THE NATURE OF LANGUAGE

AND LEARNING
EL 113 PRINCIPLES AND THEORIES OF LANGUAGE ACQUISITION AND LEARNING

PROF. ELIZABETH P. BALANQUIT

• CARSON, A NATIVE CALIFORNIAN, TOOK SPANISH AS A FOREIGN
LANGUAGE FOR TWO YEARS IN HIGH SCHOOL AND THEN HAD TWO
MORE YEARS IN COLLEGE. AS A TWENTY-YEAR-OLD, HE SPENT ONE
SUMMER MONTH IN COSTA RICA HELPING TO BUILD AFFORDABLE
HOUSING FOR THE LESS FORTUNATE IN THE CITY OF SAN JOSÉ. ON
ARRIVAL, HIS FOUR YEARS OF CLASSROOM SPANISH WERE SELF-
DESCRIBED AS “SOMEWHAT USEFUL IN GIVING ME A HEAD START, BUT
FOR FACE-TO-FACE CONVERSATION, PRETTY USELESS.” AFTER ONE
MONTH IN COSTA RICA, MAKING AN EFFORT TO SPEAK SPANISH AS
MUCH AND AS OFTEN AS HE COULD WITH COSTA RICAN FRIENDS, AND
AS LITTLE ENGLISH AS POSSIBLE, HE FELT LIKE HE CAME BACK TO THE
UNITED STATES WITH ENOUGH SPANISH TO “GET ALONG QUITE WELL” IN
A CONVERSATION.
• SONIA, FROM SAO PAULO, BRAZIL, TOOK GERMAN CLASSES ALL THE WAY
THROUGH HIGH SCHOOL, AT THE PRODDING OF HER GERMAN-BORN PARENTS.
AFTER TWO YEARS OF COLLEGE GERMAN, REACHING AN ADVANCED-
INTERMEDIATE LEVEL, DROPPED THE COURSE THE NEXT YEAR. SHE DESCRIBED
FEELING LITTLE SENSE OF ABILITY BEYOND A LOT OF “KNOWLEDGE ABOUT
GERMAN GRAMMAR,” AND A LACK OF MOTIVATION TO CONTINUE STUDYING
GERMAN “JUST TO PLEASE MY MOTHER AND FATHER.” TEN YEARS LATER, WHEN
ASKED HOW HER GERMAN WAS, SHE REPORTED “OKAY” READING ABILITY (BUT NO
PRACTICAL REASON TO READ IN GERMAN), “FAIR” LISTENING ABILITY (WITH
GRANDPARENTS), “POOR” SPEAKING ABILITY (A FEW PHRASES WITH FAMILY), AND
“ALMOST NON-EXISTENT” WRITING ABILITY.
WHAT DO THESE TWO LEARNERS
TELL YOU ABOUT LEARNING A
SECOND LANGUAGE?
•THE TWO LEARNERS MAY HAVE
BENEFITED FROM THEIR CLASSROOM
INSTRUCTION BUT DID THOSE
CLASSROOMS PROVIDE OPTIMAL
COMMUNICATIVE OPPORTUNITIES TO
USE THEIR SECOND LANGUAGE (L2)?
 QUESTIONS ABOUT
SECOND LANGUAGE
ACQUISITION (SLA)
 LEARNER CHARACTERISTICS
1. WHO ARE THE LEARNERS THAT YOU ARE TEACHING?
2. WHAT IS THEIR ETHNIC, LINGUISTIC, AND RELIGIOUS HERITAGE?
3. WHAT ARE THEIR NATIVE LANGUAGES, LEVELS OF EDUCATION, AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC
CHARACTERISTICS?
4. WHAT LIFE EXPERIENCES HAVE THEY HAD THAT MIGHT AFFECT THEIR LEARNING?
5. WHAT ARE THEIR INTELLECTUAL CAPACITIES, ABILITIES, STRENGTHS, AND WEAKNESSES?
6. HOW WOULD YOU DESCRIBE THE PERSONALITY OF YOUR STUDENTS?
 LINGUISTIC FACTORS
1. WHAT IS LANGUAGE?
2. WHAT IS COMMUNICATION?
3. WHAT DOES IT MEAN WHEN WE SAY SOMEONE KNOWS HOW TO USE A
LANGUAGE? WHAT ARE THE RELEVANT DIFFERENCES (AND SIMILARITIES)
BETWEEN A LEARNER’S FIRST LANGUAGE (L1) AND L2?
4. WHAT PROPERTIES OF THE L2 MIGHT BE DIFFICULT FOR A LEARNER TO
MASTER?
LEARNING PROCESSES
1. HOW DOES LEARNING TAKE PLACE? ARE THERE SPECIFIC STEPS TO
SUCCESSFUL LEARNING?
2. WHAT MENTAL OR INTELLECTUAL PROCESSES ARE INVOLVED IN SLA?
3. WHAT KINDS OF STRATEGIES ARE AVAILABLE TO A LEARNER, AND WHICH ONES
ARE OPTIMAL?
4. WHAT IS THE OPTIMAL INTERRELATIONSHIP OF MENTAL, EMOTIONAL, AND
PHYSICAL PROCESSES FOR A SUCCESSFUL SLA?
CLASSROOM INSTRUCTION
1. WHAT ARE THE EFFECTS OF VARYING METHODOLOGICAL APPROACHES,
TEXTBOOKS, MATERIALS, TEACHING STYLES, AND INSTITUTIONAL
FACTORS?
2. IS THERE AN OPTIMAL LENGTH OF TIME REQUIRED FOR SUCCESSFUL
MASTERY? HOW CAN A STUDENT BEST PUT CLASSROOM INSTRUCTION
INTO ACTION IN THE “REAL” WORLD?
 CONTEXT
1. ARE THE LEARNERS ATTEMPTING TO ACQUIRE THE SECOND LANGUAGE WITHIN THE CULTURAL
AND LINGUISTIC MILIEU OF THE SECOND LANGUAGE, THAT IS, IN A “SECOND” LANGUAGE SITUATION
IN THE TECHNICAL SENSE OF THE TERM?
2. OR ARE THEY FOCUSING ON A “FOREIGN” LANGUAGE CONTEXT IN WHICH THE L2 IS HEARD AND
SPOKEN ONLY IN AN ARTIFICIAL ENVIRONMENT, SUCH AS IN A LANGUAGE CLASSROOM, OR AN
INSTRUCTIONAL VIDEO?
3. HOW MIGHT THE SOCIOPOLITICAL CONDITIONS OF A PARTICULAR COUNTRY OR ITS LANGUAGE
POLICY AFFECT THE OUTCOME OF A LEARNER’S MASTERY OF A LANGUAGE?
4. HOW DO INTERCULTURAL CONTRASTS AND SIMILARITIES AFFECT THE LEARNING PROCESS?
PURPOSE
1. WHY ARE LEARNERS ATTEMPTING TO ACQUIRE A SECOND
LANGUAGE?
2. ARE THEY MOTIVATED BY THE ACHIEVEMENT OF A SUCCESSFUL
CAREER, BY PASSING A FOREIGN LANGUAGE REQUIREMENT, OR BY
WISHING TO IDENTIFY CLOSELY WITH THE CULTURE AND PEOPLE OF
THE TARGET LANGUAGE?
 LANGUAGE
ACQUISITION
AND
LANGUAGE
LEARNING
• LANGUAGE ACQUISITION REFERS TO
THE PROCESS BY WHICH INDIVIDUALS
DEVELOP THE ABILITY TO UNDERSTAND
AND PRODUCE LANGUAGE, WITHOUT
CONSCIOUS EFFORT OR FORMAL
INSTRUCTION. IT IS A NATURAL AND
UNCONSCIOUS PROCESS THAT
OCCURS IN EARLY CHILDHOOD AND IS
DRIVEN BY EXPOSURE TO LANGUAGE
INPUT IN THE ENVIRONMENT.
• LANGUAGE LEARNING REFERS TO
THE CONSCIOUS AND INTENTIONAL
PROCESS OF ACQUIRING LANGUAGE
THROUGH FORMAL INSTRUCTION OR
STUDY. IT IS A MORE DELIBERATE AND
STRUCTURED PROCESS, OFTEN
INVOLVING TEXTBOOKS, LANGUAGE
CLASSES, AND LANGUAGE LEARNING
STRATEGIES.
• LANGUAGE ACQUISITION VS.
LANGUAGE LEARNING
• AGE OF ACQUISITION
• INPUT QUALITY
• COGNITIVE PROCESSES
• OUTCOME
LANGUAGE ACQUISITION VS
LANGUAGE LEARNING
Age of Acquisition: • WHILE LANGUAGE LEARNING CAN
Language acquisition
typically occurs in early
OCCUR AT ANY AGE.
childhood
• WHILE LANGUAGE LEARNING IS
OFTEN BASED ON MORE STRUCTURED
Input Quality: AND CONTROLLED LANGUAGE
Language acquisition
relies on immersion in INPUT, SUCH AS TEXTBOOKS OR
a rich and varied
linguistic environment LANGUAGE LESSONS.
LANGUAGE ACQUISITION VS
LANGUAGE LEARNING
Cognitive Processes:
• WHILE LANGUAGE LEARNING IS
Language acquisition relies MORE DEPENDENT ON CONSCIOUS
on implicit and unconscious
learning processes, AND EXPLICIT LEARNING
STRATEGIES.
Outcome: Language
acquisition typically
• WHILE LANGUAGE LEARNING MAY
results in a more fluent RESULT IN MORE LIMITED
and native-like
command of the
language
PROFICIENCY AND A NOTICEABLE
ACCENT.
• REFERENCE:

• KRASHEN, S. D. (1982). PRINCIPLES AND

PRACTICE IN SECOND LANGUAGE
ACQUISITION. PERGAMON PRESS.
• LIGHTBOWN, P. M., & SPADA, N. (2013).
HOW LANGUAGES ARE LEARNED (4TH ED.).
OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS.
THEORY AND
PRINCIPLE
•THEORIES AND PRINCIPLES IN
LANGUAGE ACQUISITION AND
LEARNING ARE DIFFERENT IN THEIR
SCOPE AND PURPOSE.
•A THEORY IS A COMPREHENSIVE EXPLANATION
OF A CERTAIN PHENOMENON. IN THE CASE OF
LANGUAGE ACQUISITION AND LEARNING, A
THEORY AIMS TO EXPLAIN HOW CHILDREN LEARN
THEIR FIRST LANGUAGE, HOW ADULTS LEARN A
SECOND LANGUAGE, AND HOW DIFFERENT
FACTORS SUCH AS INPUT, MOTIVATION, AND
COGNITION INFLUENCE LANGUAGE
ACQUISITION.
•EXAMPLES OF WELL-KNOWN THEORIES IN
LANGUAGE ACQUISITION ARE NOAM
CHOMSKY'S INNATENESS THEORY, PIAGET'S
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY, AND THE
INPUT PROCESSING THEORY.
•PRINCIPLES, ON THE OTHER HAND, ARE MORE
SPECIFIC STATEMENTS ABOUT THE LANGUAGE
ACQUISITION PROCESS. PRINCIPLES ENCAPSULATE
GENERAL TRUTHS OR GUIDELINES ABOUT LANGUAGE
LEARNING THAT CAN BE APPLIED IN PRACTICE.
PRINCIPLES ARE DERIVED FROM THEORIES, BUT THEY
ARE MORE PRACTICAL IN NATURE.
•FOR EXAMPLE, THE PRINCIPLE OF THE INPUT
HYPOTHESIS BY STEPHEN KRASHEN STATES THAT
LANGUAGE ACQUISITION IS DRIVEN BY
COMPREHENSIBLE INPUT, MEANING THAT LANGUAGE
LEARNING OCCURS WHEN THE LEARNER IS EXPOSED
TO LANGUAGE INPUT THAT IS JUST BEYOND THEIR
CURRENT LEVEL OF COMPREHENSION.
•ANOTHER PRINCIPLE IS THE AFFECTIVE FILTER
HYPOTHESIS, WHICH STATES THAT AFFECTIVE
FACTORS SUCH AS MOTIVATION, SELF-ESTEEM, AND
ANXIETY CAN INFLUENCE LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
BY EITHER FACILITATING OR HINDERING THE
LEARNING PROCESS.
THE NATURE OF
LANGUAGE AND
LEARNING
 LANGUAGE
Authorities Definition Example Reference
Structural language is a The English Hymes, D. (1971).
system of rules for language follows On
combining sounds, the rules of communicative
words, and subject-verb- competence.
grammar to form object (SVO) Philadelphia: the
meaningful order in forming University of
sentences. sentences. Pennsylvania
Press.
Functional This definition A speaker uses Halliday, M. A.
views language language to K. (1975).
as a tool used give instructions Learning how to
by people to to someone on mean:
communicate how to Explorations in
with each other complete a the
and to perform task. development of
various language.
communicative London: Arnold.
functions, such
as informing,
persuading, or
negotiating.
Cognitive language is a Children's Chomsky, N.
mental ability to learn (1957). Syntactic
representatio a language is structures. The
n in the brain, due to their Hague: Mouton.
which innate
enables cognitive
humans to capacity to
process, store, process and
and retrieve store linguistic
linguistic information.
information.
SOCIOLINGUISTIC THIS DEFINITION A SPEAKER'S GUMPERZ, J. J.
VIEWS LANGUAGE CHOICE OF (1982).
AS A SOCIAL LANGUAGE DISCOURSE
PHENOMENON, CAN REFLECT STRATEGIES.
SHAPED BY SOCIAL THEIR SOCIAL CAMBRIDGE:
AND CULTURAL IDENTITIES, CAMBRIDGE
FACTORS, SUCH SUCH AS THEIR UNIVERSITY
AS POWER SOCIAL CLASS, PRESS.
DYNAMICS AND ETHNICITY, OR
IDENTITIES. GENDER.
 Authorities Definition Example Reference
Behavioristi learning is a a dog learns (Reference
c change in to associate : Skinner, B.
behavior or a the sound of F. (1953).
response as a a bell with Science

DEFINITION result of
experience
food
through
and
human

OF
or exposure classical behavior.
to conditioning New York:

LEARNING
environment , leading to Macmillan.
al stimuli. This an increase )
view in salivation
emphasizes in response
the to the sound
observable of a bell.
changes in
behavior that
can be
objectively
measured.
Cognitive The cognitive view of a student learning a (Reference: Anderson,
learning emphasizes the new concept in J. R. (2005). An
internal mental mathematics may need overview of cognitive
processes involved in to think critically and architecture. In J. R.
acquiring and retaining apply problem-solving Anderson, & S.
information, such as skills in order to D.Kosslyn (Eds.),
perception, memory, understand the Strategies for
and problem-solving. concept. theoretical psychology.
This view of learning is New York: Psychology
based on the idea that Press.)
the brain actively
processes information
and stores it in memory,
and that learning
involves changes in the
way the brain processes
information.
 Constructivism views
learning as a process
of constructing
meaning from
experiences and
interactions with the
a child learning about
environment. This view
the world through play (Reference: Papert, S.
emphasizes the role of
is constructing their own (1980). Mindstorms:
the learner in actively
understanding of the Children, computers,
Constructivist constructing their own
world by actively and powerful ideas.
understanding of the
exploring and New York: Basic
world, and argues that
interacting with their Books.)
learning is not a
environment.
passive process, but
rather an active one in
which the learner must
engage in meaningful
and purposeful
activities.
 The social definition of
learning emphasizes
the role of social
interactions and
relationships in the
learning process. This a student learning a (Reference:
view argues that new language will be Vygotsky, L. S. (1978).
learning is a social influenced by the way Mind in society: The
process that occurs that language is used development of
through interactions in their community, as higher psychological
with others and that it well as their processes.
is influenced by relationships with Cambridge, MA:
cultural, historical, and other speakers of the Harvard University
Social social factors. language. Press.)
FIRST LANGUAGE VS SECOND LANGUAGE

FIRST LANGUAGE L1 SECOND LANGUAGE L2

• L1 (FIRST LANGUAGE) ACQUISITION • L2 (SECOND LANGUAGE) ACQUISITION
REFERS TO THE PROCESS OF ACQUIRING REFERS TO THE PROCESS OF ACQUIRING
ONE'S NATIVE OR PRIMARY LANGUAGE,
A LANGUAGE OTHER THAN ONE'S FIRST
TYPICALLY DURING CHILDHOOD. IT
REFERS TO THE LEARNING OF THE LANGUAGE. IT CAN OCCUR AT ANY
LANGUAGE THAT IS SPOKEN AND USED AGE AND MAY BE MOTIVATED BY A
IN THE LEARNER'S ENVIRONMENT AND VARIETY OF FACTORS, SUCH AS TRAVEL,
COMMUNITY. WORK, OR ACADEMIC STUDY.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN L1 AND L2 ACQUISITION

• AGE OF ACQUISITION: L1 IS TYPICALLY • WHILE L2 IS OFTEN ACQUIRED LATER IN

ACQUIRED IN EARLY CHILDHOOD LIFE.

• INPUT QUALITY: L1 IS ACQUIRED

THROUGH IMMERSION IN A RICH AND • WHILE L2 IS OFTEN ACQUIRED THROUGH
VARIED LINGUISTIC ENVIRONMENT, MORE FORMAL AND STRUCTURED
LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS, SUCH AS
CLASSROOMS OR LANGUAGE
COURSES.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN L1 AND L2 ACQUISITION

• COGNITIVE PROCESSES: L1 • WHILE L2 ACQUISITION IS OFTEN MORE

ACQUISITION RELIES ON IMPLICIT AND DEPENDENT ON CONSCIOUS AND
UNCONSCIOUS LEARNING EXPLICIT LEARNING STRATEGIES.
PROCESSES,
• WHILE L2 ACQUISITION MAY RESULT IN
• OUTCOME: L1 ACQUISITION TYPICALLY MORE LIMITED PROFICIENCY AND A
RESULTS IN A MORE FLUENT AND NOTICEABLE ACCENT.
NATIVE-LIKE COMMAND OF THE
LANGUAGE,
Reference:

Krashen, S. D. (1982). Principles and

Practice in Second Language
Acquisition. Pergamon Press.

Lightbown, P. M., & Spada, N. (2013).

How Languages are Learned (4th
ed.). Oxford University Press.
LEARNING AND
TEACHING
WHAT IS LEARNING?
3. The involvement 4. The application
of storage systems, of active, conscious
1. Acquisition or 2. The retention of
memory, and focus, and
“adding” information or skills
cognitive subconscious
organization attention

5. Relatively
6. The result of
permanent but 7. A change in
practice perhaps
subject to behavior
reinforced practice
forgetting
WHAT IS TEACHING?
“showing or helping someone to learn how
to do something, giving instructions, guiding
in the study of something, providing with
•knowledge, causing to know or
understand.”
Main Reference

Brown, H. Douglas, 1941-

Principles of language learning

and teaching/H. Douglas
Brown.—Sixth Edition.