (chs (0) teks WO arth (a) (a6 (Lad: CO fad: (a) le (Bi Vets (Di CH Lad) AUB= (408) (6) A= {a}: B= {b); C= fe}, AU(B\C) = fa}, (AUB)\(AUC) = {6} L\ @) TF | Fig. 118, (0) 4 = ( UA)N(AUB) (6) (AUB) O(AU BNA UB) NA UB) =o (®), (e), and (d) (a) 1%; () 8 (VM; (a) 8 (0 (a) $5; (0) 75: (€) 1S, (ad) 55 (a) 80; (6) 75; (€) 25; (a) 35; (e) 60; )4S Use the data to first fil in the Venn diagram of A (air-conditioning), R (radio), W (power windows) in Fig. 1-19. Then: (a) $; (6) 4 (€) 2: (4) 4 (€)6; YM: (g) 23: (4) 2, (\ By CE, Fig. 119Chap. yy toa, 16s, 166, 167, 1.69, 1.70, SETS AND BASIC OPERATIONS ON SETS 3 ‘hice elements: (a,b), {e}, and (de). (a) F OVP: (OF (WT (OF: OT: (FT Fou elements: £3, (1). (2.3).and (3,4). (@) F (8) F: (OT. FT: On wt wT (a) PA) has 2° = 32 elements as follows (where 135 = (1, 3,5}): '21.2.3,4,5,12, 13,1415 23,24 25,3435 45,23, 124,125, 19,135, 145,234,235, 265, 345,125,123, 1245, 1345, 2345, 4), (0) has 6 elements: (123, 124,125, 134,135, 145} 4 /has 3 elements, so (4) has 2 = 8 elements as follows (where fab, c] = [(ab). {¢}]): 1, (ab, lel [ef labvel, fad, defh le def} A Note that (A) is a collection of collections of sets. Let & be an arbitrary element of (4). For each a ¢ A, there are two possibilities, a € x or ag X. Sine there are m elements in A, there are 2-2... 2 (m factors) = 2" different sets X. "That is, 2(A) has 7 See Fig. 1-20. (a) Yes; (6) no; (c) yes; (d) yes See Fig. 1-21, (a) No; (6) yes; (¢) yes; (a) no ‘expensive cars elements, &} &} 1m. 12. Fig. 1-20 Fig. 1-21 See Fig. 1-22. (a) Yes; (b) yes: (c) yess (d) no See Fig. 1-23, (a) Yes; (6) yes; (c) n0 Fig v2 Fig. 1-23 ig. 1-2