CC103: Engineering Surveying 1 Chapter 2

LEVELING

2.0 INTRODUCTION

 Definition:-

Leveling is the art of determining relative altitudes of points on the surface of the earth to produce a
horizontal line of sight.

 Purpose of Leveling:-

Leveling is being used for many different purposes. Among them are as listed below:-

i. Determine the height of a particular point

ii. Determine differences in height between points
iii. Determine the contours of a land profile
iv. Provide data for road cross-sections
v. Provide data to calculate volumes for earthworks
vi. Setting out level surfaces for construction
vii. Setting out inclined surfaces for construction

 Terms Used In Leveling

i. Level Line/Level Surface

- A line lying on the level surface is known as a level line. Every point of a level line
is equidistant from then centre of the earth. The cross section of still water of a
lake represents a level line.
- Datum plane is an arbitrarily assumed level surface or line with reference to
which level of other line or surface are calculated.

ii. Datum

- The level surface is called datum surface. The heights of different points in
surveyed area are measured with reference to this level surface.

iii. Reduced Level

- The height or depth of a point above or below the assumed datum is called
reduced level. It is also known as elevation of the point. Elevation of the points
below the datum surface, are known as negative elevation.
 CC103: Engineering Surveying 1 Chapter 2

iv. Bench Mark

- It is a permanent reference point whose elevations or reduced levels are known.
All the levelling operations start from benchmark.

v. Temporary Bench Mark

- Temporary benchmark is fixed dots but behave less permanent and established
nearby to site survey to save works reference to benchmark which may too long.

vi. Back sight

- The first sight taken on a leveling staff held at point of known elevation is called
back sight. It ascertains the amount by which the line of sight is above or below
the elevation of the point. Back sight enables the surveyor to obtain the height
of the instrument.

vii. Fore sight

- The sight taken on a leveling staff held at point of unknown elevation to

ascertain the amount by which point is above or below the line of sight is called
a fore sight. Fore sight enables the surveyor to obtain the elevation of the point.
It is also generally known as minus sight as the foresight reading is always
subtracted from the height of the instrument (except when the staff is held
inverted) to obtain the elevation.

viii. Intermediate sight

- The fore sight taken on a leveling staff held at a point between two turning
points, to determine the elevation of that point, is known as intermediate sight.
It may be noted that for one setting of a level, there will be only a back sight and
fore sight but there can be a number of intermediate sight.

ix. Change Point / Turning Point

- It is a point on which fore-sights and back-sight are taken.

x. Line of Collimation @ Line of sight

- It is the line joining the intersection of the cross hair and the optical center of
the objective and its extensions. This indicates the horizontal line at the station
of instrument at an elevation of instrument height.
 CC103: Engineering Surveying 1 Chapter 2

2.1 LEVELING EQUIPMENTS

i. Level

Dumpy Level
 It is simple compact and stable.
 The telescope is rigidly fixed to
its support therefore cannot be
rotated about its longitudinal
axis.
 A long bubble tube is attached
to the top of telescope.
 Dumpy literally means short
and thick.

Tilting Level
 It consists of a telescope
attached with a level tube
which can be tilted within few Level
degrees in vertical plane by a tube
tilting screw.

Telescop
The main peculiarity of this Eye Piece
level is that the vertical axis
need not be truly vertical, since
the line of collimation is not
perpendicular to it. Focusing
 The line of collimation, is,
however, made horizontal for Horizontal
each pointing of telescope by slow motion
means of tilting screw. Tilting
 It is mainly designed for precise Foot screw
levelling work.
 CC103: Engineering Surveying 1 Chapter 2

Automatic Level
 Also termed as self aligning
level.
 The fundamental difference
between automatic and the
classic spirit level is that in the
former the line of sight is no
longer leveled manually using a
tubular spirit level, but is
leveled automatically within a
certain tilt range.
 This is achieved by
compensator in the telescope.

Digital Electronic Level

 Uses a charge-coupled device
(CCD) for determining heights
and distances, with the
automatic recording of data for
later transfer to a computer.
 Data can be stored in internal
on-board memory or on easily
transferring the PCMCIA
Memory Card System and then
transferred to a computer.
 Increases productivity by about
50 percent, with the added
bonus of the elimination of
field- book entry mistake.
 CC103: Engineering Surveying 1 Chapter 2

ii. Tripod

A sturdy tripod in good condition is essential for obtaining accurate measurements.

The legs of the tripod are adjustable and are made of wood, fiberglass or aluminum and are
adjustable for use with many different pieces of surveying equipment. Tripods made of
wood or aluminum can influence readings in certain weather conditions, fiberglass can be
heavy to carry when surveying over various terrains and distances. Tripods come with two
different styles of heads: flat or dome. Dome heads allow for more adjustment suitable for
automatic level. While flat head tripods have less play suitable for dumpy and Tilting levels,
but are sometimes easier to fit.

iii. Leveling Staff

Leveling rods are manufactured from wood, metal, or fiberglass and are graduated
in feet or meters. The length of rod is 4 m or 5 m, the rod continusly each other.

The metric rod can be read directly to 1

cm or 0.01 m

1.3 Horizontal cross – hair reading

on 1.253 m

1.2
Metric rods

iv. Circular Rod Level

The rectangular sectioned rods are either the folding (hinged) or the sliding variety.
Newer fiberglass rods have oval or circular cross section and fit telescopically together for
heights of 3, 5 and 7 m. Benchmark leveling utilizes folding (one-piece) rods or invar rods,
both of which have built-in-handles and rod levels. When the bubble is centered, the rod is
plumb. All other rods can plumbed by using rod level.

v. Measuring Tape

Tape or a graduated rod is used to measure the vertical distance between two
points. Only applicable when an unobstructed vertical line between the two points exists.
 CC103: Engineering Surveying 1 Chapter 2

2.2 RECITATION METHOD STAFF

Level Rod
1.353 2.887
Difference = 1.543

A
RL A = 100.000m

Measurement Level / Difference High Drop between Two

Let the respective reading on staff A and staff B be 1.353m and 2.887m respectively. The difference
of level between A and C.= 1.357 - 2.887 = -1.543m
If Reduce level of A is 100.000m, the reduce level of B, may be calculated as under:
Reduce level of the point A = 100.00m
Reduce of the line of sight = 100.00 – 1.357 = 98.446m
Reduce level of the point B = 98.446 – 2.887 = 95.559m

Ooops?? BRIDGE

BS FS

BA

Readable staff by upright (normal) or hold by upside-down (invert). It is customary staff hold
by upright, yet to get reduced level under floor something object, staff would be held by upside-
down.

Reading method is the same, only reading figures to staff will see upside-down. Therefore,
recitation staff must do by careful. To facilitate in work recording and calculation, reading take by
staff upside-down add on to with negative signal (-). Base in figure above, the reduced level bridge is
= RLBA + BS - FS.
 CC103: Engineering Surveying 1 Chapter 2

2.3 ADJUSTMENT OF A LEVEL

There are two types of setting up the level:

a) Temporary Adjustment.
b) Permanent Adjustment

 Temporary Adjustment.

It involves to install, levelling instrument and focus the telescope. This adjustment should be
done each time before readings are taken. The adjustment can be done as follows.

Foot screw Bubble tube

1
1

2 3 2 3

Step 1 Step 2
These screws are used in pairs to center the The telescope is then rotated 90° in either
bubble in the tube below the telescope when direction so that the telescope is directly over
the telescope or sighting tube is aligned over a the other pair of leveling. the bubble is brought
pair of leveling screws. Using either or both of to the center of the tube by loosening one screw
these screws (2 & 3), bring the bubble into the while tightening the other with the thumb and
center of tube. first finger of each hand.
1

1
2 3

2 3

Step 3 Step 4
Care is taken not to over tighten the screws. The telescope is turned back 90° so that the
The telescope is then rotated 90° in either level is over the original pair of leveling screws.
direction so that the telescope is directly over The bubble is checked to make sure that the
the other pair of leveling screws. The process level is centered.
is repeated to bring the bubble to the center
of the tube.
 CC103: Engineering Surveying 1 Chapter 2

Step 5 (Check on) Step 6

The telescope is turned back 90° so that the If the bubble is no longer centered, then the
level is over the original pair of leveling screws leveling screws are adjusted to bring the bubble
If the instrument is in good adjustment, the to center and the telescope rotated back over
bubble remains centered. the pair of leveling screws to check the bubble
again.

 Permanent Adjustment

All instruments are subject to errors of calibration and adjustment. In the case of levelling
instruments the main source of instrumental error is where the line of sight, produced by the
cross hairs in the telescope, is not parallel to the horizontal line of collimation produced by the
manufacture of the instrument. This error is known as collimation error as it effects the line of
collimation. The test that we undertake in order to determine the amount of errror and then
eliminate it from our measurement is known as the two peg test.

 TWO-PEG TEST
a2
staff
3e b2
level
e

a1 b1
e Level e

20m 20m 20m

A C B D

The two peg test is used to determine if the line of sight of the telescope is exactly parallel to the
bubble tube. This is one of the most important properties of a level and is required to be
checked periodically. Below are the steps to carry out two peg-test.

i. Set two points with a distance of 40m

ii. Set up the level half way between the two points (at point C) as illustrated in figure
above.
iii. The staff’s readi g at poi t A & B are taken. The bubbles need to be adjusted each time
before the readings.
iv. The level is then moved to point C and readings are taken for staff at point B and A.
v. The true difference in elevation between point A and B is computed from the two-
readings obtained from the first setup (a1 – b1).
 CC103: Engineering Surveying 1 Chapter 2

vi. The elevation difference of the second set-up is computed (a2 – b2). If the plane of sight
is truly horizontal, the elevation difference of the second set is equal to the true
difference in elevation (a1 – b1) = (a2 – b2).

 Set the distance of AC=CB=BD

 If the difference between AC=e, so that difference of CB = BD =e.
 Thus, the distance of DA=3e
 Refer to the following table:

Instrument at Staff Reading At

Difference
station A B
A = 0.5 unit higher than B
C a1 = 3.75 b1 = 4.25 (actual difference)
B =1.5 unit higher than A
D a2 = 7.86 b2 = 6.36 (Apparent Difference)

Note: If (a2 – b2 ≠ a1 – b1), so adjustment must be set up!

With instrument at D, Actual reading a2= A + 3e

Thus reading at A = (a2 –3e),

Actual reading b2 = B + e
Thus reading at B = (b2 – e)

Hence actual correction = Actual reading at A – Actual reading at B

= (a2 – 3e) – (b2 – e)
= (7.86 – 3e) – (6.36 –e)
= 1.5 – 2e
But true difference = a1 – b1
= 3.75 – 4.25
= - 0.5
So - 0.5 = 1.5 – 2e
2e = 2
e = 1m/distance

With instrument at D,

Actual reading at A (a2) = 7.86 – 3 = 4.86

Actual reading at B (b2) = 6.36 – 1 = 5.36
 CC103: Engineering Surveying 1 Chapter 2

2.4 BOOKING AND REDUCTIONS

 Rise and Fall Method

CORR
REDUCE
BS IS FS RISE FALL ADJ. RED REMARK
LEVEL
LEVEL
2.191 49.87 - 49.87 BM 49.87
2.505 0.314 49.556 +0.003 49.56 A
2.325 0.180 49.736 +0.003 49.74 B
3.019 1.496 0.829 50.565 +0.003 50.57 C(CP)
2.513 0.506 51.071 +0.006 51.08 D
1.752 2.811 0.298 50.733 +0.006 50.78 E(CP)
3.824 2.072 48.701 +0.009 48.71 TBM 48.71
6.962 8.131 1.515 2.684

Table 2.1 Rise and Fall Method

In this method, the reduced level of each point is deduced from that of the one immediately
preceding it. If the staff reading on the first point is more than the staff reading on the next point
there is a Rise and if the staff reading on the first point is less than that on the next point there is a
fall.

 There are three Arithmetic checks in this method:

Σ Backsight – Σ Foresights = Σ Rises - Σ Falls = Last R.L - First R.L.

6.962 - 8.131 = 1.515 - 2.684 = 49.701 - 49.87
6.963 1.169 = 1.169 = 1.169

 Allowable closing error is normally expressed in the form:

E= . √K ; Where K is the distance in km.

 And alternative method for short lines-

E = ± 5√ ; Where n is the number of stations.

The permissible closing error is distributed pro-rationally over the R.L-'s of the change
points, the R.L.'s of the intermediate sights being corrected by the same amount as the
change point immediately preceding it.
 CC103: Engineering Surveying 1 Chapter 2

 Height of Collimation Method.

HI CORR
RED
BS IS FS ADJ. RED REMARK
LEVEL
LEVEL
2.191 52.061 49.87 - 49.87 BM 49.87
2.505 49.556 +0.003 49.56 A
2.325 49.736 +0.003 49.74 B
3.019 1.496 53.584 50.565 +0.003 50.57 C(TP)
2.513 51.071 +0.006 51.08 D
1.752 2.811 52.252 50.733 +0.006 50.78 E(TP)
3.824 48.701 +0.009 48.71 TBM 48.71
6.962 8.131 49.87
Table 2.2: Height of Collimation Method.

In this method, the reduced levels of points are obtained by calculating the reduced levels of
the plane of collimation for each set up of the instrument. The height of collimation is obtained by
adding the staff reading, which must be a Backsight, to the known R.L. All other readings are
deducted from the height of collimation, until the instrument setting is changed. Where upon the
new height of collimation is determined by adding the backsight to the R-L. at the change point.

 There are two Arithmetic checks in H.l. method:

Σ Backsights - Σ Foresights = LastR.L. - FirstR.L.

6.962 - 8.131 = 48.701 - 49.87
1.169 = 1.169

 Comparison of the booking methods

Rise & Fall Method Height of Collimation Method

 

Reduction of levels takes more time. This method is simple and easy,

 
Complete check is there for all readings. reduction of levels is easy.
This method is preferable for check There is no check for intermediate sight


levelling where numbers of change readings;
points are more. This method is generally used where
more number of readings can be taken
with less number of change points for
constructional work and profile
levellings.
 CC103: Engineering Surveying 1 Chapter 2

2.5 LONGITUDINAL SECTIONS

Longitudinal sections are sections which follow some pre-determined line defining a part of
a new construction and are usually run along the centre lines of the proposed work such as new
roads, canals, railways, pipe-lines, etc.

The aim of longitudinal section leveling is to provide data for the following:
i. Deciding the most suitable and economic levels and gradients, in its longitudinal section;
ii. Locating the places of cut or fills;
iii. Locating the place where neither cut nor fill occurs.

C1,C2…..C6 is point along the longitudinal section and

a,b,d and e is point along the cross section

Figure 2.5 Longitudinal Cross Section Plan view

 Cross Section

Cross sections are sections set out normal to the longitudinal section. The aim of cross section
leveling is the reproduction of an accurate section of the ground which is to be covered by the
construction works.

Cross sections provide data for the following:

i. Deciding the most suitable and economic levels in the traverse direction;

ii. Supplying details for locating the position, height and slope of embankments or cuttings;

iii. Earthwork quantities for costing purposes (Mass Haul Diagrams)

 CC103: Engineering Surveying 1 Chapter 2

Figure 2.6 Profile Plotting

2.6 CONTOURING

A contour or contour lines define as a line joint the points having the same elevation above
the datum surface. The process of tracing contour lines on the surface of the earth is called
contouring and the maps upon which these lines are drawn are called contour maps.

The constant vertical distance between any two consecutive contours is called the contour
interval and the horizontal distance between any two adjacent counters is termed as the horizontal
equivalent and depends upon the slope of the ground. The contour interval depends upon the
nature of the ground, scale of the map, purpose and extent of the survey. The contour interval of
any survey in inversely proportional to the scale of the map and it should be constant throughout
the survey.

The following are important characteristics of contour:

i. All points in a contour line have the same elevation

ii. When the contour lines are widely divide, it indicates a flat ground and when they run
close together, it indicates a steep ground.
iii. When the contour lines are uniformly spaced, it indicated a uniform slope and when
they are straight, parallel and equally spaced, it indicated a plane surface.
iv. A series of closer contour lines on the map indicates a hill, if the higher values are inside.
v. A series of closer contour lines on the map indicates a depression, if the higher values
are outside.
vi. The contour lines cross ridge or valley lines at the right angles. If the higher values are
inside the bend or loop in the contour, it indicates a ridge and if the higher values are
outside the bend, it indicates a valley.
vii. When the contour lines merge or cross one another on map, it indicates an overhanging
cliff.
viii. When several contours concede and the horizontal equivalent becomes zero, in
indicates a vertical cliff.
 CC103: Engineering Surveying 1 Chapter 2

 Method of Contouring

The commonly used methods for contouring are:

i. Direct Contouring

In the Direct method, the contours to be located are directly traced out in the field by
locating and making a number of points on each contour. The direct method by radial lines is
suitable for small areas where a single point in the center can command the whole area.

ii. Indirect Contouring: Gridding. Spot Heights, Cross Sections and Radiating lines.

In the indirect method, the points located and surveyed are not necessarily on the
contour lines, but the spot levels are taken along the series of lines laid out over the area.
This method of contouring is also known as contouring by spot levels. This method is
cheaper, quicker and less tedious as compare with direct method.

 Interpolation of Contour

The process of spacing the contours proportionally between the plotted ground points is
termed as interpolation of contours. There are three methods of interpolation such as
mathematical, graphical and scale method.

i. Mathematical Interpolation Method

In this method, positions of contours between two known points are located by making
accurate calculations. Hence, the method, though very accurate is time consuming and
laborious. it is generally adopted when higher accuracy is demanded for a limited area.

A (37.2m) (35.8m) B 37.2m

36.0m

H h

35.8m
20m x
20m

Figure 2.7 Mathematical Interpolation Method

A and B are two plotted point at 20 m apart and their ground reduced levels are 37.2 and
35.8m respectively. It is required to draw contours at 36m
H = 37.2 – 35.8 = 1.4m

h = 36.0 – 35.8 = 0.2m

 CC103: Engineering Surveying 1 Chapter 2

From triangular,

Similarly, the distance of 36 m from

x = 20 the point B will be 2.86 m. to achieve

h H
better accuracy; interpolation along
the diagonals AB may also be done.
x = h X 20 Then the contours are drawn

H
through the point 36m

= 0.2 X 20
1.4
= 2.86m

ii. Graphical Method Interpolation

In this method, actual calculation for interpolation of contours between known heights, is
not done but location of the contours are obtained graphically with the help of a tracing
paper or tracing cloth.

37.2m

37.0m

36.0m

35.8m
14 unit

Figure 2.8: Graphical Method Interpolation