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Contents

13 Wave Motion 2

14 Re lection, Refraction and Diffraction 8

15 Interference and Stationary Waves 12

16 Light and Sound 18

17 Re lection of Light 26

18 Refraction of Light 31

19 Lenses 38
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Chapter 13
Wave Motion

A. Reminders

Waves

• a wave transmits energy without • mechanical or electromagnetic

transferring matter  mechanical waves: needs see Chapter 16 for electromagnetic waves
and sound waves
• transverse or longitudinal medium to travel, e.g. water see Chapter 15 for stationary waves
 transverse waves: oscillation waves
perpendicular to the direction  electromagnetic waves:
of travel, e.g. waves on a string oscillation of electric and
 longitudinal waves: oscillation magnetic ields, e.g. light
along the line of travel, e.g. • travelling or stationary
sound waves  travelling waves: the waveform
propagates
 stationary waves: the waveform
does not propagate
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Wave Motion 3

Description of waves

• amplitude A : maximum • frequency f : number of waves

magnitude of displacement of an produced in 1 s; unit: Hz
oscillating particle from its • period T :
equilibrium position
 time to produce one complete
• wavelength λ: minimum distance wave
a wave repeats itself 1
 T=
f

Wave speed v
• distance travelled by a wave per
unit time
λ
• v= =fλ
T
• for transverse waves on a spring,
the wave speed increases when
the tension becomes larger or
another lighter spring is used.
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4 Chapter 13

Motion of particles
see also p. 28 of Wave Motion for motion of
particles in a longitudinal wave

• one complete oscillation for a particle in one period

• speed of particles
 highest: at equilibrium position
 momentarily at rest: at crest/trough (for transverse waves)
• two particles in phase • two particles in antiphase
 same motion  opposite motion
 separation: λ, 2λ, 3λ…  separation: ½λ, 1½λ, 2½λ…

Displacement–distance (s –d ) graph
• describe all particles on the wave
• x -intercept:
 equilibrium position
 (for longitudinal waves) centre
of compression/rarefaction
• can be deduced: A and λ

Displacement–time (s –t ) graph
∵ wave speed v = slope of the graph, ∴ v is
• describe one particle on the wave max. when a particle is at the equilibrium
position
• x -intercept: equilibrium position
• can be deduced: A , f and T
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Wave Motion 5

B. Common Mistakes

• Energy and matter

see CE-08-1 Q5
V Waves transfer energy but not matter.

• Nature and properties of waves

see CE-10-1 Q6
V Do not mix up the meaning of ‘nature of a wave’ and ‘properties of a
wave’

• Amplitude and wave speed

see DSE-16-1A Q18

V A wave with a larger amplitude has more energy but does not travel
faster. Note that the wave speed depends on the medium.

• Motion of particles in longitudinal waves

see CE-07-2 Q38

V Determine the motion of a particle from the s –d graphs of the speci ied see also CE-10-2 Q35

time and the subsequent moment.

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6 Chapter 13

C. Key Examples

see also DSE-16-1A Q15, DSE-16-1A Q16,

Example 1 DSE-15-1A Q14
John stretches a spring on the
ground and produces a transverse
travelling wave along it. Shown on
the right are the waveform at time
t = 0 and the displacement–time
(s X –t ) graph of one of the particles
X . The wave travels to the right and
the upward displacement is taken as
positive.
(a) (i) Find the wavelength of the wave. (1 mark)

(ii) Find the frequency of the wave. (2 marks)

(b) (i) Describe the motion of Y at t = 0. (1 mark)

(ii) Which particle, X , Y or Z , has the most kinetic energy at

t = 2 s? (1 mark)

(c) Sketch the waveform between A and B at t = 2 s. Mark the position of

X. (2 marks)

(d) John stretches the spring slightly and produces another wave of the
same wavelength. How does the graph change? Explain brie ly. (2 marks)

. Solution
21
(a) (i) The wavelength is = 6 cm. (1A)
3.5
1.4 − 0.2
(ii) The period is = 0.8 s. (1M)
1.5
1
The frequency is = 1.25 Hz. (1A)
0.8
(b) (i) Y is moving upwards. (1A)

(ii) Z (1A) Z ’s s –t graph should have the steepest

slope at t = 2 s
(c) The waveform: (2A)
1A for correct shape of waveform
1A for correct position of X

(d) The wave speed increases due to a larger tension in the spring. (1A)

By v = f λ and T = 1/ f , the graph should show a shorter period. (1A)

î What-if Can John produce the same change in (d) by shaking the spring
in a different way instead of stretching the spring? Ans: no (∵ wave speed depends on the
medium)
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Wave Motion 7

Example 2 see DSE-15-1A Q12, DSE-13-1A Q17,

A sound wave of 1000 Hz travels in water to the right. The igure below DSE-12-1A Q15

shows the positions of some particles at time t = 0. The speed of sound in

water is 1400 m s−1 . Take the direction to the right as positive.

(a) Regarding the direction of oscillation, describe the motion of the

particles when the sound wave pass through. (1 mark)

(b) Find the wavelength of the wave. (1 mark)

(c) Find the time required for the wave to travel from C to G . (2 marks)
(d) Sketch the displacement–time graph of particle E from t = 0 to
1 ms. (2 marks)

(e) Consider the moment t = 0.25 ms.

(i) Name a particle at the centre of compression. (1 mark)

(ii) Describe the motion of particles E and G . (2 marks)

. Solution
(a) The direction of oscillation is along the line of travel of the wave. (1A) characteristic of longitudinal waves
v 1400
(b) Applying v = f λ, λ = = = 1.4 m. (1A)
f 1000
(c) 1. Find the distance between two successive compressions. for(1), or the shortest distance between
2. Express the distance dλ between the two particles in λ. two particles that are in phase.
3. In one period, the waves travels a distance of 1λ. So, the time required is T d λ .

1
The time is T d λ = (0.5) = 5 × 10−4 s. (1M+1A)
1000
(d) The s –t graph: (2A) 1A for correct shape of graph
1A for correct axes and labels

(e) (i) (any one) E or M (1A)

(ii) E : moving to the right (1A)

G : momentarily at rest (1A)
0.25 ms = 0.25 period, so a compression
advances by 0.25λ
î What-if Ken says that G is always moving to the left from t = 0 to 0.5 ms.
Do you agree? Ans: no (G has displacement to the left
from t = 0 to 0.5 ms but only moves to the
left from t = 0 to 0.25 ms)
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Chapter 14
Reflection, Refraction and Diffraction

A. Reminders

Wavefronts and rays

• wavefront:

 separated by one wavelength

 particles on the wavefronts are in phase
• ray:
 perpendicular to the wavefront
 showing the direction of travel of the wave
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Reflection, Refraction and Diffraction 9

Re lection

• laws of re lection: see Chapter 17 for re lection of light

1. The incident ray, re lected ray and normal lie on the same plane.
2. The angle of re lection r is equal to the angle of incidence i .

Refraction

• waves show refraction when its speed changes upon crossing a boundary see Chapter 18 for refraction of light

wave speed ↓ wave speed ↑

frequency remains unchanged remains unchanged
wavelength ↓ ↑ the direction of travel remains unchanged
if the wave is incident along the normal.
direction of travel towards the normal away from the normal

• angle of incidence θ1 and angle of refraction θ2 :

v 1 λ1 sin θ1
= =
v 2 λ2 sin θ2
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10 Chapter 14

Diffraction see Chapter 16 for diffraction of light

• waves show diffraction when

 passing the edge of an obstacle
 passing through a slit
 passing around an obstacle
• unique property of waves

• how degree of diffraction changes:

B. Common Mistakes

• Diffracted wavefornts

V The diffracted wavefronts are not extended straight lines. Those

outside the dotted lines are curved.
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Reflection, Refraction and Diffraction 11

C. Key Examples

Example 1
(a) A train of plane water waves is incident on a boundary between
two regions of different water depths. The igure shows part of the
wavefronts.
(i) Which region is deeper? Explain brie ly. (2 marks)
(ii) A wavefront takes 0.8 s to travel from P to Q . Find the speed of
water waves in the other region. (2 marks)

(b) A heavy spring is connected to a light spring at one end. A wave is sent
from the heavy spring towards the junction as shown. Part of the pulse
is re lected and part of it is transmitted.
Compare the transmitted wave and the re lected wave in terms of their
speeds and their widths. (2 marks)

. Solution
(a) (i) The direction of travel bends away from the normal, implying an or compare the wavelength
increase in the wave speed. (1A)

Region Y is deeper as water waves travel faster inside. (1A)

1 1
(ii) f = = = 2.5 Hz (1M)
T 0.8/2
v Y = f λ = (2.5)(0.06) = 0.15 m s−1 (1A)

(b) The transmitted wave has a higher speed and is wider. (2A)

î What-if In terms of nature, state one similarity between the two waves
in (a) and (b). Ans: both are mechanical waves
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Chapter 15
Interference and Stationary Waves

A. Reminders

Superposition

• principle of superposition:
when two waves meet, the resultant displacement is the vector sum of
the two

Interference
• requires coherent sources
• for two coherent sources vibrating in phase:

interference constructive destructive

happens on antinodal lines nodal lines
path difference 0, λ, 2λ … ½λ, 1½λ, 2½λ …

• seperation between antinodal lines increases when

 the wavelength increases, or
 the distance between two sources decreases
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Interference and Stationary Waves 13

Transverse stationary wave

• superposition of incident wave and
re lected wave
• particles’ oscillations: various
amplitudes but same frequency
• particles at nodes: always at rest (e.g. a )

• particles at antinodes: have the greatest

amplitude (e.g. c )
• particles between two successive nodes
are in phase
• particles on the two sides of a node are
in antiphase
• wavelength = 2 ×
distance betweeen two successive nodes

Travelling v. Stationary

transverse travelling waves transverse stationary waves

frequency same for all particles same for all particles

amplitude same for all particles different for particles between
two successive nodes
wavelength distance between two successive 2× distance between two
particles in phase successive nodes
phase different for all particles within all particles between two
one wavelength successive nodes are in phase;
particles on the two sides of a
node are in antiphase
energy transferred from one place to no net transfer of energy over
another time
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14 Chapter 15

B. Common Mistakes

• Coherent sources

see AS-96–2 Q10

V Two coherent sources have a constant phase difference. Their waves
produced may not have the same amplitude.

• Constructive interference

V At positions where constructive interference occurs, the displacement

of the particle is not always the maximum.

• Crests of stationary wave

see DSE-13-1A Q18

V Particles at the crest of a transverse stationary wave can be moving B Do not mix up motion of particles in a
transverse stationary wave and those in a
upwards or downwards, or is momentarily at rest.
travelling wave.
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Interference and Stationary Waves 15

C. Key Examples

Example 1
A train of plane water waves travels towards a barrier with two slits S 1 and
S 2 as shown. The wave speed is 8 cm s−1 .

(a) Name the wave phenomenon happened at each slit. (1 mark)

(b) (i) Find the path difference at P in terms of the wavelength of the
wave λ. (2 marks)

(ii) Sketch a graph to describe how the water level at P changes

with time. The waves pass through P at t = 0. (2 marks)
(c) The water depth is now increased such that the wave speed is doubled.
(i) How does the antinodal lines on the right hand side of the
barrier change? (1 mark)

(ii) What kind of interference occurs at P now? Explain brie ly.

(2 marks)

. Solution
(a) diffraction (1A) B not interference
(b) (i) The path difference is 17 − 12 = 5 cm = 1λ. (1M+1A)
5
(ii) The period of the wave is = 0.625 s. The diagram: (2A) 1A for correct shape of graph
8 1A for correct axes, labels and units

(c) (i) The antinodal lines become farther apart. (1A)

(ii) The new wavelength λ′ is twice the original and the path
difference becomes 0.5λ′ . (1A)

Destructive interference occurs. (1A)

î What-if How is the separation between the antinodal lines change if the
frequency of the vibrator increases? Ans: become closer
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16 Chapter 15

see also DSE-16-1A Q18, DSE-15-1A Q18

Example 2
Peter sets up the apparatus shown to study stationary waves on an elastic
string. The string stretches to 1.8 m long, with one end connected to a
vibrator and the other to a weight via a small pulley.

The frequency of the vibrator is gradually increased from 0 to f 0 , at which

the irst stationary wave pattern is observed. It is found that f 0 = 24 Hz.
(a) Find the wavelength of the stationary wave. (1 mark)

(b) The frequency increases to

f 1 so that another stationary
wave pattern is produced. The
igure shows the shape of the
string at time t = 0. Particle A is
momentarily at rest.
(i) Find f 1 and the corresponding period. (3 marks)
(ii) Sketch, on the same igure, the s –t graphs for particles A and B
in one period. (3 marks)

. Solution
(a)

draw a diagram even no marks are rewarded

λ = 2 × 1.8 = 3.6 m (1A)

(b) (i) f 1 = 5 × 24 = 120 Hz (1M+1A)

1
The period is ≈ 8.33 × 10−3 s. (1A)
120
(ii) The graphs: (3A)

1A for correct shape of graph for A

1A for correct shape of graph for B
1A for correct labels and axes

î What-if A heavier weight is now used. Will f 0 be lower than, equal to or

higher than 24 Hz? Ans: higher (∵ v = f λ, higher tension,
higher speed and higher frequency)
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Interference and Stationary Waves 17

Example 3 see also DSE-16-1A Q21, DSE-14-1A Q18

Two identical loudspeakers connected to the same signal generator are
placed inside a room. Point O is equidistant from the loudspeakers. The
graph on the right shows how the sound intensity measured varies along
the line X Y .

(a) What is the path difference at P in terms of wavelength λ? (1 mark)

(b) (i) Explain why the graph shows alternating maxima and minima.
(3 marks)

(ii) The sound intensity at a minimum point is non-zero. Suggest

two reasons. (2 marks)

. Solution
(a) 1½λ (1A)

(b) (i) Interference occurs at the positions along X Y and these positions
have various path differences (∆x ). (1A)

If ∆x = nλ, constructive interference occurs and a maximum is

noted. (1A)
( )
If ∆x = n + 12 λ, destructive interference occurs and a minimum
is noted. (1A)

(ii) (any two) (2A)

• The amplitudes of the waves from the loudspeakers are not

the same when the waves arrive at the position.
• There is re lection from the walls.
• The microphone has a inite size. inite size =⇒ measuring avg. intensity
over a region, not intensity at a point
î What-if Line X Y is now closer to the loudspeakers than before. Which
of the following graphs (solid line) best represents how the sound intensity
varies along X Y ? (original: dotted line) Ans: C (higher intensity, closer maxima)
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Chapter 16
Light and Sound

A. Reminders

Visible spectrum
• light is a wave
• from red to violet, f ↑ and λ ↓

Diffraction: single slit

compare diffraction of water waves:
• diffraction: wave nature of light
• slit must be very narrow
• degree of diffraction ↑:
 wavelength ↑ (violet to red)
 slit width ↓

Interference: double slit

compare interference of water waves:
• interference: wave nature of light
• bright and dark fringes at the
central part
λD
• fringe separation ∆y = where
a
D = screen–slit distance,
a = slit separation
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Light and Sound 19

Interference: plane transmission grating

• multiple-slit interference
• d sin θ = mλ where Note that there should be two bright
d = slit separation, fringes for each order except the zeroth.

m = order of bright fringe

Electromagnetic waves (EM waves)

• oscillating electric ield and
magnetic ield, perpendicular to
each other
• transverse waves
• energy increases with frequency
• travel at speed of 3 × 108 m s−1 in
a vacuum

Electromagnetic spectrum

radio infrared visible ultraviolet gamma

microwaves X-rays
waves radiation light radiation rays
10−1 to 10−3 to 4 × 10−7 to 10−9 to
wavelength 10−6 to 10−3 m 10−10 m 10−12 m
104 m 10−1 m 7 × 10−7 m 10−8 m

radio & TV microwave lamp, very hot X-ray radioactive

source any object
transmitter transmitter spark object tube substance
luorescent Geiger–
detector antenna crystal phototransistor our eye ilm
material Mü ller tube
radio & TV data thermography, water bone tumour
application lighting
broadcast transmission remote control sterilization check killing
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20 Chapter 16

Sound wave
• longitudinal waves
• mechanical waves; requires a
medium to travel
• speed is independent of
frequency or amplitude; highest
in solids, lowest in gases

Audible sound and ultrasound

• audible frequency range:
f = 20 to 20 000 Hz
• ultrasound: f > 20 000 Hz
• applications of ultrasound:
sonar, inspecting foetus, therapy,
detecting laws, cleaning objects

Musical note
• regular waveform
• frequency ↑, then pitch ↑
• amplitude ↑, then loudness ↑
• quality:
 relating to waveform
 different instruments produce
sounds of different qualities
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Light and Sound 21

Noise
• irregular waveform
• control measures:
 building soundproof barriers
 using low-noise materials for
roads
 separating roads and houses
with buffers
• protection measures:
 avoid long exposure to noise
 wearing protective headphones

Sound intensity level L

• increases with the energy carried by a sound wave

• unit: dB
• typical sound intensity levels:
sound L/dB remarks
threshold of hearing 0 can be barely heard
country park 30
conversation in quiet room 60
rail noise, 25 m away 80 hearing damage after long
noisy disco 100 exposure

ship’s engine room 120 painful to ears, permanent

hearing loss
jet engine, 50 m away 140
space shuttle engine 200 immediate permanent
hearing loss

Comparison of light and sound

light sound
electromagnetic wave mechanical wave mechanical wave =⇒ cannot travel in a
transverse wave longitudinal wave vacuum

speed in air ≈ 3 × 108 m s−1 speed in air ≈ 3 × 102 m s−1

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22 Chapter 16

B. Common Mistakes

• Using laser

see AL-10-1 Q2
V Set-ups have to be modi ied when laser is used instead of ordinary
light sources. Never point a laser at the eyes! Also, wearing ordinary
laboratory goggles is not a proper safety precaution.

λD
• Applying ∆y =
a

V The fringe separation ∆y is for a small portion at the central part of

the interference pattern. When applying the formula, D ≫ ∆y and D ≫ a .

• Speed of EM waves

V All EM waves have the same speed in a vacuum but they may have
different speeds in other medium. That is why dispersion occurs.
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Light and Sound 23

• Sound source

see CE-10-1 Q6
V When a sound source vibrates, the air molecules nearby are set to
oscillate. A wave is produced in air and travels outwards. similar to how water waves are produced
in a ripple tank by a vibrating dipper
• Vibrating string and sound wave

V The wave have the same frequency as that of the vibration of the
string. But it does not have the same wavelength or speed as the wave
produced in the string.

C. Key Examples

Example 1
A plane transmission grating ruled with 550 lines per mm is illuminated
normally by white light. see AL-11-1 Q3

(a) What colour of the irst-order spectrum is the closest to the central
fringe? (1 mark)

(b) The white light source is replaced by a dichromatic light source,

emitting lights X of 600 nm and Y of 400 nm.
(i) Does the second-order fringe of X coincide with the third-order
fringe of Y ? Explain brie ly. (2 marks)
(ii) What is the highest order of fringe produced for Y ? Show your
steps clearly. (3 marks) see DSE-14-1B Q7
(c) Tim wants to verify the slit separation of the grating. He directs a
beam of monochromatic red light (λ = 632 nm) onto the grating
and measures the angle between the irst-order maxima. What is
the advantage of his measurement over measuring the angle between
the irst-order maximum and the central position? (1 mark)
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24 Chapter 16

. Solution
(a) violet (1A)

(b) (i) For X , d sin θ1 = mλ = (2)(600) = 1200 nm. no need to ind the exact value of θ1 and θ2
For Y , d sin θ2 = mλ = (3)(400) = 1200 nm. (1M)

∵ θ1 = θ2 , the two fringes coinicide. (1A)

(ii) Applying d sin θ = mλ,

mλ
sin θ =
d
mλ
≤ 1 for sin θ ≤ 1 (1M)
d
d 10−3 /550
m≤ = = 4.545 (1M)
λ 400 × 10−9
The highest order is 4. (1A) Note that there should be a maximum of 9
(c) Eliminate errors associated with the central position reading. (1A)
fringes produced.

see DSE-16-1B Q6
Example 2
In a Young’s double slit experiment, Chris uses a monochromatic red
light source. The slit separation is 0.5 mm. A pattern is caught by a screen
1.2 m from the double slit as shown. Alternate bright and dark fringes are
observed around the central part of the pattern.

(a) Is the fringe at the centre a bright or a dark fringe? Explain your
answer brie ly. (2 marks)

(b) Will the bright fringes become less dense or denser if monochromatic
violet light source is used? Explain your answer brie ly. (2 marks)

(c) Chris measures the distance

spanned by six bright fringes
with a ruler of smallest scale of
0.5 mm.
(i) Why does he measure
the distance spanned for
six but not two bright
fringes? (1 mark)

(ii) Estimate the frequency of

the light source. (3 marks)

. Solution
(a) bright fringe (1A)
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Light and Sound 25

Constructive interference occurs at the centre because the light waves

from the two slits have zero path difference. (1A)
(b) The fringes becomes denser. (1A)

Violet light has a shorter wavelength. (1A)

(c) (i) The precision of the ruler is similar to the separation between
two bright fringes. (1A)
λD
(ii) Applying ∆y = ,
a

(∆y)(a) (7.5 × 10−3 /5)(0.5 × 10−3 )

λ= = = 6.25 × 10−7 m (1M)
D 1.2

3 × 108
The frequency is = 4.8 × 1014 Hz. (1M+1A)
6.25 × 10−7
î What-if Can you observe alternate bright and dark fringes if a white no (∵ white light is a mixture of lights of a
range of wavelengths)
light source is used?

Example 3
A string with its two ends ixed is set to vibrate. It produces a sound of
frequency 440 Hz. The speed of sound in air is 330 m s−1 .
(a) State two differences in nature between the wave in air and the wave
in the string. (2 marks)

(b) The sound wave is incident normally on a hard surface and re lected
back to the string. The time lapse is 0.2 s. How far is the surface from
the string? (2 marks)

. Solution
(a) Differences: (2A)

The wave in air: longitudinal wave, travelling wave

The wave in string: transverse
( )
wave, stationary wave B not acceptable: different wavelengths
0.2 and speeds (not nature)
(b) The distance is (330) = 33 m. (1M+1A)
2
î What-if How does the time lapse change if the distance between the
string and the re lecting surface is doubled? Ans: double
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Chapter 17
Reflection of Light

A. Reminders

Light rays
• divergent from a point of a near
object
• parallel from a point of an object
at in inity

Description of re lection
• incident ray: light ray striking
the boundary
• re lected ray: light ray leaving
the boundary
• normal: construction line
perpendicular to the boundary
• angle of incidence: angle
between the incident ray and the
normal
• angle of re lection: angle
between the re lected ray and
the normal

Laws of re lection
laws of re lection:
• the incident ray, the re lected ray
and the normal lie on the same
plane
• angle of re lection r
= angle of incidence i
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Reflection of Light 27

Regular and diffuse re lection

• parallel incident rays are re lected • parallel incident rays are re lected
to the same direction to different directions
• produces images • enables us to see a non-luminous
object from different directions

Mirror images
• image distance d i = object distance d o
• image size hi = object size ho
• laterally inverted image
• virtual image

B. Common Mistakes

• Direction of light rays

see CE-07-1 Q5
V The light rays are directed from the object to us.
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28 Chapter 17

• Measuring the angles

V The angle of incidence i and the angle of re lection r should be

measured from the normal.

• Position of the image

V The mirror image does not from on the mirror, but behind the mirror.

• Image sizes (I)

V The image size is independent of the object distance.

• Image size (II)

V The image size is independent of the observer’s location

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Reflection of Light 29

• Minimum size of mirrors (I)

V The minimum height of a full-length is half the height of the user.

• Minimum size of mirrors (II)

V The minimum height of a full-length mirror is independent of the

object distance.

C. Key Examples

i Problem-solving strategy
Ray-tracing for plane mirror images:
Step 1: Step 2: Step 3: Step 4:
ç ç ç

Locate the image Trace rays from the Complete the rays. Repeat the steps for the
(image distance = eyes back to an end of other end of the image.
object distance) the image.

Note:
• Use dotted lines for extended rays behind the mirror.
• Arrows should be used to indicate the directions of travel of the rays.
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30 Chapter 17

Example 1
Mary, 190 cm tall, stands at a
position 80 cm in front of a plane
mirror. Her eyes are 10 cm below
the top of her head.

(a) (i) Sketch a ray diagram to show how Mary sees her whole body
in the mirror. Mark the values of the image height, the image
distance and the object distance on the diagram. (2 marks)

(ii) Hence, or otherwise, ind the minimum height h needed for the
mirror. (1 mark)

(b) Now, the mirror is replaced such that Mary can just see her whole
body. A loor clock of 200 cm tall is behind her. Suppose Mary can see Get yourself familiar with trigonometry.
the mirror image of the top of the clock, at least how far is the clock See CE-08-2 Q13

from her? Illustrate your answer with a diagram. (3 marks)

. Solution
(a) (i) The ray diagram: (2A) 1A for correct rays
1A for correct labels and units

(ii) By similar triangles,

h 80
=
190 80 + 80
h = 95 cm (1A)

(b) The diagram: (1M)

B diagram not in scale

By similar triangles,
80 + 80 10
= (1M)
(80 + 80) + x min 200 − 180
x min = 160 cm (1A)

î What-if How does the answer in (b) change if Mary is (i) closer to the Ans: (i) decreases (ii) increases
(∵ 2d2d+x = 1+1 x is a constant where d is
mirror initially, and (ii) farther from the mirror initially? 2d
the object distance.)
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Chapter 18
Refraction of Light

A. Reminders

Refraction

• light travels faster in an optically less dense medium, and slower in an light has the highest speed in vacuum
(c = 3 × 108 m s−1 )
optically denser medium
• refraction is due to the speed change of light when crossing a boundary
 speed ↓, light ray bends towards the normal the direction of travel remains unchanged
if the ray is incident along the normal
 speed ↑, light ray bends away from the normal

Laws of refraction
laws of refraction:
• the incident ray, the refracted ray
and the normal lie on the same
plane
sin θ1
• Snell’s law: = constant
sin θ2

Refractive index n and general form of Snell’s law

sin θvacuum c optically denser: larger n
• n= = optically less dense: smaller n
sin θ X v
• general form of Snell’s law:
n 1 sin θ1 = n 2 sin θ2
n 1 v 2 λ2 sin θ2 B note the subscripts
• = = =
n 2 v 1 λ1 sin θ1
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32 Chapter 18

Critical angle θc
• the angle of incidence when the
angle of refraction is 90°
1
• n=
sin θc

Total internal re lection

two conditions: the two conditions must be met
simultaneously for total internal re lection
• the light ray is directed from an
to occur
optically denser medium to an
optically less dense medium
• angle of incidence > critical angle

B. Common Mistakes

• Measuring the angles

see DSE-14-1B Q5, CE-10-2 Q38

V The angle of incidence or the angle of refraction should be measured
from the normal, not the boundary.

• Refraction at the curved boundary

see DSE-14-1B Q5, CE-08-1 Q10

V Always draw the normal when you need to determine how a light ray
bends. For a curved boundary, the normal should be extended from the
centre of the curve.
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Refraction of Light 33

• Refracted ray of a ’bent’ stick

V The ’bent’ stick does not show the path of the refracted rays. To
explain the phenomenon, you have to consider how the light cone from
the tip of the stick goes into the eyes of the observer.

• Position of the eyes

V When an observer sees an object O , his eyes receive the light rays
coming from the object.

• Apparent position of images for underwater scene

V When an observer underwater sees an object above the water, the

object’s position appears to be farther away from the observer than it
actually is.
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34 Chapter 18

• Dispersion and refraction

see AL-09-2 Q18

V Violet light (higher frequency) travels faster than red light in glass, see also DSE-16-1A Q20, DSE-15-1a Q17,
DSE-13-1A Q21
so it shows a larger degree of refraction than red light. Also note that the
emergent light rays from the rectangular block should be parallel in this
case.

• Conditions for total internal re lection

partially re lected, not totally re lected

V For total internal re lection to occur, the light ray must travel from
an optically denser medium (with larger n ) to an optically less dense
medium.

• Travelling time in a medium

see AL-09-2 Q19

V Note that the speed of light in a medium is not c , but c/n , where n is
the refractive index.
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Refraction of Light 35

C. Key Examples

i Problem-solving strategy
Refraction and total internal re lection:
Step 1: Step 2: Step 3: Step 4:
ç ç ç

Determine which If n 1 < n 2 , there is no If n 1 > n 2 , determine If n 1 > n 2 and θ1 > θc ,

medium has a greater n . total internal re lection. whether θ1 > θc . If not, total internal re lection
Apply Snell’s law apply Snell’s law to ind occurs. Apply laws of
n 1 sin θ1 = n 2 sin θ2 to the unknown. re lection to ind the
ind the unknown. (sin θc = nn12 ) unknown.

Note:
• Arrows should be used to indicate the directions of travel of the rays.

Example 1 DSE-14-1B Q5
A beam of red light is incident at the centre O of the straight edge of a
semicircular glass block from the curved side. The radius of the block is
10 cm. The graph on the right shows some data points obtained.

(a) (i) Find the critical angle of the glass. (2 marks)

(ii) Hence, ind the refractive index of the glass. (1 mark)

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36 Chapter 18

(b) The beam is now incident perpendicularly on the straight edge. What see CE-08-1 Q10
is the maximum distance between the ray and O so that the ray can
emerge from the block upon its irst hit on the curved side? (2 marks)

(c) Re lecting road studs are toughened glass prisms. They are installed
on roads to help drivers identify the division of traf ic lanes at night.
(i) Brie ly describe how a re lecting road stud works. Illustrate your
answer with a diagram. (2 marks)

(ii) Why is a solid prism used instead of a pair of plane mirrors?

Suggest a possible reason. (1 mark)

. Solution
(a) (i) sin θ2 = 0.66 for sin θ1 = 1 (1M) draw a best it line to ind the value
∴ θc = sin−1 (0.66) = 41.30° ≈ 41.3° (1A)
1 1
(ii) n= = ≈ 1.52 (1A)
sin θc 0.66

(b) x max = 10 sin θc = (10)(0.66) = 6.6 cm (1M+1A)

(c) (i) Light from the headlamps of a car undergoes total internal
re lection twice in the prism and inally re lected back to the
driver of the car. (1A)

The diagram: (1A)

(ii) Mirrors are more vulnerable to damages. (1A)

î What-if The glass has a larger refractive index for violet light. If a beam
of violet light is used instead, will the answer in (b) be smaller than, equal
to or larger than the original? Ans: smaller (∵ larger n , smaller θc )
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Refraction of Light 37

Example 2
A pin is submerged in a beaker of water. Susan views the pin from top (at
position X ).
(a) (i) Does the pin appear closer to or farther from Susan than it
actually does? Explain your answer with a diagram. (3 marks)

(ii) Now Susan views the pin from position Y . Will the apparent
depth of the pin be smaller, the same as or larger, as compared
to the case in (a)(i)? (1 mark)

(b) The refractive index of a liquid can be estimated using

real depth
n=
apparent depth

Describe how Susan can use the set-up on the right to ind the apparent
depth of the pin. (3 marks)

. Solution
(a) (i) The pin appears closer. (1A)
The diagram: (2A)

(ii) smaller (1A)

(b) Adjust the position of the needle so that its mirror image coincides
with the pin (using the method of no-parallax). (1A)

The apparent position of the pin is d 1 below the mirror. (1A)

The apparent depth of the pin is thus (d 1 − d 2 ). (1A)

î What-if Jane suggests to replace Ans: no (∵ it is more dif icult to determine

the position of the image)
the mirror with a 45°–90°–45° prism
for a clearer image. Do you think it is
a good idea?
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Chapter 19
Lenses

A. Reminders

Convex and concave lenses

• convex lens: central part thicker B only thin lenses are discussed

than the edge

• concave lens: central part thinner
than the edge

Terms

• optical centre C : centre of a lens

• principal axis: line through C ; perpendicular to the lens
• focal plane: parallel incident light rays converge to a point or appear to
diverge from a point of this plane
• principal focus F : intersection of the focal plane and the principal axis a lens has two principal foci

• focal length f : distance C F

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Lenses 39

Real images
• light rays intersect at X
⇒ light rays come from the image
position
⇒ real image is formed at X
• Real image can be seen directly
(inside a particular region).

• Our brains perceive that the

object is located at X .

Virtual images
• light rays seem to diverge from Y
⇒ no light ray comes from the
image position
⇒ virtual image is formed at Y
• Virtual image can be seen directly
(inside a particular region).
• Our brains perceive that the
object is located at Y .
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40 Chapter 19

Capturing images with screens

• Real images can be captured by a translucent screen but virtual images

cannot.

Convex lens
• ray-tracing rules:
1. a light ray passes straight
through C
2. parallel to the principal axis →
converge to F rules (2) and (3) are inverse: consider
3. through F ′ reversibility of light
→ parallel to the principal axis

• object O , object distance u , image I , image distance v

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Lenses 41

• nature of image:

u v erect/inverted real/virtual image size

∞ v=f diminished
u > 2f f < v < 2f diminished
inverted real
u = 2f v = 2f same size
f < u < 2f v > 2f magni ied
u=f ∞ — — —
u<f v >u erect virtual magni ied

Concave lens
• ray-tracing rules:
1. a light ray passes straight
through C
2. parallel to the principal axis →
appear to diverge from F ′
3. towards F
→ parallel to the principal axis

• nature of image:
 erect, diminished and virtual

The image must be located

between the focal plane and the
lens

Covering part of the lens

• If part of the lens is covered, the whole image can still be seen but it
becomes dimmer.
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42 Chapter 19

Linear magni ication m

hi v
• m= = consider similar triangles
ho u
• for convex and concave lenses,

convex lens u > 2f m<1

u = 2f m=1
u < 2f m>1

concave lens all m<1

Image size and brightness

• The larger the size of the image, the dimmer the brightness of the image. for a given object (same setting)

Lens formula
1 1 1
• = +
f u v
• real-is-positive:
 v (virtual image): −ve
 f (concave lens): −ve
 otherwise: +ve

f u v

convex (real image) + + +

convex (virtual image) + + −
concave − + −
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Lenses 43

B. Common Mistakes

• Light rays from in inity

see CE-10-2 Q14

V Light rays from different points at in inity should focus on different see also DSE-14-1B Q6

points on the focal length. Parallel light rays converge to a point

on the focal plane after passing through
a convex lens. They converge to the
• Sources of light rays principal focus only if they are parallel to
the principal axis.

see CE-09-1 Q5
V Light from the head (tail) of the object focus on (or appear to diverge see also DSE-16-1B Q5, DSE-12-1B Q7

from) the head (tail) of the image. Refracted light rays from the same point
of an object converges to, or appears to
diverge from, the corresponding point of
• Paths of light rays the image.

V The light rays should pass through the image (not stop at it).
• Object and image positions

V Mind the positions of the object and the image, they may not lie on the
principal axis.
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44 Chapter 19

• Locating the focus of a concave lens

see CE-09-1 Q5
V When inding the focus of a concave lens, always draw an incident ray see also DSE-15-1A Q15

parallel to the principal axis.

• Position of the lens

see AL-05-2A Q9
V For a ixed object– image separation, there are two positions for the see also DSE-12-1A Q22

lens to form a sharp image. One gives a magni ied image and the other
one gives a diminished image. exception: f = d /2

• Magni ied images

V A convex lens can produce a magni ied real image or a magni ied
virtual image. Pay attention to the nature of the image produced when
answering related problems.
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Lenses 45

• Sizes and brightness

see DSE-12-1B Q7
V Constant amount of light for different sizes of image yields different
brightness level.

C. Key Examples

i Problem-solving strategy
How lenses produce images:

Steps
1. principal axis 6. if convergent refracted rays:
2. convex or concave lens real image I at intersection
3. scale, object size and distance 7. if divergent refracted rays:
4. principal focus virtual image I at intersection of
5. at least 2 light rays extended rays

Note:
• Arrows should be used to indicate the directions of travel of the rays.
• Use dotted lines for extended rays.
• Use solid lines for real images and dotted lines for virtual images.
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46 Chapter 19

Example 1 see DSE-16-1B Q5, DSE-13-1B Q8,

DSE-12-1B Q7
An object PQ of height 4 cm is placed 2 cm in front of a lens L of focal length
6 cm as shown. An erect and magni ied image is formed.

(a) What kind of lens is L ? Explain your answer. (2 marks)

(b) Complete the ray diagram on the igure and mark the image as P ′Q ′ .
Hence ind the linear magni ication of the image. (3 marks)

(c) (i) On the igure, complete the light ray r to show how it travels
after passing through L . (1 mark)
(ii) Draw a light ray to show how Tom can see P , the head of the
object, through L . (1 mark)

. Solution
(a) L is a convex lens. (1A)

Because only a convex lens can form an erect and magni ied image.
(1A)

(b) 1. Find the image distance from the intersection of the extended rays.
2. Find m using the ratio of the image distance to the object distance.
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Lenses 47

The diagram: (2A)

The linear magni ication m = 32 = 1.5. (1A) Two correct rays to ind P ′ Q ′ : 2A
Mind the use of dotted lines. Dotted lines
are used for extended rays behind the
object. (Reference: DSE report 2013)

(c) (i) See the above diagram. (1A) Note that the refracted ray should be
traced back from Q ′ , instead of P ′ .
(Reference: DSE report 2012)

(ii) See the above diagram. (1A) Tom looks at the image, so the light ray
appears to diverge from P ′ instead of P .
î What-if How does the linear magni ication change when the object is
approaching the lens? Ans: decreases

Example 2 see DSE-16-1B Q5, AL-07-1A Q5

Mike investigates the image

formation of a convex lens by
placing an illuminated object and
a screen on each side of the lens. A
graph of y , distance between the
object and the screen against x ,
object distance is obtained.
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48 Chapter 19

(a) What is the focal length of the lens? (Hint: consider x = 20 cm) (2 marks)

(b) The object distance is now 60 cm.

(i) what is the linear magni ication of the image? (1 mark)

(ii) what is the nature of the image? (2 marks)

(c) Find y when x = 5 cm. (2 marks)

(d) Mike thinks that the centre of the image will be dimmer if the centre of
the lens is covered by a small black paper. Comment on his statement.
(2 marks)

. Solution
(a) When x = 20 cm, the image distance is 40 − 20 = 20 cm. (1M)

Construct a ray diagram for the situation,

the focal length f = 20/2 = 10 cm (1A)

(b) (i) The image distance is 72 − 60 = 12 cm. Therefore, the linear

12
magni ication is = 0.2. (1A)
60
(ii) inverted, real, diminished (2A) According to DSE report 2012, you can
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 only get 2 marks even through there are 3
(c) Applying = + , we have = − = − = −0.1 ⇒ v = −10 cm image natures.
f u v v f u 10 5
(1M)

So, y = 10 − 5 = 5 cm. (1A) Take v as +ve when you calculate the value
of y .
(d) He is incorrect (1A)

When part of the lens is covered, part of the light rays is blocked. The
rest of the light rays would travel through the uncovered part and
focus on the screen. As the light rays reaching the screen spread evenly
on the screen, the whole image will be dimmer, instead of the centre of
the image. (1A) According to the HKALE report 2007,
quite a number of candidates made the
similar mistake as Mike made.
î What-if If x = 12 cm, what is the image distance and the linear magni ication
of the image? Ans: 60 cm; 5
(The answer can be easily obtained
without using the lens formula.)
Example 3
Peter carries out an experiment to determine the focal length of a convex see DSE-14-1B Q6, DSE-12-1B Q7
lens with the set-up shown.

(a) (i) Describe how Peter can determine the focal length f of the lens.
Illustrate your answer with a diagram. (3 marks)
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Lenses 49

(ii) What is the linear magni ication of the image formed when
Peter determines the focal length of the lens? (1 mark)
(b) Can Peter measure the focal length of a concave lens using the above
set-up? If yes, how? If not, why? (2 marks)

(c) When Peter replaces the convex lens with another convex lens of
shorter focal length, he notices that a diminished image is formed.
(i) Why? Brie ly explain. (2 marks)
(ii) Compare the brightness of this image with the image mentioned
in (a)(ii). (2 marks)

. Solution
(a) (i) The diagram: (2A) 1A for correct light rays to ind the image
1A for correct position of image
The light rays coming from the head of the
object should intersect at the head of the
image. (Reference: DSE report 2014)

The focal length of the lens is equal to the distance between the
lens and the pin. (1A)

(ii) The magni ication of the image is 1. (1A)

(b) no (1A)

The pin and its image formed are not on the same side of the lens. (1A)
1 1 1
(c) (i) By the lens formula, = + . If f decreases, v decreases while
f u v
keeping u ixed. (1A) The lens is convex and the image is real,
Therefore the linear magni ication decreases. (1A) therefore both f and v are +ve.

(ii) This image is brighter than the previous one (1A)

because the same amount of light spreads over the diminished

image. (1A) The brightness of the image depends on
the light energy received per unit area.
(Reference: DSE report 2012)

î What-if How does the measured value of f change if the mirror is

moved farther from the lens? Ans: no change