DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING:

BEngTech CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

LABORATORY 1A

TECHNICAL REPORT XT OR SUMMARY REPORT

Surname, Initials Student Percentage Student

Number/s contribution Signature
100% S.S LEMBEDE
Lembede, S. S 21906761

PRACTICAL NAME Boiling heat transfer

GROUP NUMBER 2

DATE OF THE PRAC 11/05/22

SUBMISSION DATE 20/05/22

EXAMINER/LECTURER TP Lubisi

1
Summary

Objectives:

- Determine the impact of varying heat rate on the system temperatures.

- Determine what type of boiling is occurring.
- Plot graphs for heat flux vs ∆𝑇𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 and U vs heat input.
- Check if the system displays repeatability.

Equipment:

- Refrigerator
- Condenser
- Cooling water
- Thermometers
- Pressure gage
- Heater power

Process variables that remained constant:

- Condenser Pressure at 40 Kpa

Results

Convective boiling is the first type of boiling that occurred followed by nucleate boiling, then film boiling. This all
occurred as the heat input was continuously increasing.

Conclusion

convective boiling occurred at the beginning, and it occurred once, nucleate boiling followed right after and
occurred longer followed by film boiling. This was all dependent on the heat power input.

The temperatures of the metal, liquid and vapor kept on increasing as the heat input increased, till a certain point
where their temperatures had a sudden decrease and started increasing once again

Recommendations

- Repeat the experiment to ensure improved accuracy of measurements.

- Always ensure there is enough cooling water for the experiment.
- Ensure that the electrical supply works efficiently.

2
Table of Contents Summary...........2

Introduction..............................................................................................................................................4

Theory.....................................................................................................................................................5

Experimental Method and Apparatus......................................................................................................8

Results and discussion….........................................................................................................................10

Conclusion and Recommendation...........................................................................................................14

Nomenclature...........................................................................................................................................15

Reference…...............................................................................................................................................6

3
INTRODUCTION

The purpose of the experiment is to determine what type of boiling is occurring in the experiment.

Boiling and condensation are vital links in the transfer of heat to a cooler region from a hot region in countless
applications, e.g.: thermal and nuclear power generation in steam plants, refrigeration, refining, heat transmission,
etc. when a liquid at saturation temperature is in contact with the surface of a solid at a higher temperature, heat is
transferred to the liquid and a phase change (evaporation) of some of the liquid occurs. The nature and rate of this
heat transfer changes considerably as the temperature difference between the surface and the liquid is increased.
Although ‘boiling’ is a process familiar to everyone, the production of vapor bubbles is a very interesting and
complex process. Due to the surface tension, the vapor inside the bubble must be at a higher temperature that the
surrounding liquid. The pressure difference increases as the diameter of the bubble decreases and is insignificant
when the bubble is large.

The pressure inside a bubble is the vapor pressure corresponding with the temperature of the surrounding liquid;
thus, when no bubble exists it is possible for the liquid temperature in the region of the heat transfer surface to be
well above the temperature of the bulk of the liquid.

This report deals with 3 types of boiling namely, Consecutive boiling, Nucleate boiling and Film boiling.

Boiling heat transfer plays an important role in a range of technological and industrial applications such heat
exchangers, refrigeration coolers of high-power electronics and nuclear reactors

The boiling of water is used as a method of making it potable by killing viruses and microbes that may be present.
Boiling water is also used in various cooking methods including steaming, boiling, and poaching.

Boiling heat transfer is a great mechanism to heat removal from a surface of which is already heated. Exceptional
transfer rates are achieved via phase changes that occurs due to the localized motion of fluid interface.

4
Theory

Figure 1: Boiling Heat Transfer Unit

Description of the unit

A high watt density electric heating element in a copper sleeve submerged in R141b liquid is mounted horizontally
in a vertical glass chamber. The temperature of the copper sleeve is measured by a thermocouple and digital
indicator.

The electric input of the heater is controlled by phase angle controller, the actual heat transfer rate being displayed
on the digital wattmeter.

A controller incorporated in the temperature indicator switches off the electrical input if the temperature of the
heating surface exceeds a pre-set value.

At the upper end of the chamber is the condenser, a nickel-plated coil of copper tube through which cooling
water flows. This coil condenses the vapor produced by the heat input and the liquid formed returns to the
bottom of the chamber for re-evaporation.

A condenser water flowmeter is used in conjunction with glass thermometers measuring the condenser water
temperatures, enables the rate of heat transfer at the condenser to be measured. The logarithmic mean temperature
difference during condensation may also determine. Glass thermometers are also mounted inside the glass cylinder
to indicate the temperature of the liquid and vapor.

5
Types of boiling

Convective boiling

When the temperature of the surface heating is slightly hotter than the temperature of the liquid saturation, the
excess vapor pressure is unlikely to produce bubbles. The locally heated liquid expands, and the convection currents
transport it to the liquid-vapor interface evaporation takes place and the thermal balance is restored. Therefore,
evaporation takes place in this mode at a small temperature difference and with no formation of bubbles.

Nucleate boiling

As the surface becomes hotter, the excess vapor pressure over the liquid pressure increases and eventually bubbles
are formed. These occur at nucleating points on the hot surface where minute gas pockets, which are present in
surface defects, form the nucleus for the formation of a bubble. As soon as a bubble is formed, it spreads rapidly as
the heated liquid evaporates into it. The buoyancy separates the bubble from the surface, and another begins to
form. Nucleate boiling is characterized by the formation of vigorous bubbles and turbulence. Exceptionally high
heat transfer rates and heat coefficients with moderate temperature differences occur in nucleate boiling and, in
practical applications, boiling is nearly always in this mode.

Film boiling

Above the critical surface-liquid temperature difference, the surfaces become 'closed with vapor' and the liquid
cannot wet the surface. When this happens, there is a significant reduction in the heat transfer rate and if the heat
input to the metal is not immediately reduced to match the lower transfer rate of the surface and the heat input to the
metal is not Immediately reduces In order to match the lower heat transfer capability of the surface, the metal
temperature will rise until the radiation from the surface plus the limited heat transfer of the boiling is equal to the
energy input. If the energy input is in the form of work (including electrical energy) there is no limit to the
temperature that could be reached by the metal and its temperature can rise until the failure or 'burn-out' occurs, and
this section is attributed to the many failures in the radiant section of the film advanced boilers Immersion heaters
ought to be for sure be designed with enough location so that the warmth reflux in no way exceeds the
quintessential value. The penalties of a ‘burn out’ in a nuclear electricity plant will be effectively appreciate

6
Equations used

Heat transfer rate at cooling coil.......................................................................................................(1)

𝑄𝑤 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝(𝑡𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑡𝑖𝑛)

Where: 𝑄𝑤=heat transfer at cooling coil (W)

𝑚 = mass flow rate of water (kg/s)

𝐶𝑝 = specific heat capacity of water (W/kg. k)

𝑡𝑜𝑢𝑡 =cooling temp out (⁰C)

𝑡𝑖𝑛 =cooling temp in (⁰C)

Heat transfer rate from heater….......................................................................................................(2)

𝑄𝑐

Heat transfer to surroundings...........................................................................................................(3)

𝑄𝑐 − 𝑄𝑤

∅1 = 𝑡𝑠 − 𝑡𝑖𝑛

∅2 = 𝑡𝑠 − 𝑡𝑜𝑢𝑡

Where:𝑄𝑐 = heat transfer rate from heater (w)

𝑄𝑤 = heat transfer rate at cooling coil (w)

Log mean temperature difference…................................................................................................(4)

∅ = [∅ − ∅ ]/𝑙𝑛 [∅1 ]
𝑚 1 2
∅2
Where:∅𝑚= log mean temperature difference

Overall heat transfer coefficient.......................................................................................................(5)

𝑈 = 𝑄𝑤/∅𝑚

Where: 𝑈 = overall heat transfer coefficient (W m K)

𝑄 𝑤=heat transfer rate at cooling coil (W)

∅𝑚= log mean temperature difference(K)

Q = U × ΔT................................................................................................................................................... (6)

7
Experimental method and apparatus

Figure 2: Block diagram of the boiling heat transfer unit

Important features of the equipment:

- Cooling water – cools the whole system and prevents overheating

- Pressure gage – indicates the pressure of the condenser. It helps to ensure that the condenser pressure is
maintained at 40kPa
- Heater power – provides the heating power to the system

OPERATING PROCEDURE

 Turn on the electrical supply

 Open the cooling water tap and adjust the cooling water supply in the column.
 Note: the temperature indicator reads the temperature of the metal in degrees Celsius and the
thermometer in the liquid within the column reads the liquid temperature in degrees Celsius.
 Set the heat input to 40 watts
 Open the cooling water and slowly adjust it until the condenser pressure of 40kPa is reached
 NOTE: the condenser pressure must always be kept constant at 40kPa throughout the experiment To
determine what kind of boiling is occurring use the following guidelines/hints:
Convective Boiling occurs at low heat inputs and liquid will be seen to collect and drip off the
condenser coils, indicating that evaporation is proceeding at a slow rate.
Nucleate boiling occurs when the metal liquid temperature difference is still less than 20⁰C.
Film boiling occurs at high heat input suddenly reduced.

8
 Variables that remained constant:
- Condenser pressure at 40kPa

Variables recorded in the experiment

- Metal Temperature
- Liquid temperature
- Vapour temperature
- Cooling water temperature (in)
- Cooling water temperature (out)
- Cooling water flowrate
- Heat input

9
 Results and Discussions
Heat Condens Metal Liquid Vapour Cooling Cooling Cooling Observati
Input er Temp Temp Temp H2O H2O H2O on
(watts) Pressur (⁰C) (⁰C) (⁰C) Temp In Temp Flow
e (⁰C) Out rate
(kPa) (⁰C) (g/s)
40 40 54 42 27 23 24 3.8 convective
60 40 56 41 25 21 23 3.9 convective
100 40 61 41 29 21 23 4.0 Convective
140 40 62 41 31 21 26 4.1 nucleate
180 40 65 42 35 21 27 4.1 nucleate
220 40 66 42 38 21 27 7.2 nucleate
260 40 68 42 39 21 27 11 nucleate
300 40 72 43 40 22 27 12 film
340 40 78 43 40 22 25 12 film
40 40 50 41 32 22 24 3.0 film
60 40 52 41 35 23 26 3.1 film
100 40 56 41 32 24 27 1.9 film
140 40 59 41 33 23 27 2.0 Film
180 40 62 41 37 27 30 4.5 Film
220 40 65 41 39 23 29 7.2 Film
260 40 67 42 39 23 28 7.2 Film
300 40 72 42 40 22 27 11.4 Film
340 40 78 42 40 22 27 12 film

Table 1: Results obtained

Refer to the table above, heat input was already given in table 1, so heat input was changed based on the data
provided, and the rest of the measurements (metal temperature, vapor temperature, cooling water temperature out,
cooling water temperature in, cooling water flowrate, and observations) were obtained. Condenser pressure had to
be kept constant, so after changing the heat input, it was ensured that it remained at 40kPa. When 40W of heat was
applied, the metal temperature reached 54°C, the water flowrate was 3.8g/s, and convective boiling was observed.
When 340W of heat was applied, the metal temperature was 78°C, the water flowrate was 12g/s, and film boiling
was observed. Based on the observations described above, it is possible to conclude that as heat input increases,
metal temperature rises, water flowrate rises, and more water particles collide, resulting in film boiling. When the
heat input is reduced from 340W to 40W while maintaining the condenser pressure at 40kPa, water particle
collision decreases and nucleate boiling occurs, the metal temperature drops to 54W, and the water flowrate is
3.8g/s. When the heat input was reduced to 40W, convective boiling was supposed to be observed, but nucleate
boiling was observed; this result could be attributed to not allowing enough time before recording (nucleate) under
the observation column. When particles collide at a high rate and heat input is abruptly removed, the water particles
slowly and gradually decrease before they become still.

10
Table 2

𝑄𝑤 𝑄𝑐 𝑄𝑐-. 𝑄𝑤 . ∅1 . ∅2 .∅𝑚 U (W m-2 K-1)

15.884 40 24.116 19 18 18.495 26.838

32.604 60 27.396 20 18 18 53.67
33.34 100 66.56 20 18 18.982 54.887
85.69 140 54.31 20 15 17.380 154.07
102.828 180 77.172 21 15 17.832 180.203
180.576 220 39.424 21 15 17.832 180.203
275.88 260 -15.88 21 15 17.832 483.470
250.8 300 49.2 21 16 18.386 426.275
150.48 340 189.52 21 18 19.461 242.151
25.08 40 14.92 19 17 17.981 43.587
38.874 60 21.126 18 15 16.454 73.830
23.826 100 76.174 17 14 15.451 48.189
33.44 140 106.56 18 14 15.916 65.657
56.43 180 123.57 14 11 12.439 310.439
180.576 220 39.424 18 12 14.797 381.361
150.48 260 109.52 19 14 16.372 287.228
238.26 300 61.74 20 15 17.380 428.401
250.8 340 89.2 20 15 17.380 450.949

The heat transfer rate at the cooling coil, as shown in table 2, was calculated using equation 1 from the theory
section. The observed relationship between heat input and heat transfer rate at cooling coil is that as the heat input
increases from 40 to 340 W, the heat transfer rate increases. The heat transfer rate at the cooling coil increases as
well. This means that as the heat input increased, so did the rate at which the cooling coil absorbed the liquid
temperature, resulting in an increase in heat transfer rate at the cooling coil. Equation 2 from the theory section was
used to calculate the Qs value. It also revealed a direct proportional relationship between the heat input and the rate
of heat transfer to the surroundings. Table 2 shows that as the heat injected into the system increases, so does the heat
transfer to the surroundings.
The Фm was calculated using equation 5 from the report's theory section. It rises in proportion to the amount of heat
applied. The overall heat transfer coefficient was calculated using equation on 5 on the theory section. As the heat
input increased from 40 to 340 W, it increased from 26.838 to 450.949. A graph depicting the relationship between
heat input and overall heat transfer coefficient was created, and the observed trends were discussed.

Heat flux increases as the amount of heat injected into the system increases. The heat flux values were calculated
using equation 6 from the report's theory section.

11
The following graph depicts the relationship between heat flux and ΔT excess. The graph is known as a boiling
curve.

Figure 1: Boiling curve (Heat flux vs ΔTexcess)

Figure 1 depicts the boiling curve, which represents the relationship between heat flux and ΔT excess. Convective
boiling was observed in the graph when the heat flux ranged from 26.8 to 154.07 W m-2, It was represented by a
straight line, indicating that increasing the excess temperature increases the heat flux.
Evaporation was taking place at a steady rate. Nucleate boiling was observed from a heat flux of 154.07 to
242.151 W m-2,when the heat input was at its maximum (340 W). The maximum point is also known as the highest
point (critical heat flux). The graph fell from 483.16 to 54.887 W m-2 as the heat input was reduced from 340 to 40
W. This is the stage of transition from nucleate to film boing. Film boiling was observed when the graph reached its
lowest point (54.887 W m-2), known as the Leidenfrost point. The rapid drop in temperature caused the surface to
become vapor locked, resulting in film boiling. As the heat injected into the system increases, the graph begins to
rise again. This indicates that the heat flux is dependent on the amount of heat injected into the system. When the
heat input increases, so does the heat flux.

12
The diagram below depicts the relationship between heat input (Qc) and heat transfer coefficient (U).
It was built using the values from Table 2.

Figure 2: Heat input vs Heat transfer coefficient

The graph shown above is drawn using the heat input from 40 to 340 W. From the graph increasing the
heat input also results inan increase in heat transfer coefficient. When the heat input is 40 W the heat
transfer coefficient is 26.838 W m-2 K-1, but when heat input is increased to 60 W, the heat transfer
increases to 53.67 W m-2 K-1. This indicates a directly proportional relationship between the two
variables, heat transfer coefficient being dependent on the heat input.

Convective boiling was observed when the heat input was from 40 to 100 W, while the heat transfer
coefficient was from 26.838 to 54.887 W m-2 K-1. Nucleate boiling was observed when the heat input
wasifrom 140 to 300 W, while the heat transfer coefficient was from 154.07 to 483.16 W m- 2 K-1. The
results obtained from the experiment went according to what was expected from the practical manual
discussed in the theory section.

The graph increases gradually until it reaches the maximum tip where the heat input is 340 W, and the
heat transfer coefficient is 450.949 W m-2 K-1. At this point, film boiling is observed. The graphis
expected to drop when the heat input from the system is reduced to 40 W. Increasing the heat input will
increase the heat transfer coefficient.

13
Conclusion

The boiling heat transfer experiment was run to demonstrate the heat transfer rate as the heat input
changed from 40 watts to 340 watts. The boiling curve was constructed showing the different boiling
regimes. When the heat input was set to 40 to 100 W, convective boiling was observed. When it was set
to 140 to 300 W, nucleate boiling was and lastly from 340 W to 40 W, film boiling was noticed. This goes to
show that the rate at which heat is transferred from the metal to the liquidincreases when the heat injected
into the system increases at a constant pressure.

Recommendations

- Ensure that the condenser pressure is always kept content at 40kPa.

- Repeat the experiment to ensure improved accuracy of measurements.
- Always ensure there is sufficient cooling water for the experiment.

- Ensure that the electrical supply works efficiently.

14
NOMECLATURE

Condenser surface area – 0.032m2 Maximum

permitted temperature - 220⁰C Cp – specific

heat capacity – 4.18 Kj Kg-1 K-1 kPa –

kilopascals

⁰C – degrees Celsius g/s –

grams per second

Qw – Heat transfer rate at cooling coil - watts Qc

– heat transfer rate from heater - watts

∅m – Log mean temperature - Kelvin K

– Kelvin

W – watts

mw – water flow rate

tin – water temperature in tout

– water temperature out

ts- saturation temperature of liquid

15
REFFERENCES

Rahman, M. M., Pollack, J. & McCarthy, M., 2015. Increasing Boiling Heat Transfer using Low Conductivity
Materials. Scientific Reports, volume 5

Bacon, D. H., 1989. Basic Heat transfer. Butterworth-Heinemann

Nick Connor, 22 May 2019.Film boiling[online]. Thermal engineering.

Available:https://www.thermal-engineering.org/what-is-film-boiling- definition/#:~:text=Film
%20boiling%20occurs%20when%20the%20pressure%20of%20a,tran sfer%20surface%20is%20increased
%2C%20more%20bubbles%20are%20created. (Accessed on 17/05/22)

Fil, B. E., Kini, G & Garamella, S., 2020. A review of dropwise condensation: Theory, modeling, experiment, and
applications. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 160.

16
APPENDICES

THE OVERALL HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT BETWEEN THE CONDENSING VAPOUR AND THE
WATER MAY BE FOUND AS FOLLOWS:

Water flow rate: mw = 3.9g/s

Water temp in tin = 21⁰C
Water temp out: tout = 23⁰C
Saturation temp of liquid: ts = 41⁰C
Heat input: Q = 60 W
Specific heat capacity of water 𝐶𝑝= 4180 (KJ/Kg °C)

Heat transfer rate at cooling coil:

𝑄𝑤 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝(𝑡𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑡𝑖𝑛)

= 3.9 × 10−3 × 4180 × (23 − 21)𝑊

= 32.604 𝑊
Heat transfer rate from heater 𝑄𝑐 = 60𝑊
Heat transfer to surroundings (by difference)
𝑄𝑐 − 𝑄𝑤
= 60 − 32.604
= 27.396 𝑊

∅1 = 𝑡𝑠 − 𝑡𝑖𝑛
= 41 − 21
= 20 °C

∅2 = 𝑡𝑠 − 𝑡𝑜𝑢𝑡
= 41 − 23
= 18 °C
∅1
∅ = [∅ − ∅ ]/𝑙𝑛 [ ]
𝑚 1 2
[ ∅20
2
= 20 − 18] / 𝑙𝑛 [ ]
18
= 18.982°C

Overall heat transfer coefficient: 𝑈 = 𝑄𝑤/∅𝑚

= 32.604/[0.032 × 18.982]
= 53.67 𝑚−2𝐾−1

17