Learning Objectives However, when a bud is located in the axil of a structure with more

 Describe the morphological characteristics of plant leaves. than one leaf (leaflet) on attached to the axis (rachis), the leaf is
classified as compound. As shown in Figure 14.2, even or odd
Leaves are specialized structures for photosynthesis that provide numbers of leaflets may be pinnately compound that is, arranged
plants with energy. Leaves arise at nodes just below an axillary bud along a central axis (feather-like), or palmately compound from one
on woody stems and are usually petiolate, that is composed of a point on the tip of the petiole, (like fingers on an out-stretched
blade and stalk-like petiole. Petioles may have stipules, two small hand). Compound leaves may undergo double (bipinnate) or triple
leaf-like flaps that are attached at the base. In some cases, stipules (tripinnate) compounding into finer segments or leaflets.
on leaves and stems may become modified into spines, thorns, or
prickles. Some leaves are sessile, that is, they lack petioles and have
blades directly attached to the stem. When a bud is located in the
axil of a single leaf and the stem, as shown in Figure 14.1 the leaf is
classified as simple.

Figure 14.2 Types of compound leaves

Phyllotaxy, the arrangement of a leaf or bud in relation to another

leaf or bud along a plant stem is a useful basis for classifying plants.
Figure 14.3 illustrates common leaf arrangements where leaves and
buds on a stem are opposite (directly across from each other on the
stem), alternate (spaced alternately along the stem axis), whorled
(three or more leaves and buds are positioned at a node), or basal
(emerging from the base). Leaf arrangement may also be described
as spiral, clustered, decussate (alternating pairs at right angles), and
Figure 14.1 External features of a simple leaf imbricate (overlapping scales).
14.3 Common leaf arrangements

Leaf venation refers to the patterns of veins within the leaf blade. In
eudicot plants, leaf venation is typically either pinnate or palmate
and may have multiple branching that gives an overall netted
appearance. In contrast, monocots will have parallel leaf venation.
Additional morphological features for description include leaf shape,
tip and base features, and margins (edges). Leaf surface
characteristics vary and some may be smooth (glabrous) or with
hairs (hirsute or pubescent), wrinkles (rugose), pustules (verrucose) Figure 14.4 Leaf shapes
or other interruptions of the surface. Additional leaf surface terms
are defined at this link to Leaf[New Tab][1].

Figure 14.4 and Figure 14.5 illustrate components of a leaf

morphology chart commonly used for plant identification. More
detailed information about the external characteristics of leaves is
available at this link to Leaf Morphology[New Tab][2].
 Leaves: Morphology, Types & Modification
Plants are an essential part of the ecosystem. Every life on the earth
is directly or indirectly dependent on plants. Among the different
parts of a plant, the leaf is the most essential.
Primarily, leaves have two functions: photosynthesis and
transpiration. In some plants, it takes up the responsibility of
reproduction also.
Table of Contents

 Structure
 Types
 Modification
 Function
 Key Points
Let’s learn more about the morphology of leaves, parts of a leaf,
different types of leaves and their modifications.

Structure of a Leaf
Leaves are thin, flat organs responsible for photosynthesis in the
Figure 14.5 Leaf tips, bases and margins plants. It develops laterally at the node. It is an important part of the
Review. Use the leaf morphology chart to describe leaf parts. Click shoot system and it originates from shoot apical meristems.
the image hot spots. The structure of a leaf is described below in detail :

Parts of a Leaf
Generally, leaf base, petiole, and lamina, together form the main
parts of a  leaf.
  Leaf Base: This is the part where a leaf attaches to the stem.  Reticulate venation: In a reticulate venation, the veinlets are
Leaf base has two small leaf-like structure called stipules. In randomly arranged and form a complex network of veinlets.
plants like paddy, wheat, and other monocotyledons, this leaf Ex: Dicotyledonous plants like a rose plant.
base is wide and masks the stem.
 Petiole: Petiole is the long, thin, stalk that links the leaf
blade to the stem.
 Lamina: Also known as leaf blade. It is the green, flat
surface of the leaves. It consists of a small branched vein and
veinlets. The vein that runs along the middle of the lamina is
called midrib. Midrib divides the surface of the lamina into
two. These veins and veinlets give rigidity to the leaf blade
and help in the transportation of water and other substances.

Reticulate venation
A leaf diagram representing the parts of a leaf
Read more: Types of Stipules  Parallel venation: In a parallel venation, the veinlets run
parallel to each other. Ex: In monocotyledons like paddy.
Venation
Venation is defined as the arrangement of veins and the veinlets in
the leaves. Different plants show different types of venation.
Generally, there are two types of venation:
 Simple Leaf
When a single lamina is connected to the main stem by a petiole, the
leaf is said to be simple. A simple leaf may be incised to any depth
but not down to the midrib or petiole. Eg., Guava leaves

Compound Leaf
A compound leaf is a leaf made up of two or more leaflets.  In a
compound leaf, the midrib of the leaf is branched into different
leaflets and is connected by a single petiole. For eg., Pea, palm
leaves.

Parallel venation
Also Read: Root Modifications

Types of Leaves
There are two broad categories of leaves – simple and compound,
which are further classified into different groups based on The compound leaves are further sub-divided into the following
their shape, size, their arrangements on the stem,  leaves of types of leaves:
flowering and non-flowering plants, and various other physical Palmately Compound Leaf
attributes.
In a palmately compound leaf, the leaflets are attached at the tip of
The two different types of leaves found in a plant are: the petiole. Eg., Silk cotton. These can be differentiated into:

1. Unifoliate: These type of leaves have only one leaflet. Eg.,

Citrus
2. Bifoliate: These leaves have two leaflets. Eg., Balanites
 3. Trifoliate: These leaves have three leaflets emerging from
the same point. Eg., Oxalis
4. Quadrifoliate: These leaves have four leaflets arising from
the same point. Eg., Marsilea
5. Multifoliate: This type of leaf has many leaflets arising at a
common pint. Eg., Bombax

Pinnately Compound Leaf

In a pinnately compound leaf, the midrib of the leaf is divided into
numerous leaflets and all connected by a common axis. Eg., Neem.
These can be further differentiated into:

1. Pinnate: A compound leaf that has an axis on each side of

the midrib is known as a pinnate leaf. Palmately compound leaf & Pinnately compound leaf
2. Unipinnate: The leaf with leaflets on each side of the axis.
Eg., cassia Phyllotaxy
3. Bipinnate: Here, a secondary axis bearing the leaflet is The patterns of arrangement of leaves on the stem are called
produced by the central axis. Eg., Acacia Phyllotaxy. Plants show three types of phyllotaxy- alternate,
4. Tripinnate: Here, a tertiary axis bearing leaflets emerges opposite and whorled types of phyllotaxy.
from the secondary axis. Eg., Moringa
5. Decompound: Leaf with more than three pinnate. Eg., old  When only a single leaf develops at each node alternatively,
leaves of coriander it is an alternate type of phyllotaxy.E.g. China rose.
6. Parapinnate: A leaf without a terminal leaflet. Eg., Cassia
7. Imparipinnate: Leaf with an odd terminal leaflet. Eg., Pea  When a pair of leaves develops at each node opposite to each
other, it is called opposite phyllotaxy.E.g. Guava plants.

 When more than two leaves develop at the nodes to form a

whorl of leaves, it is called whorled phyllotaxy. E.g.
Alstonia.
Also Read: Transportation in Plants
Modification Of Leaves Scale Leaves
We know leaves are specialised to perform photosynthesis. In These are thin, membranous structures, without stalks, brownish or
addition, they also have other significant roles to play, such as colourless in appearance. They protect the auxiliary bud present in
support, storage of food, defence, etc. For each of these functions, their axil. Scale leaves in onion are fleshy and thick and store food
they have been modified into different forms. and water. Casuarina and Asparagus also contain sale leaves
For example, tendrils of peas, spines of cacti, onion bulb, leaves
Leaflet Hooks
of insectivorous plants, etc. are different modified leaves. Let us
have a detailed look at some of the modification of leaves: In some plants, the terminal leaflets of leaf get modified into hook-
like structures that help them in climbing. Eg., Bignonia unguiscati.
Storage Leaves
Leaf Roots
The xerophytic plants and plants belonging to the Crassulaceae
family have thick and succulent leaves that store water in their In a few plants, one of the leaves present at the nodes gets modified
tissues. The parenchymatous cells of these leaves have large into adventitious roots which helps them to float over the water
vacuoles filled with hydrophilic colloid. This modification helps the surface. Eg., Salvinia
plant to resist desiccation.
Phyllode
Leaf Tendrils
In some plants, the petiole becomes flattened, taking the shape of a
Leaf tendrils exist in plants with weak stems. The leaves get leaf and turns green in colour. This is known as phyllode. For eg.,
modified into thread-like structures called tendrils. These tendrils Australian Acacia.
climb a nearby stick or wall and provide support to the plant. For
eg., In Lathyrus aphaca, the whole leaf is modified into tendrils. The Insectivorous Leaves
upper leaflets of Pisum sativum get modified into tendrils.
Few plants require nitrogen for their development. In such plants,
Leaf Spines the leaves are modified to catch and digest insects. Few of the
modifications are mentioned below:
A few plants have their leaves modified into needle-like structures
known as spines. The spines act as defensive structures. They also  Leaf Pitcher- In a few plants like Nepenthes, the leaf-lamina
reduce water loss due to transpiration. For eg., in Opuntia, the leaves is modified into a pitcher-like structure. The insect is
are modified into spines. digested into the inner walls of the pitcher which secretes a
digestive fluid into the pitcher cavity.
  Leaf Bladder- In such plants, the segments of the leaves are Storage
modified into bladders. These plants are found in water. The
inner wall is provided with digestive glands which helps in Leaves are a site of photosynthesis. Therefore, they store water and
digesting the trapped insect. For eg., Utricularia nutrients. The succulent and thick leaves particularly adapt to water
storage.
 In Drosera– The lamina possesses numerous hair with a
sticky globule at its tip containing digestive enzymes. The Defence
moment an insect sits on the lamina, the hair covers the
insect completely. Some leaves are modified into spines to protect them from being
damaged or eaten by animals. For eg., Opuntia.
Functions of Leaves
Key Points
The leaves perform the following functions:
 Leaves are found at the nodes of the stem and contain the
Photosynthesis
photosynthetic pigment chlorophyll.
Photosynthesis is the primary function of leaves. They convert  There are three main parts of a leaf – Leaf base, leaf lamina,
carbon dioxide, water, and UV light into glucose through the process and petiole.
of photosynthesis.  There are two different types of leaves – simples leaves and
Also Refer: Photosynthesis compound leaves. The other types of leaves include acicular,
linear, lanceolate, orbicular, elliptical, oblique, centric
Transpiration cordate, etc.
 They perform the function of photosynthesis and help in the
Transpiration is the removal of excess water from the plants into removal of excess water from the aerial parts of the plant.
the atmosphere. This occurs by the opening of stomata present in the
leaves.  They are modified in the form of spines, tendrils, hooks and
scales and help them to adapt to various environments.
Guttation
Removal of excess water from the xylem at the edges of the leaves
when the stomata are closed is known as guttation.
  Petiole: This is the structure that attaches the leaf blade of
Morphology of Leaves the plant to the base of the leaf. The length of the petiole
depends on the species of the plant. 
Plants are the primary source of food in the environment and are one  Leaf-Blade/Lamina: This is the main structure of the leaf,
of the basic units of the ecosystem. Plants make food for the which is green in color. The leaf blade has a main vascular
consumers in the ecosystem by the process of photosynthesis. Do supply running in the center of the leaf called the midrib. The
you know how photosynthesis takes place? Photosynthesis takes veins of the leaf run through the midrib, and veinlets may
place in a structure of the plant called the leaf. branch out of it. This structure of the leaf is the part where
pigments like chlorophyll, xanthophyll are present. The leaf
The leaf is an essential part of the plant, which contains nutrients may contain structures like stomata, which are bean-like
and other ingredients necessary for preparing the edible portion of structures required for the transpiration process. 
the plant, which may be a stem, leaf, or fruit. Leaves are the flat
green portion of the plant, which is the main vascular supply of the Venation
plants. The stem, along with the leaf, is called the shoot. Apart from Venation is the pattern or shape in which the vascular system of the
photosynthesis, the leaves also form the function of a process called venules of the leaves is arranged. It is classified into two types:
transpiration. Now, we will learn the structure, parts, and function of
the leaves in detail.  Parallel Venation: In this type, the veins and veinlets are
arranged parallel to one another. An example of this is the
Structure of a Leaf banana leaf. The veinlets if observed, are parallel to each
other. All the monocotyledons have parallel venation, E.g.,
The leaf is a flat structure that is attached to the stem or branches of
paddy, and wheat. 
the plant or tree. Leaves come in different sizes and shapes
 Reticulate Venation: In this type of venation, the veins
depending on the environment they grow in, the species they belong
form a mesh-like network, and there is no specific shape of
to, and if any modifications are present. The structure of the leaf
the network. This network supplies all the nutrients to all
should be under different subheadings, namely:
parts of the leaf blade. All the Dicotyledons are an example
of this kind of venation. E.g., Hibiscus, Rose, Mango,
Parts of the Leaf
Jackfruit plant leaves, etc. 
 Leaf Base: It is the place in the stem in which the leaf
petiole attaches. Two stipules, which are tiny structures Types of Leaves
similar to a leaf, are found here. Monocotyledons like paddy
Leaves can be divided into two main categories: 
wheat have a large leaf base and can cover the stem. 
1. Simple Leaves 
 2. Compound Leaves.   Palmately Compound: In this type, the leaflets arise from a
single point of origin and hence form like a palm of the hand.
Simple Leaves: These are the leaves that originate from the branch E.g., cotton leaves. It is further classified into:
or stem and do not divide any further into smaller leaflets.  Only one
lamina is attached to the leaf base by the petiole. E.g., Mango a. Unifoliate: Here, only one leaflet originates from the same
leaves, black cherry leaves, Guava leaves.  point. E.g., citrus fruits.
b. Bifoliate: Here, two leaflets arise from the same point. Eg
Compound Leaves: These are the leaves that divide further into
Balanites.
different leaflets from a single leaf base and petiole. The lamina
divides into subunits in two ways: c. Trifoliate: There are three leaflets that originate from the
same point. E.g., Oxalis.
 Pinnately Compound Leaves: Here, the midrib of the leaf
becomes the branch on which different leaflets arise. A d. Quadrifoliate: Four leaflets arise from the same point.
common axis connects all of the brochures. These are further Eg Marsilea.
divided into:
e. Multifoliate: Many leaflets arise from the same point.
a. Unipinnate: The leaflets arise on each side of the axis of the Eg Bombax.
leaf. E.g., cassia
Phyllotaxy
b. Bipinnate: The leaflets arise from a second axis, which
originates from the central axis. E.g., Acacia The pattern in which the leaves are arranged on a stem is called
phyllotaxy. Plants basically show three types of phyllotaxy.
c. Tripinnate: The leaflets arise from the tertiary axis that
arises from the secondary axis. E.g., Moringa  Alternate: In this type, one leaf develops at every alternate
node of the stem. E.g., China Rose.
d. Decompound: If the leaflets have more than three pinnate, it  Opposite: In this type, both the leaves arise from the node
is classified as decompound. E.g., Coriander opposite to each other Eg: Guava leaves.
 Whorls: In this type, more than three leaves develop at the
e. Paripinnate: The terminal leaflet is absent. E.g., Cassia. same node — Eg: Sunflower leaves.
f. Imparipinnate: If the terminal leaflet is odd, it is
termed imparipinnate. E.g., Pea plants. Modifications of Leaves
When other structures of the plant cannot develop and perform a
particular function, the leaves can be modified to perform their
functions. These functions can include the storage of food, structure that sits in pairs. It opens to release excess water
protection of the plant, and support to the plant.  and closes when the water content is less.
 Guttation: It is also a process of removal of excess water
 Phyllode: Here, the petiole is modified as a leaf and is from the plant. But it occurs when the stomata remain closed.
known as phyllode, which performs the function of the leaf. It takes place through the edges of the leaves in which the
E.g., Australian Acacia. xylem is present.
 Leaf Spines: In plants like Opuntia, the leaves of the plants  Storage: Since leaves have to synthesize food, it has to store
are modified into spines or thorns, which help in protecting nutrients necessary for the process of photosynthesis.
the plant from predators.  Protection: Few of the leaves get modified in order to
 Tendrils of Leaf: In plants like Lathyrus aphaca, the leaf protect the plants. E.g., Opuntia modifies the leaves into
gets modified into a thread-like structure called tendrils to spines.
support the plants as the plant has weak stems.
 Leaflet Hooks: The terminal part of the leaf gets modified Evolutionary Adaptations Found in Leaves
into a hook-like structure that helps it to climb. E.g.,
Bignonia unguis cati. In the course of their evolution, leaves have developed in many
 Insectivorous Leaves: Nitrogen is required by a few plants structural forms mainly to confer survival and/ or reproductive
to develop. Hence they derive it by modifying the leaves of advantage to their plant species.
the plant to catch and digest insects. E.g., Drosera, Venus Some of these evolutionary adaptations are discussed  in the points
flytrap. below:
Functions of Leaves  Some leaves (especially in the plants that grow in aquatic
The primary function of the leaves is photosynthesis. Photosynthesis environments and may be fully or partially submerged in
is a process in which the plant converts the sunlight, carbon dioxide, water) have developed waxy coating surfaces to their leaves.
water, and other substances into glucose and other substances that On the other hand, leaves in other plants have micro and
can be consumed by organisms. The leaves contain a pigment called nanostructures on their surface to prevent wetting from rain
chlorophyll, which is essential in this process. It is also the pigment and precipitation. This prevents adhesion of contaminants on
that gives the green color to the leaves. leaf surface which may block light and opening of stomata
for photosynthesis.
 Transpiration: The process of removal of excess water from  Leaves that are divided into leaflets (compound leaves) face
the plant is called transpiration. This takes place through the less resistance from gusty winds and promote the cooling
structure in the leaf called stomata. It is a kidney-shaped effect.
  Some leaves (for plants found in dry climates) have evolved Morphology of Leaf - Structure, Types, Parts & Modifications
to produce hairs on their surfaces which helps them trap (byjus.com)
moisture. These hairs also help create a boundary layer and
prevent moisture loss. Morphology of Leaves - Structure, Parts, Types and Functions
 In plants that grow in excessive sunlight (e.g. Fenestraria), (vedantu.com)
the leaves may be opaque or partly buried and allow light to
Leaf Types - Advanced ( Read ) | Biology | CK-12 Foundation (ck12.org)
pass only through a translucent leaf window for
photosynthetic activities in the inner leaf surface.
 Kranz's anatomy and succulent property of leaves are also
special leaf adaptations. 

Why do Some Plants Seasonally Lose their Leaves?

In many different climate zones of the world, such as the temperate,
boreal (subarctic climates), and dry regions of Earth, leaves of trees
fall off in particular seasons. Such leaves are said to be deciduous
leaves. They fall off and die in their inclement season (more often in
autumn). This is due to the process of abscission. The main cause for
this phenomenon is the lack of enough sunlight in these times
(shorter days, poorer sunlight, longer nights) of the year. The leaves
cannot photosynthesize and the plants (or trees) are entirely
dependent on their reserved food stores for survival. The leaves may
also require this food. In order to cut off this “wastage” deciduous
plants have evolved the abscission mechanism. As they are about to
fall, the chlorophyll content in them is reduced (due to decreased
chlorophyll production) and the leaves turn yellow, orange, and
brown in color.

1.14: Plant Morphology - Leaves - Biology LibreTexts