B IOCHEMISTRY

CHAPTER

All living organisms, such as those seen in

this photo, are made up of molecules that
contain primarily carbon atoms.

SECTION 1 Carbon Compounds

SECTION 2 Molecules of Life

50 CHAPTER 3
Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.
 SECTION 1

CARBON COMPOUNDS ●
OBJECTIVES
Distinguish between organic and
Although water is the primary medium for life on Earth, most inorganic compounds.
● Explain the importance of carbon
of the molecules from which living organisms are made are
bonding in biological molecules.
based on the element carbon. Carbon’s ability to form large and ● Identify functional groups in

complex molecules has contributed to the great diversity of life. biological molecules.
● Summarize how large carbon
molecules are synthesized and
broken down.
CARBON BONDING ● Describe how the breaking down
of ATP supplies energy to drive
All compounds can be classified in two broad categories: organic chemical reactions.
compounds and inorganic compounds. Organic compounds are
made primarily of carbon atoms. Most matter in living organisms VOCABULARY
that is not water is made of organic compounds. Inorganic
organic compound
compounds, with a few exceptions, do not contain carbon atoms. functional group
A carbon atom has four electrons in its outermost energy level. monomer
Most atoms become stable when their outermost energy level con- polymer
tains eight electrons. A carbon atom therefore readily forms four macromolecule
covalent bonds with the atoms of other elements. Unlike other ele- condensation reaction
ments, however, carbon also readily bonds with other carbon hydrolysis
atoms, forming straight chains, branched chains, or rings, as adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
shown in Figure 3-1. This tendency of carbon to bond with itself
results in an enormous variety of organic compounds.
In the symbolic shorthand of chemistry, each line shown in
Figure 3-1 represents a covalent bond formed when two atoms
share a pair of electrons. A bond formed when two atoms share
one pair of electrons is called a single bond.

H H H H H

H C C C C H H C H

H H H H

Straight carbon chain H H

H C C C FIGURE 3-1
H H
Carbon can bond in a number of ways
H H H H H
C C
to produce molecules of very different
H H Branched carbon c shapes, including straight chains (a),
C C branched chains (b), and rings (c) and
H H (d). These structures form the backbone
C C of many different kinds of organic
H H molecules. The carbon ring is shown
H H
with all of its atoms (c), and in a
simplified version (d) commonly used
Carbon ring Simplified view of a car in this textbook and elsewhere.

BIOCHEMISTRY 51
Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.
 H

H H H C H H
FIGURE 3-2 C
C
Carbon atoms can form single (a), H C C H H C C C H
double (b), or triple (c) bonds. Organic C C
molecules can have many different H H H C H H
shapes and patterns of bonding.
(a) (b) H (c)

A carbon atom can also share two or even three pairs of elec-
trons with another atom. Figure 3-2b shows a model for an organic
compound in which six carbon atoms have formed a ring. Notice
that each carbon atom forms four covalent bonds: a single bond
with another carbon atom, a single bond with a hydrogen atom,
and a double bond with a second carbon atom. In a double bond—
represented by two parallel lines—atoms share two pairs of elec-
trons. A triple bond, the sharing of three pairs of electrons, is
Quick Lab represented by three parallel lines in Figure 3-2c.

Demonstrating Polarity
Materials disposable gloves; lab
apron; safety goggles; 3 test tubes;
FUNCTIONAL GROUPS
test-tube rack; 6 mL each of cook-
ing oil, ethanol, and water In most organic compounds, clusters of atoms, called functional
groups, influence the characteristics of the molecules they com-
pose and the chemical reactions the molecules undergo. For exam-
ple, one functional group important to living things, the hydroxyl
Procedure group, —OH, can make the molecule it is attached to polar. Polar
1. Put on disposable gloves, a lab
molecules are hydrophilic (HIE-droh-FIL-ik), or soluble in water. An
apron, and safety goggles, and
then label the test tubes “A,” alcohol is an organic compound with a hydroxyl group attached to
“B,” and “C.” one of its carbon atoms. The hydroxyl group makes an alcohol a
2. In test tube A, put 3 mL of water polar molecule. The alcohol illustrated in the first row in Table 3-1
and 3 mL of oil. is ethanol. Other functional groups important to living things are
3. In test tube B, put 3 mL of shown in Table 3-1. These functional groups include a carboxyl
ethanol and 3 mL of oil. group, an amino group, and a phosphate group.
4. In test tube C, put 3 mL of water
and 3 mL of ethanol. TABLE 3-1 Common Functional Groups
5. With your middle finger, flick
Functional group Structural formula Example
each test tube to mix the con-
tents, and allow each to sit for Hydroxyl OH H H
10–15 minutes. Record your
H C C OH
observations.
H H
Analysis Polar molecules are sol-
uble in water. How does this activity Carboxyl O NH2 O
demonstrate polarity of molecules C OH H C C OH
that contain the —OH group?
H

Amino H NH2 O
N H
H C C OH
H

Phosphate O H H O
O P OH H C C O P OH
OH H H OH

52 CHAPTER 3
Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.
 ! ! ! 2H2O

Monomers Polymer

LARGE CARBON MOLECULES

Many carbon compounds are built up from smaller, simpler
molecules known as monomers (MAH-ne-mers), such as the ones
shown in Figure 3-3. As you can also see in Figure 3-3, monomers
can bond to one another to form polymers (PAWL-eh-mer). A
polymer is a molecule that consists of repeated, linked units. The
units may be identical or structurally related to each other. Large
polymers are called macromolecules. There are many types of
macromolecules, such as carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and
nucleic acids. FIGURE 3-3
Monomers link to form polymers through a chemical reaction A polymer is the result of bonding
between monomers. In this example,
called a condensation reaction. Each time a monomer is added to each monomer is a six-sided carbon
a polymer, a water molecule is released. In the condensation reac- ring. The starch in potatoes is an
tion shown in Figure 3-4, two sugar molecules, glucose and fruc- example of a molecule that is a polymer.
tose, combine to form the sugar sucrose, which is common table
sugar. The two sugar monomers become linked by a C—O—C
bridge. In the formation of that bridge, the glucose molecule
releases a hydrogen ion, H!, and the fructose molecule releases a Word Roots and Origins
hydroxide ion, OH". The OH" and H! ions that are released then
combine to produce a water molecule, H2O. monomer
In addition to building polymers through condensation reac-
from the Greek mono,
tions, living organisms also have to break them down. The break- meaning “single or alone,” and
down of some complex molecules, such as polymers, occurs meros, meaning “a part”
through a process known as hydrolysis (hie-DRAHL-i-sis). In a
hydrolysis reaction, water is used to break down a polymer. The
water molecule breaks the bond linking each monomer. Hydrolysis
is the reverse of a condensation reaction. The addition of water to
some complex molecules, including polymers, under certain con- FIGURE 3-4
ditions can break the bonds that hold them together. For example, The condensation reaction below
shows how glucose links with fructose
in Figure 3-4 reversing the reaction will result in sucrose breaking to form sucrose. One water molecule is
down into fructose and glucose. produced each time two monomers
form a covalent bond.

CH2OH CH2OH
CH2OH CH2OH
H C O H H H C O H H
O O
C H C C C H C C
OH H
! H OH C OH H H OH C
H2O
O
HO C C OH OH C C HO C C C C
CH2OH CH2OH
OH H OH H
H OH H OH

Glucose Fructose Sucrose

BIOCHEMISTRY 53
Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.
 P P P H2O P P P

H OH

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) Adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and

inorganic phosphate

FIGURE 3-5
The hydrolysis of ATP yields adenosine ENERGY CURRENCY
diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic
phosphate. In hydrolysis, a hydrogen ion Life processes require a constant supply of energy. This energy is
from a water molecule bonds to one of
the new molecules, and a hydroxide ion
available to cells in the form of certain compounds that store a large
bonds to the other new molecule. Most amount of energy in their overall structure. One of these com-
hydrolysis reactions release energy. pounds is adenosine (uh-DEN-uh-SEEN) triphosphate, more commonly
referred to by its abbreviation, ATP.
The left side of Figure 3-5 shows a simplified ATP molecule struc-
ture. The 5-carbon sugar, ribose, is represented by the blue carbon
ring. The nitrogen-containing compound, adenine, is represented
by the 2 orange rings. The three linked phosphate groups, —PO4!,
are represented by the blue circles with a “P.” The phospate groups
Word Roots and Origins are attached to each other by covalent bonds.
The covalent bonds between the phosphate groups are more
phosphate unstable than the other bonds in the ATP molecule because the
from the Latin phosphor, phosphate groups are close together and have negative charges.
meaning “morning star,” (morning Thus, the negative charges make the bonds easier to break. When
stars are very bright, similar a bond between the phosphate groups is broken, energy is
to phosphorus when it burns) released. This hydrolysis of ATP is used by the cell to provide the
and ate, meaning “salt” energy needed to drive the chemical reactions that enable an
organism to function.

SECTION 1 REVIEW
1. How do inorganic and organic compounds differ? CRITICAL THINKING
2. How do carbon’s bonding properties contribute 8. Analyzing Concepts Humans are about 65 per-
to the existence of a wide variety of biological cent water, and tomatoes are about 90 percent
molecules? water. Yet, water is not a major building block of
3. Name four types of functional groups. life. Explain.

4. What role do functional groups play in the mole- 9. Analyzing Concepts Carbon dioxide, CO2, con-
cules in which they are found? tains carbon, yet it is considered to be inorganic.
Explain.
5. How are monomers, polymers, and macromole-
cules related to each other? 10. Relating Information Condensation reactions
are also referred to as dehydration synthesis.
6. How is a polymer broken down? Explain how the name dehydration synthesis is
7. Why is ATP referred to as the “energy currency” descriptive of the process.
in living things?

54 CHAPTER 3
Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.
 SECTION 2

MOLECULES OF LIFE ●
OBJECTIVES
Distinguish between
Four main classes of organic compounds are essential to the monosaccharides, disaccharides,
life processes of all living things: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and polysaccharides.
● Explain the relationship between
and nucleic acids. You will see that although these compounds amino acids and protein structure.
are built primarily from carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, these ● Describe the induced fit model of
enzyme action.
atoms occur in different ratios in each class of compound. ● Compare the structure and
Each class of compounds has different properties. function of each of the different
types of lipids.
● Compare the nucleic acids DNA
and RNA.
CARBOHYDRATES
VOCABULARY
Carbohydrates are organic compounds composed of carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen in a ratio of about one carbon atom to two carbohydrate
hydrogen atoms to one oxygen atom. The number of carbon atoms monosaccharide
in a carbohydrate varies. Some carbohydrates serve as a source of disaccharide
energy. Other carbohydrates are used as structural materials. polysaccharide
protein
Carbohydrates can exist as monosaccharides, disaccharides, or
amino acid
polysaccharides.
peptide bond
Monosaccharides polypeptide
enzyme
A monomer of a carbohydrate is called a monosaccharide
substrate
(MAHN-oh-SAK-uh-RIED). A monosaccharide—or simple sugar— active site
contains carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a ratio of 1:2:1. The gen- lipid
eral formula for a monosaccharide is written as (CH2O)n, where n fatty acid
is any whole number from 3 to 8. For example, a six-carbon mono- phospholipid
saccharide, (CH2O)6, would have the formula C6H12O6. wax
The most common monosaccharides are glucose, fructose, and steroid
galactose, as shown in Figure 3-6. Glucose is a main source of nucleic acid
energy for cells. Fructose is found in fruits and is the sweetest of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
the monosaccharides. Galactose is found in milk. ribonucleic acid (RNA)
Notice in Figure 3-6 that glucose, fructose, and galactose have nucleotide
the same molecular formula, C6H12O6, but differing structures. The
different structures determine the slightly different properties of
the three compounds. Compounds like these sugars, with a single
chemical formula but different structural forms, are called isomers
(IE-soh-muhrz).

CH2OH CH2OH
CH2OH
H C O OH O H HO C O H

C H C C C H C
OH H H OH C OH H FIGURE 3-6
HO C C H OH C C H C C OH
Glucose, fructose, and galactose have
CH2OH
H OH OH H H OH the same chemical formula, but their
structural differences result in different
Glucose Fructose Galactose properties among the three compounds.

BIOCHEMISTRY 55
Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.
 Disaccharides and Polysaccharides
In living things, two monosaccharides can combine in a condensa-
tion reaction to form a double sugar, or disaccharide (die-SAK-e-RIED).
For example in Figure 3-4, the monosaccharides fructose and glu-
cose can combine to form the disaccharide sucrose.
A polysaccharide is a complex molecule composed of three or
FIGURE 3-7 more monosaccharides. Animals store glucose in the form of the
(a) Many structures, such as hair and polysaccharide glycogen. Glycogen consists of hundreds of glucose
horns are made of proteins. (b) Proteins
molecules strung together in a highly branched chain. Much of the
are made up of amino acids. Amino
acids differ only in the type of R group glucose that comes from food is ultimately stored in your liver and
(shown in red) they carry. Polar R groups muscles as glycogen and is ready to be used for quick energy.
can dissolve in water, but nonpolar R Plants store glucose molecules in the form of the polysaccha-
groups cannot. (c) Amino acids have ride starch. Starch molecules have two basic forms—highly
complex structures, so, in this and other
textbooks, they are often simplified branched chains that are similar to glycogen and long, coiled,
into balls. unbranched chains. Plants also make a large polysaccharide
called cellulose. Cellulose, which gives strength and rigidity to
plant cells, makes up about 50 percent of wood. In a single cellu-
lose molecule, thousands of glucose monomers are linked in long,
straight chains. These chains tend to form hydrogen bonds with
each other. The resulting structure is strong and can be broken
down by hydrolysis only under certain conditions.

PROTEINS
Proteins are organic compounds composed mainly of carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. Like most of the other biological
macromolecules, proteins are formed from the linkage of
monomers called amino acids. Hair and horns, as shown in Figure
(a) 3-7a, are made mostly of proteins, as are skin, muscles and many
biological catalysts (enzymes).

CH3 Amino Acids

There are 20 different amino acids, and all share a basic structure.
H N C C OH As Figure 3-7b shows, each amino acid contains a central carbon
atom covalently bonded to four other atoms or functional groups.
H H O A single hydrogen atom, highlighted in blue in the illustration,
bonds at one site. A carboxyl group, —COOH, highlighted in green,
(b) Alanine (an amino acid) bonds at a second site. An amino group, —NH2, highlighted in yel-
low, bonds at a third site. A side chain called the R group, high-
lighted in red, bonds at the fourth site.
The main difference among the different amino acids is in their
R groups. The R group can be complex or it can be simple, such
as the CH3 group shown in the amino acid alanine in Figure 3-7b.
(c) Simplified version
of amino acid The differences among the amino acid R groups gives different
proteins very different shapes. The different shapes allow pro-
teins to carry out many different activities in living things. Amino
acids are commonly shown in a simplified way such as balls, as
shown in Figure 3-7c.

56 CHAPTER 3
Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.
Dipeptides and Polypeptides Glycine Alanine

Figure 3-8a shows how two amino acids bond to form a dipeptide H CH3
(die-PEP-TIED). In this condensation reaction, the two amino acids H N C C OH H N C C OH
form a covalent bond, called a peptide bond (shaded in blue in H H O H H O
Figure 3-8a) and release a water molecule.
Amino acids often form very long chains called polypeptides
(PAHL-i-PEP-TIEDZ). Proteins are composed of one or more polypep- H CH3

tides. Some proteins are very large molecules, containing hun- H N C C N C C OH

dreds of amino acids. Often, these long proteins are bent and H H O H H O
folded upon themselves as a result of interactions—such as H2O
hydrogen bonding—between individual amino acids. Protein (a)
shape can also be influenced by conditions such as temperature
and the type of solvent in which a protein is dissolved. For exam-
ple, cooking an egg changes the shape of proteins in the egg white.
The firm, opaque result is very different from the initial clear,
runny material.
(b)
Enzymes
Enzymes—RNA or protein molecules that act as biological FIGURE 3-8
catalysts—are essential for the functioning of any cell. Many enzymes (a) The peptide bond (shaded blue) that
are proteins. Figure 3-9 shows an induced fit model of enzyme action. binds amino acids together to form a
polypeptide results from a condensation
Enzyme reactions depend on a physical fit between the enzyme reaction that produces water. (b) Poly-
molecule and its specific substrate, the reactant being catalyzed. peptides are commonly shown as a
Notice that the enzyme has folds, or an active site, with a shape string of balls in this textbook and
that allows the substrate to fit into the active site. An enzyme acts elsewhere. Each ball represents an
amino acid.
only on a specific substrate because only that substrate fits into its
active site. The linkage of the enzyme and substrate causes a slight
change in the enzyme’s shape. The change in the enzyme’s shape
weakens some chemical bonds in the substrate, which is one way
that enzymes reduce activation energy, the energy needed to start
the reaction. After the reaction, the enzyme releases the products.
Like any catalyst, the enzyme itself is unchanged, so it can be used
many times.
An enzyme may not work if its environment is changed. For
example, change in temperature or pH can cause a change in the
shape of the enzyme or the substrate. If such a change happens,
the reaction that the enzyme would have catalyzed cannot occur.

Substrate Products

1 2 3 FIGURE 3-9
1 In the induced fit model of enzyme
action, the enzyme can attach only to a
substrate (reactant) with a specific
shape. 2 The enzyme then changes
and reduces the activation energy of
the reaction so reactants can become
products. 3 The enzyme is unchanged
Enzyme and is available to be used again.

BIOCHEMISTRY 57
Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.
 S C I E N C E
TECHNOLOGY
SOCIETY

TREATING AND PREVENTING DIABETES

P
roteins play many impor- Type 1 Diabetes About 40 percent of people
tant roles in living organ- Between 5 and 10 percent of with type 2 diabetes require
isms. The hormone insulin people who suffer from diabetes insulin injections.
is a protein that stimulates cells have type 1 diabetes, which usu-
to take up glucose. More than 18 ally starts in childhood. The Preventing Diabetes
million Americans have dia- body’s immune system mistak- There is currently not a way to
betes, an inability of the body to enly attacks cells in the pancreas prevent type 1 diabetes. But
make or respond to insulin. that make insulin. If untreated, exercise, a healthy diet, and
When the body cannot type 1 diabetes is usually fatal. insulin injections can allow a
make or respond to insulin, the person to lead a normal life.
body’s cells must switch to Treating Type 1 Diabetes Ways to prevent type 2 diabetes
burning mainly fat as their fuel. People with type 1 diabetes include exercising regularly and
The resulting high levels of fat require a carefully monitored eating a healthy diet.
in the blood can cause cardio- diet, physical activity, home
vascular disease. In addition, blood glucose testing several Future Treatments for Diabetes
the glucose that accumulates in times a day, and multiple daily Medical researchers are work-
the blood causes other prob- insulin injections. In the past, ing on devices that can monitor
lems. For example, diabetes insulin was delivered by shots. blood sugar better. Other
can have serious complications, Now, there are pumps that reg- researchers are trying to
including kidney disease, heart ularly deliver small amounts of improve the delivery of insulin
failure, blindness, and amputa- insulin. The pumps can be by using timed-release drugs
tion of the lower limbs. Some implanted surgically and or by developing smaller
symptoms of diabetes include refilled periodically by injection. implants. Some researchers are
increased thirst, frequent urina-
working on improving organ
tion, fatigue, and weight loss. Type 2 Diabetes transplant surgery and finding
The majority of people who suf- genes linked to diabetes.
fer from diabetes have type 2
diabetes, which can begin at REVIEW
any age. A diet high in sugars
1. Distinguish between type 1 and
and fats, a sedentary lifestyle, type 2 diabetes.
and being overweight can each 2. Why is insulin important?
increase the chances of devel- 3. Critical Thinking A friend asks,
oping this type of diabetes. Type “Why should I worry? By the
2 diabetes occurs when the time I’m old, they’ll have dia-
pancreas cannot keep up with betes cured anyway.” What is
your opinion? Defend your
the demand for insulin or the
answer.
cells become resistant to
insulin’s effects.

Treating Type 2 Diabetes

For type 2 diabetes, treatment www.scilinks.org
typically includes a healthy Topic: Diabetes
Regular physical activity can help
diet, regular exercise, and Keyword: HM60400
reduce the risk of developing type 2 home blood glucose testing.
diabetes. Some people must also take
oral medication and/or insulin.

58
Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.
 LIPIDS O
C
OH

H C H
O OH
C H C H
Lipids are large, nonpolar organic molecules. They do not dissolve H C H H C H
in water. Lipids include triglycerides (trie-GLIS-uhr-IEDZ), phospho- H C H H C H

lipids, steroids, waxes, and pigments. Lipid molecules have a H C H H C H

higher ratio of carbon and hydrogen atoms to oxygen atoms than H C H H C H

H C H H C H
carbohydrates have. Because lipid molecules have larger numbers H C H C H
of carbon-hydrogen bonds per gram than other organic com- H C H C H

pounds do, they store more energy per gram. H C H H C H

H C H C H

Fatty Acids H
H
C
C
H
H H
C
C
H
H
Fatty acids are unbranched carbon chains that make up most H C H H C H

lipids. Figure 3-10 shows that a fatty acid contains a long carbon H C H H C H

H C H H C H
chain (from 12 to 28 carbons) with a carboxyl group, —COOH, H C H H C H
attached at one end. The two ends of the fatty-acid molecule have H H

different properties. The carboxyl end is polar and is thus Palmitic acid Linoleic acid
hydrophilic or attracted to water molecules. In contrast, the hydro-
FIGURE 3-10
carbon end of the fatty-acid molecule is nonpolar. This end tends
Fatty acids have a polar carboxyl head,
not to interact with water molecules and is said to be hydrophobic highlighted in purple, and a nonpolar
(HIE-droh-FOH-bik), or “water fearing.” hydrocarbon tail, highlighted in green.
In saturated fatty acids, such as palmitic acid, which is shown in
Figure 3-10, each carbon atom is covalently bonded to four atoms.
The carbon atoms are in effect full, or saturated. In contrast, FIGURE 3-11
linoleic acid, also shown in Figure 3-10, has carbon atoms that are The lipid bilayer of a cell membrane
is a double row of phospholipids. The
not bonded to the maximum number of atoms to which they can “tails” face each other. The “head” of a
bond. Instead, they have formed double bonds within the carbon phospholipid, which contains a phosphate
chain. This type of fatty acid is said to be unsaturated. group, is polar and hydrophilic. The two
tails are two fatty acids and are nonpolar
Triglycerides and hydrophobic.
Three classes of lipids important to living things contain fatty
acids: triglycerides (fats), phospholipids, and waxes. A
triglyceride is composed of three molecules of fatty acid joined to
one molecule of the alcohol glycerol. Saturated triglycerides are
composed of saturated fatty acids. They typically have high
melting points and tend to be hard at room temperature.
Common dietary saturated triglycerides include butter and fats
in red meat. In contrast, unsaturated triglycerides are composed
of unsaturated fatty acids and are usually soft or liquid at room
temperature. Unsaturated triglycerides are found primarily in
Water
plant seeds where they serve as an energy and carbon source for Hydrophilic
“head”
germinating plants.
Phospholipids
Phospholipids
Phospholipids have two, rather than three, fatty acids attached to Hydrophobic
a molecule of glycerol. They have a phosphate group attached to “tail”

the third carbon of the glycerol. As shown in Figure 3-11, the cell Phospholipids
membrane is made of two layers of phospholipids, called the lipid
bilayer. The inability of lipids to dissolve in water allows the mem-
brane to form a barrier between the inside and outside of the cell. Water

BIOCHEMISTRY 59
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 Waxes
A wax is a type of structural lipid consisting of a long fatty-acid
www.scilinks.org
Topic: Lipids chain joined to a long alcohol chain. Waxes are waterproof, and in
Keyword: HM60881 plants, form a protective coating on the outer surfaces. Waxes also
form protective layers in animals. For example, earwax helps pre-
vent microorganisms from entering the ear canal.

Steroids
Unlike most other lipids, which are composed of fatty acids,
steroid molecules are composed of four fused carbon rings with
various functional groups attached to them. Many animal hor-
mones, such as the male hormone testosterone, are steroid com-
pounds. One of the most familiar steroids in humans is cholesterol.
Cholesterol is needed by the body for nerve and other cells to func-
tion normally. It is also a component of the cell membrane.

FIGURE 3-12
DNA as shown below, and RNA, are very
large molecules formed from nucleotides
NUCLEIC ACIDS
linked together in a chain. A nucleotide
consists of a phosphate group, a five- Nucleic acids are very large and complex organic molecules that
carbon sugar, and a ring-shaped store and transfer important information in the cell. There are
nitrogenous base. two major types of nucleic acids: deoxyribonucleic acid and
ribonucleic acid.
Deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA, contains information that deter-
T A
C mines the characteristics of an organism and directs its cell activi-
A
ties. Ribonucleic (RIE-boh-noo-KLEE-ik) acid, or RNA, stores and
T A
T
C G
A A
transfers information from DNA that is essential for the manufactur-
T

T
G
ing of proteins. RNA molecules can also act as enzymes. Both DNA
Nitrogenous and RNA are polymers, composed of thousands of linked monomers
base
Phosphate called nucleotides (NOO-klee-uh-TIEDS). As shown in Figure 3-12, each
Sugar
group nucleotide is made of three main components: a phosphate group,
(deoxyribose)
Nucleotide a five-carbon sugar, and a ring-shaped nitrogenous base.

SECTION 2 REVIEW
1. Compare the structure of monosaccharides, dis- CRITICAL THINKING
accharides, and polysaccharides. 8. Applying Information Before a long race, run-
2. How are proteins constructed from amino acids? ners often “carbo load.” This means that they
3. How do amino acids differ from one another? eat substantial quantities of carbohydrates. How
might this help their performance?
4. Describe a model of enzyme action.
9. Recognizing Relationships High temperatures
5. Why do phospholipids orient in a bilayer when can weaken bonds within a protein molecule.
in a watery environment, such as a cell? How might this explain the effects of using a
6. Describe how the three major types of lipids hot curling iron or rollers in one’s hair?
differ in structure from one another. 10. Applying Information You want to eat more
7. What are the functions of the two types of unsaturated than saturated fats. Name examples
nucleic acids? of foods you would eat more of and less of.

60 CHAPTER 3
Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.
 CHAPTER HIGHLIGHTS

SECTION 1 Carbon Compounds

● Organic compounds contain carbon atoms and are ● Condensation reactions join monomers (small simple
found in living things. Most inorganic compounds do molecules) to form polymers. A condensation reaction
not contain carbon atoms. releases water as a by-product. In a hydrolysis reaction,
● Carbon atoms can readily form four covalent bonds with water is used to split polymers into monomers.
other atoms including other carbon atoms. The carbon ● Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) stores and releases energy
bonds allow the carbon atoms to form a wide variety of during cell processes enabling organisms to function.
simple and complex organic compounds.
● Functional groups are groups of atoms that influence the
properties of molecules and the chemical reactions in
which the molecules participate.

Vocabulary
organic compound (p. 51) polymer (p. 53) condensation reaction (p. 53) adenosine triphosphate
functional group (p. 52) macromolecule (p. 53) hydrolysis (p. 53) (ATP) (p. 54)
monomer (p. 53)

SECTION 2 Molecules of Life

● There are four main classes of organic compounds: ● Lipids are nonpolar molecules that store energy and are
carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. an important part of cell membranes. Most lipids contain
● Carbohydrates are made up of monomers called fatty acids, molecules that have a hydrophilic end and a
monosaccharides. Two monosaccharides join to form hydrophobic end.
a double sugar called a disaccharide. A complex ● There are three kinds of lipids: Triglycerides consist of
sugar, or polysaccharide, is made of three or more three fatty acids and one molecule of glycerol.
monosaccharides. Phospholipids, which make up cell membranes, consist of
● Carbohydrates such as glucose, are a source of energy two fatty acids and one glycerol molecule. A wax is made
and are used as structural materials in organisms. of one long fatty acid chain joined to one long alcohol.
● Proteins have many functions including structural, ● The nucleic acid, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), contains all
defensive, and catalytic. Proteins are made up of the genetic information for cell activities. Ribonucleic
monomers called amino acids. The sequence of amino acid (RNA) molecules play many key roles in building of
acids determines a protein’s shape and function. A long proteins and can act as enzymes.
chain of amino acids is called a polypeptide, which is
made up of amino acids joined by peptide bonds.
● Enzymes speed up chemical reactions and bind to specific
substrates. The binding of a substrate with an enzyme
causes a change in the enzyme’s shape and reduces the
activation energy of the reaction.

Vocabulary
carbohydrate (p. 55) peptide bond (p. 57) fatty acid (p. 59) deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
monosaccharide (p. 55) polypeptide (p. 57) triglyceride (p. 59) (p. 60)
disaccharide (p. 56) enzyme (p. 57) phospholipid (p. 59) ribonucleic acid
polysaccharide (p. 56) substrate (p. 57) wax (p. 60) (RNA) (p. 60)
protein (p. 56) active site (p. 57) steroid (p. 60) nucleotide (p. 60)
amino acid (p. 56) lipid (p. 59) nucleic acid (p. 60)

BIOCHEMISTRY 61
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 CHAPTER REVIEW

USING VOCABULARY 20. State how steroids differ from other lipids.
21. Identify an important characteristic of waxes in
1. For each pair of terms, explain how the meanings living organisms.
of the terms differ. 22. Compare two kinds of nucleic acids.
a. monomer and polymer
b. functional group and macromolecule 23. Name the three parts of a nucleotide.
c. monosaccharide and disaccharide 24. CONCEPT MAPPING Use the following
d. polypeptide and protein terms to create a concept map that
e. nucleic acid and nucleotide describes the different types of organic com-
2. For each pair of terms, explain the relationship pounds: dipeptide, triglycerides, RNA, phospho-
between the terms. lipids, carbohydrates, monosaccharide, amino
a. fatty acid and triglyceride acid, disaccharide, polypeptide, polysaccharide,
b. substrate and enzyme proteins, DNA, lipids, nucleic acids, steroids,
and waxes.
3. Use the following terms in the same sentence:
monomer, polymer, condensation reaction, and
hydrolysis. CRITICAL THINKING
4. Word Roots and Origins The word organic is
derived from the Greek organikos, which means 25. Applying Information What is the chemical
“organ.” Explain how the word organic is descrip- formula for a monosaccharide that has three
tive of most carbon compounds. carbons?
26. Analyzing Concepts Starch easily dissolves in
water. Cellulose does not. Both substances, how-
UNDERSTANDING KEY CONCEPTS ever, consist of chains of glucose molecules.
What structural difference between starch and
5. Differentiate between organic and inorganic cellulose might account for their different behav-
compounds. ior in water?
6. Relate the properties of carbon to the formation 27. Interpreting Graphics Identify the type of organic
of organic compounds. molecule shown below. Identify each of the func-
7. Summarize how functional groups help determine tional groups shaded in yellow, red, and green.
the properties of organic compounds.
8. Compare how organic compounds are built to CH3
how they are broken down.
9. Explain the role of ATP in cellular activities.
H N C C OH
10. List the four major classes of organic compounds.
11. Describe the general structure of carbohydrates. H H O
12. Define the term isomer.
13. Summarize the differences between simple 28. Making Inferences Analysis of an unknown
sugars, double sugars, and complex sugars. substance showed that it has the following char-
acteristics: It contains carbon, hydrogen, and
14. Describe how a protein’s structure is determined
oxygen and it is soluble in oil but not water.
by the arrangement of amino acids.
Predict what kind of substance it might be.
15. State the basic structure of an amino acid. Explain your answer.
16. Compare the processes used in the formation of a 29. Applying Information Many birds store signifi-
dipeptide and a disaccharide. cant amounts of energy to power flight during
17. Summarize the induced fit model of enzyme winter migration. What type of organic molecule
activity. might be best suited for energy storage? Explain.
18. Differentiate between saturated and unsaturated
triglycerides.
19. Compare the structures of triglycerides, phospho-
lipids, and steroids.

62 CHAPTER 3
Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.
 Standardized Test Preparation
DIRECTIONS: Choose the letter of the answer choice DIRECTIONS: Complete the following analogy.
that best answers the question. 7. simple sugars : carbohydrates :: amino acids :
1. Which of the following is not a function of A. lipids
polysaccharides? B. proteins
A. energy source C. nucleic acids
B. energy storage D. amino groups
C. structural support
D. storage of genetic information INTERPRETING GRAPHICS: The figure below repre-
2. Which of the following statements is false? sents the structural formula of a molecule. Use the
F. A wax is a lipid. figure to answer the question that follows.
G. Starch is a lipid.
H. Saturated fats are solid at room temperature. H H
J. Unsaturated fats are liquid at room
temperature.
3. Which of the following molecules stores heredi- H C C OH
tary information?
A. ATP
B. DNA
C. protein H H
D. carbohydrates
8. What is the name of the functional group circled
4. What is the name of the molecule in plants that in the structural formula above?
stores sugars? F. amino
F. starch G. hydroxyl
G. protein H. phosphate
H. cellulose J. carboxyl
J. glycogen

INTERPRETING GRAPHICS: The figure below illus- SHORT RESPONSE

trates the basic structure of a cell membrane. Use the Proteins are affected by environmental conditions
figure to answer the questions that follow. such as heat and pH.
Explain why the process of cooking an egg cannot be
reversed.

EXTENDED RESPONSE
Enzymes are essential for the functioning of all cells.
Tail
Part A Explain what enzymes do that is essential for
cell function.
Part B Explain the induced fit model of enzyme
action.

5. Which of the following molecules make up the

basic structure of a cell membrane?
A. waxes
B. steroids
C. fatty acids
D. phospholipids
6. The “tails” of the molecules in the figure orient
away from water. Which of the following
When writing an answer to an
describes the tail’s movement away from water? extended response question, make an outline of
F. polar what you plan to write before writing your answer.
G. adhesive Although it may take a little more time, the answer
H. hydrophilic will be easier to write.
J. hydrophobic

BIOCHEMISTRY 63
Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.
 INQUIRY LAB

Identifying Organic
Compounds in Foods
OBJECTIVES 3. Benedict’s solution is used to determine the pres-
■ Determine whether specific nutrients are present ence of monosaccharides, such as glucose. A mix-
in a solution of unknown composition. ture of sodium hydroxide and copper sulfate
■ Perform chemical tests using substances called determines the presence of some proteins. This pro-
indicators. cedure is called the biuret test. Sudan III is used to
determine the presence of lipids.
PROCESS SKILLS
■ experimenting ■ identifying Procedure
■ observing ■ measuring CAUTION Put on a lab
apron, safety goggles, and
MATERIALS
gloves. In this lab, you will be working with chemicals
■ lab apron ■ glucose solution that can harm your skin and eyes or stain your skin
■ safety goggles ■ unknown solution and clothing. If you get a chemical on your skin or
■ disposable gloves ■ distilled water clothing, wash it off at the sink while calling to your
■ 500 mL beaker ■ 9 glass stirring rods teacher. If you get a chemical in your eyes, immedi-
■ hot plate ■ tongs or test-tube holder ately flush it out at the eyewash station while calling
■ 9 test tubes ■ test-tube rack to your teacher. As you perform each test, record your
■ labeling tape ■ albumin solution data in your lab report, organized in a table such as the
■ marker ■ sodium hydroxide solution one on the next page.
■ 10 mL graduated cylinder ■ copper sulfate solution
■ Benedict’s solution ■ vegetable oil Test 1: Monosaccharides
■ 9 dropping pipets ■ Sudan III solution 1. CAUTION Do not touch the
hot plate. Use tongs to move
Background heated objects. Turn off the hot plate when not in
1. Carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids are nutrients that use. Do not plug in or unplug the hot plate with
make up all living things. Some foods, such as table wet hands. Make a water bath by filling a 500 mL
sugar, contain only one of these nutrients. Most beaker half full with water. Then, put the beaker
foods, however, contain mixtures of proteins, carbo- on a hot plate, and bring the water to a boil.
hydrates, and lipids. You can confirm this fact by 2. While you wait for the water to boil, label one
reading the information in the Nutrition Facts box test tube “1-glucose,” label the second test tube
found on any food label. “1-unknown,” and label the third test tube
2. In this investigation, you will use chemical sub- ”1-water.” Using the graduated cylinder, measure
stances, called indicators, to identify the presence of 5 mL of Benedict’s solution, and add it to the
specific nutrients in an unknown solution. By com- “1-glucose” test tube. Repeat the procedure,
paring the color change an indicator produces in the adding 5 mL of Benedict’s solution each to the
unknown food sample with the change it produces “1-unknown” test tube and “1-water” test tube.
in a sample of known composition, you can deter- 3. Using a dropping pipet or eyedropper, add 10 drops
mine whether specific organic compounds are pre- of glucose solution to the “1-glucose” test tube. Using
sent in the unknown sample. a second dropping pipet, add 10 drops of the
unknown solution to the “1-unknown” test tube.

64 CHAPTER 3
Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.
 IDENTIFICATION OF SPECIFIC NUTRIENTS BY CHEMICAL INDICATORS
Nutrient in Nutrient category Result for Result for Result for
Test test solution (protein, lipid, etc.) known sample unknown sample distilled water

Using a third dropping pipet, add 10 drops of distilled Test 3: Lipids

water to the “1-water” test tube. Mix the contents of 10. Label one clean test tube “3-vegetable oil,” label a
each test tube with a clean stirring rod. (It is important second test tube “3-unknown,” and label a third test
not to contaminate test solutions by using the same tube “3-water.” Using a dropping pipet, add 5 drops of
dropping pipet or stirring rod in more than one solu- vegetable oil to the “3-vegetable oil” test tube. Using
tion. Use a different dropping pipet and stirring rod a second dropping pipet, add 5 drops of the unknown
for each of the test solutions.) solution to the “3-unknown” test tube. Using a third
4. When the water boils, use tongs to place the test tubes dropping pipet, add 5 drops of water to the “3-water”
in the water bath. Boil the test tubes for 1 to 2 minutes. test tube.
5. CAUTION Do not touch the test tubes with 11. CAUTION Sudan III solution will stain your
your hands. They will be very hot. Use tongs skin and clothing. Promptly wash off spills to
to remove the test tubes from the water bath and minimize staining. Do not use Sudan III solution in
place them in the test-tube rack. As the test tubes the same room with an open flame. Using a clean
cool, an orange or red precipitate will form if large dropping pipet, add 3 drops of Sudan III solution to
amounts of glucose are present. If small amounts of each test tube. Mix the contents of each test tube with
glucose are present, a yellow or green precipitate will a clean stirring rod.
form. Record your results in your data table. 12. Record you results in your data table.
13. Clean up your materials, and wash your
Test 2: Proteins hands before leaving the lab.
6. Label one clean test tube “2-albumin,” label
a second test tube “2-unknown,” and label Analysis and Conclusions
a third test tube “2-water.” Using a dropping pipet, 1. Based on the results you recorded in your data table,
add 40 drops of albumin solution to the “2-albumin” identify the nutrient or nutrients in the unknown
test tube. Using a second dropping pipet, add 40 drops solution.
of unknown solution to the “2-unknown” test tube. 2. What are the experimental controls in this
Using a third dropping pipet, add 40 drops of water to investigation?
the “2-water” test tube. 3. Explain how you were able to use the color changes of
7. Add 40 drops of sodium hydroxide solution to each of different indicators to determine the presence of spe-
the three test tubes. Mix the contents of each test cific nutrients in the unknown substance.
tube with a clean stirring rod. 4. List four potential sources of error in this investigation.
8. Add a few drops of copper sulfate solution, one drop
at a time, to the “2-albumin” test tube. Stir the solu- Further Inquiry
tion with a clean stirring rod after each drop. Note the Is there a kind of macromolecule that the tests in this
number of drops required to cause the color of the lab did not test for? If so, list the kinds of macromolecules
solution in the test tube to change. Then, add the not tested for, and give one reason why they were not
same number of drops of copper sulfate solution to tested for.
the “2-unknown” and “2-water” test tubes.
9. Record your results in your data table.

BIOCHEMISTRY 65
Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.