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CREATING A SYLLABUS
The quality of the syllabus is a fairly reliable indicator of the quality of teaching and learning that will
take place in a course (Woolcock, 2003). Therefore, it behooves instructors to make the effort to
construct a high-quality syllabus. The results of that effort can benefit the instructor as well as his or
her students.

A syllabus lets students know what the course is about, why the course is taught, where it is going,
and what will be required for them to be successful in the course (Altman & Cashin, 2003). By clearly
communicating expectations, instructors can circumvent a whole host of student grievances and
misunderstandings during the semester. It also shows students that you take teaching seriously (Davis,
1993). Finally, remember that your syllabus may be some students' first exposure to your course, and
its contents may determine whether or not they take the course.

The process of developing a syllabus can be a reflective exercise, leading the instructor to carefully
consider his or her philosophy of teaching, why the course is important, how the course fits in the
discipline, as well as what topics will be covered, when assignments will be due, and so on (Eberly,
Newton, & Wiggins, 2001; Grunert, 1997). This can be an enlightening experience that results in an
improved course. The syllabus is, thus, both a professional document and a personal document. When
a syllabus reflects the instructor's feelings, attitudes, and beliefs about the subject matter, teaching,
learning, and students—as well as setting out the “nuts and bolts” of the course—the syllabus can
serve as a guide to the instructor as much as a guide to the class (Parkes & Harris, 2002).
Note: All instructors of courses at the University of Illinois are expected to provide a syllabus to their
students clearly stating expectations for student learning outcomes.

PURPOSES AND CONTENT OF A SYLLABUS

The purpose of the syllabus should drive the decision as to what content to include. Three major
purposes that a syllabus should serve are as a contract, a permanent record, and a learning tool (Parkes
& Harris, 2002). In many cases, items are essentially required—especially for General Education
courses, according to the Provost's Office guidelines for General Education courses.

The syllabus as a contract

A syllabus should make the rules for the course clear. It should set forth what is expected to happen
during the semester, delineate the responsibilities of students and of the instructor, and describe
appropriate procedures and course policies. To do this, a syllabus should include the following:

• Topics and readings to be covered in sequence with dates

• Important dates (e.g., assignment due dates, exam dates, and holidays)
• Standards and criteria for graded assignments
• Description of how the final grade will be computed with a breakdown of the ranges for each
letter grade and whether or not pluses/minuses will be used
• Policy on late assignments, incomplete assignments, and revisions
• Academic integrity policy (see the Student Code, Article 1, Part 4)
• Attendance policy (see the Student Code, §1-501)
• Accommodation policy for students with special needs (see the Instructor Information page on
the DRES website)
• Expectations for classroom interaction. For example, you may point out that you will be
incorporating active learning strategies throughout the semester in the form of group work, in-
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class writing assignments, etc. Or if you address controversial topics, you may want to lay out
some guidelines for discussion.

The syllabus as a permanent record

A syllabus should serve accountability and documentation functions. It should document what was
covered in a course, at what level, and for what kind of credit. Such a syllabus contains information
useful for evaluation of instructors, courses, and programs, and can thus be useful in course
equivalency transfer situations, accreditation procedures, and articulation. To do this, a syllabus
should include the following:

• Basic course information (course by number, section, title, semester, meeting times, days, place,
format)
• Instructor information (name, title, rank, office location, office phone number, e-mail)
• Description of the course content
• Course goals and objectives (linked to professional standards if appropriate)
• Required purchases for the course. You may also want to note where else texts will be available
(e.g., the library, online, electronic reserves)
• Pre- and co-requisites for the course (not just courses; what skills are expected also)
• Names and contact information for teaching assistants

The syllabus as a learning tool

A syllabus should help students become more effective learners in the course. While many of these
items are not required for syllabi at Illinois, adding them can greatly improve students' ability to learn
the material. To do this, a syllabus should include the following:

• Ways of contacting the instructor (office hours, availability for appointments, time within which
students can expect a response via email, phone number)
• Conceptual structure used to organize the course, why it is organized the way it is
• Instructor's philosophy about the course content, teaching, and learning
• Relevance and importance of the course to students (e.g., how the course fits into the college or
department curriculum, why the students would want to learn the material)
• Campus resources available to help students' learning (tutoring, writing, counseling, etc.)
• Estimate of student workload
• Hints for how to study, take notes, etc.

ACADEMIC POLICIES AND SYLLABUS STATEMENTS

Academic policies presented here are those that are at the institutional level and exist in the WVU
Catalog. Syllabus statements are Faculty Senate approved and provide guidance to students in
negotiating other aspects of course experience.

Students are responsible for reviewing and understanding these polices if they are referenced in the
syllabus.

These syllabus statements are optional. However, if a statement is used, it must appear in the syllabus
exactly as it is listed below (unless otherwise indicated).
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1. Academic Integrity Statement

2. Academic Standards Policy, including Academic Dishonesty

3. Accessibility Statement (see Inclusivity Statement)

4. Adverse Weather Statement

5. Appropriate Use of Technology Statement

6. Attendance Policy
7. Campus Safety Statement

8. Class Recording Policy

9. COVID-19 Syllabus Statement
10. Inclusivity Statement

11. Incomplete Policy

12. Mental Health Statement - Main Campus
13. Mental Health Statement - HSC Campus
14. Sale of Course Material Statement

15. Sexual Misconduct Statement

16. Student Evaluation of Instruction Statement

Academic Integrity Statement

The integrity of the classes offered by any academic institution solidifies the foundation of its mission
and cannot be sacrificed to expediency, ignorance, or blatant fraud. Therefore, instructors will enforce
rigorous standards of academic integrity in all aspects and assignments of their courses. For the
detailed policy of West Virginia University regarding the definitions of acts considered to fall under
academic dishonesty and possible ensuing sanctions, please see the West Virginia
University Academic Standards Policy. Should you have any questions about possibly improper
research citations or references, or any other activity that may be interpreted as an attempt at academic
dishonesty, please see your instructor before the assignment is due to discuss the matter.

Academic Standards Policy, including Academic Dishonesty

The WVU Catalog contains the full Undergraduate Academic Standards Policy and Graduate
Academic and Professional Standards Policy.

• Resources for Faculty and Students for Reporting and Appealing Violations of Academic
Standards
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Adverse Weather Statement

In the event of inclement or threatening weather, everyone should use his or her best judgment
regarding travel to and from campus. Safety should be the main concern. If you cannot get to class
because of adverse weather conditions, you should contact your instructor as soon as possible.
Similarly, if your instructor(s) are unable to reach the class location, they will notify you of any
cancellation or change as soon as possible, using agreed upon methods to prevent students from
embarking on any unnecessary travel. If you cannot get to class because of weather conditions,
instructors will make allowances relative to required attendance policies, as well as any scheduled
tests, quizzes, or other assessments. [adopted 9-8-2014]

Appropriate Use of Technology Statement

Use of technology in the classroom should always be directly related to class activities and/or course
learning outcomes. Inappropriate technology use can be an impediment to learning and a distraction to
all members of the class. As such, inappropriate use of technology in the classroom may be
considered a disruption of the class and constitute a violation of the WVU Student Conduct Code and
could potentially result in a referral to the Office of Student Rights and Responsibilities. Use of
technology in the classroom when specifically prohibited by the instructor may also constitute a
violation of WVU’s Academic Integrity policy.

Campus Safety Statement

The WVU Police are committed to creating and maintaining a safe learning environment for all
students, faculty, and staff. Part of this mission includes educating the campus community on how to
respond to potential campus threats, such as the threat of an active shooter on campus or other
suspicious behaviors. Fortunately, WVU Police offer training - both online and in-person - on how to
handle a variety of campus safety scenarios. All students are encouraged to visit the WVU
Police webpage, in particular the content under the Active Shooter training program. Students are also
encouraged to report any suspicious behaviors on campus using the Report a Threat portion of the
webpage. Additional materials on campus safety prepared by WVU Police, including special safety
tips and training, will also be provided on our eCampus page. [adopted 10-2-17]

Notice of Class Recording Policy

Meetings of a course at West Virginia University (WVU), whether online or in-person, may be
recorded. Recordings are not guaranteed, and are intended to supplement the planned class session.
Recordings will be made available to class participants, which may include students, assistants, guest
lecturers, and co-facilitators. Recordings may be shared by the instructor or institution in accordance
with WVU Rules and policies. The Recordings are owned by and contain intellectual property of
WVU. The Recordings may not be shared, copied, reproduced, redistributed, transferred, or
disseminated in any form or by any means without the prior written consent of authorized officials of
WVU.
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COVID-19 Syllabus Statement

WVU is committed to maintaining a safe learning environment for all students, faculty, and staff.
Should campus operations change because of health concerns related to the COVID-19 pandemic or
other campus-wide emergency, it is possible that this course will move to a fully online delivery
format. If that occurs, students will be advised of technical and/or equipment requirements, including
remote proctoring software.

In a face-to-face environment, our commitment to safety requires students, staff, and instructors to
observe the social distancing and personal protective equipment (PPE) guidelines set by the
University at all times. While in class, students will sit in assigned seats when required and will wear
PPE according to current University guidelines. Students who fail to comply may be referred to the
Office of Student Rights and Responsibilities for sanctions.

COVID related absences fall under the University attendance policy found here: attendance. As
detailed in the policy, a student who becomes sick or is required to quarantine during the semester
should notify the instructor. The student should then work with the instructor to develop a plan to
complete the course learning outcomes while he or she is absent.

Inclusivity Statement

The West Virginia University community is committed to creating and fostering a positive learning
and working environment based on open communication, mutual respect, and inclusion.

If you are a person with a disability and anticipate needing any type of accommodation in order to
participate in your classes, please advise your instructors and make appropriate arrangements with the
Office of Accessibility Services.

Sale of Course Material Statement

All course materials, including lectures, class notes, quizzes, exams, handouts, presentations, and
other course materials provided to students for their courses are protected intellectual property. As
such, the unauthorized purchase or sale of these materials may result in disciplinary sanctions under
the Student Conduct Code.

Sexual Misconduct Statement

West Virginia University does not tolerate sexual misconduct, including harassment, stalking, sexual
assault, sexual exploitation, or relationship violence. It is important for you to know that there are
resources available if you or someone you know needs assistance. You may speak to a member of
university administration, faculty, or staff; keep in mind that they have an obligation to report the
incident to the Title IX Coordinator.
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Student Evaluation of Instruction Statement

Effective teaching is a primary mission of West Virginia University. Student evaluation of instruction
provides the university and the instructor with feedback about your experiences in the course for
review and course improvement. Your participation in the evaluation of course instruction is both
strongly encouraged and highly valued. Results are strictly confidential, anonymous, and not available
to the instructor until after final grades are released by Admissions and Records. Information about
how you can complete this evaluation will provided by your instructor. [adopted 4-14-2008]

EDUCATIONAL REFORMS WITH PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS

Hundreds of reforms are introduced into school systems around the country every year in curriculum
pedagogy, governance, technology, and so on. Unfortunately, most fail to achieve the substantial
improvements in student achievement that their advocates hoped for and, overall, U.S. educational
performance has been flat for the past twenty years.

We now know that a number of other countries have gotten a lot better than us, accelerating
educational improvement in a short time and on a large scale. Their success in improving hundreds of
schools is inspiring. But what exactly has enabled them to raise their game and become global high
performers? And are there lessons for U.S. schools?

My new book tells the stories of five very different systems—Australia, Canada, China (Shanghai),
Finland, and Singapore. Despite differences in the details of policies and practices, as well as in the
cultural contexts and political systems in these countries, there are clearly some common drivers of
success.

Here are the ten big lessons from the world's top-performing and rapidly improving systems:

1. Long-Term Vision
The leaders of countries with high-performing education systems share a palpable conviction about
the centrality of education to their dreams for their society—to raise people from poverty, achieve
greater equality, develop a well-functioning multi-cultural society and, certainly, create a thriving
economy and a growing number of good jobs. Each of these systems has a long-term vision for how
education can achieve this, which is widely shared inside and outside the education system. In
Singapore, for example, the vision helped to propel their economy from third world to first; China's
2020 vision was developed with online input from millions of people and includes universal high
school graduation and world-class universities; Alberta asked all its citizens to contribute to a dialog
on what the educated Albertan of 2030 should look like. Finland's vision was to become a modern
society and economy, free from domination by larger powers.

2. Sustained Leadership
Major reforms are often triggered by an economic, social, or political crisis and may be led by a single
strong leader. Such reform efforts can bring about significant improvement within a three- to five-year
period, but substantial changes in performance or closing achievement gaps on a large scale require a
longer time frame than most political cycles. Therefore high leadership turnover is a fundamental
barrier to sustaining change.
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Understanding this, the premier of Ontario regularly brought together all the key stakeholders—
teachers, parents, business, students—to get buy in, iron out problems as they arose, and maintain
sustained support for Ontario's reforms over a period of many years.

U.S. states and districts could likewise bring together a group of key stakeholders to define a vision
for what the educated American should look like in 2030 and to build momentum towards this vision
through political cycles and leadership turnover.

3. Ambitious Standards
Countries that excel set ambitious, universal, and clear standards for all their students, typically at the
national or state/provincial level. The fundamental problem with locally set standards is that they lead
to wildly varying expectations of performance and lower achievement overall.

Countries that have historically set standards at the local or state level are therefore increasingly
coming together to create common standards across all jurisdictions. In Australia, for example, states
have come together for the first time to create a national curriculum. In Alberta, Canada, standards are
set at the provincial level and province-wide curricula and examination systems ensure those in both
rural and urban areas have consistent opportunity to pursue these standards. In the United States, the
Common Core State Standards are following international best practice in establishing fewer, clearer,
and higher standards in some areas, but high-performing systems have standards in all subjects to
avoid narrowing the curriculum.

4. Commitment to Equity
Leaders in every country proclaim their commitment to equity, but successful education systems
focus on achieving equity in a strong and deliberate way.

Our mediocre performance on international assessments is due in part to the large percentage of
students scoring at or below basic levels.

High-performing systems use a variety of approaches to minimize the impact of social background on
student achievement. These include system wide policies like equitable funding, having common high
expectations for all students, and ensuring high-quality teachers in every school. They also include
classroom-level interventions like focused early literacy and math support and a variety of family and
community supports outside of school.

These policies don't eliminate the gap between the children of parents with widely varying education
levels, but they do significantly level the playing field to create a society that is open to talent from
wherever it may come.

5. High-Quality Teachers and School Leaders

Vision, leadership, high standards, and commitment to equity are crucial starting points, but unless
they affect teaching and learning in the classroom, they won't bring about significant change.

There is broad agreement among high-performing and improving countries that no matter what reform
strategy they are pursuing, the quality of an education system rests on the quality of its teachers.
These systems adopt policies to attract, prepare, support, reward, retain, and advance high-quality
teachers.
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As systems devolve more authority to schools, they need stronger leadership at the school level.
School leaders focused on results are able to create the conditions that make effective teaching and
learning possible. Many systems—Australia, Ontario, and Singapore among them—have created new
frameworks and processes for training school leaders.

In general, high-performing systems put the energy up front in recruiting and supporting high-quality
teachers rather than on the back end of reducing attrition and firing weak teachers.

6. Alignment and Coherence

Lower performing systems have large "implementation gaps" between the policies enacted at the
national, state, or even district level, and what actually happens in classrooms.

There are frequent inconsistencies between, for example, the stated policy goals of higher-order skills
and the lower-level tests that are used to assess them, or between the goals of schools and the
conflicting orientation of the higher education system that produces teachers.

Policies are also frequently enacted without the support to schools needed to carry them out. Common
Core State Standards are a good first step towards higher performance but won't become the real
standards in classrooms unless curriculum, teacher preparation, professional development, and
assessment are all aligned and consistent.

In many high-performing countries, consistency is achieved by curriculum or syllabus-based

instructional and examination systems, around which everything is aligned. Others have traditions of
regular work among teachers within or across schools to raise the quality and consistency of
classroom instruction.

7. Intelligent Accountability
All systems struggle with the balance between top-down managerial prescription and bottom-up
professional judgment. In recent years some systems, like Singapore and Finland, have devolved more
responsibility to the school level as the quality of their teachers and school leaders has become
stronger and to encourage innovation. However, other systems where performance has been weak or
uneven have used more centralized mechanisms to promote more consistent performance.

There is a lot of variation in the design of management and accountability systems. Overreliance on
simple student outcome tests for accountability is not effective in moving systems to high
performance, but nor is uniformed professional judgment.

High-performing systems combine multi-faceted and transparent accountability, using a broad set of
student and school outcomes, with initiatives that build professional knowledge and capacity, thereby
creating a culture of continuous improvement and ever-higher expectations.

8. Effective Use of Resources

High educational expenditures don't necessarily lead to high performance. In fact, many high-
performing countries have relatively modest expenditures. That said, resources do matter.

Expenditure is an area where more research is needed but it appears that high-performing systems
spend money differently. For example, they don't spend as much of their budget on buildings, sports,
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administrative positions, or separate special education functions. They also tend to make different
trade offs between class size and time for teachers to devote to professional development.

Most fundamentally, high-performing systems have relatively equal expenditures across schools, as
well as mechanisms to target more resources at the students who need them most.

9. Student Motivation and Engagement

Every country has students with varying degrees of motivation, but the intensity of focus and time on
task of students in high-performing systems is striking.

High-performing systems motivate their students to study hard through both intrinsic and external
incentives.

In Asian systems, the intense belief that effort, not ability, is the prime determinant of success,
combined with the high value placed on education by families as a route to social mobility, plus the
examination system, create powerful motivation.

Students in Finnish classrooms are also intently engaged, but by a different means. Finnish education
is rooted in ideas of discovery and self-directed learning. Teachers are extremely well-trained in this
type of education.

In Ontario, the focus is on individualization. The system employs student success officers, who work
individually with at-risk students to create multiple pathways to graduation.

10. Global and Future Orientation

Recognizing the increasingly interconnected and digital world into which we are moving, high-
performing systems are going global.

These systems are developing a global and future orientation among their teachers, school leaders,
and students. They are modernizing curriculum to deal with the imperatives of the 21st century and
forming international school partnerships to prepare students to function as workers and citizens in a
globalized world, and not just their own local communities. They also emphasize international
benchmarking, constantly looking around the world for international best practices, and using
benchmarking as a tool for improving their system.

PRACTIAL OR ACTUAL MODIFICATION TECHNIQUES IN EDUCATIONAL SETTING

The effective use of behavioral and cognitive strategies in the classroom may appear daunting even to
experienced teachers. However, changing your behavior and strategies is often the most efficient and
effective means of improving all types of classroom behaviors, both disruptive and non-disruptive.
This article describes how understanding these problems and seeing the world through the eyes of
your students, and then developing and using a set of intervention strategies on a regular basis,
problems of emotions and behavior can be effectively managed and changed in the classroom. N.
Mather, Sam Goldstein
Behavior modification assumes that observable and measurable behaviors are good targets for change.
All behavior follows a set of consistent rules. Methods can be developed for defining, observing, and
measuring behaviors, as well as designing effective interventions. Behavior modification techniques
never fail. Rather, they are either applied inefficiently or inconsistently, which leads to less than
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desired change. All behavior is maintained, changed, or shaped by the consequences of that behavior.
Although there are certain limits, such as temperamental or emotional influences related to ADHD or
depression, all children function more effectively under the right set of consequences. Reinforcers are
consequences that strengthen behavior. Punishments are consequences that weaken behavior.
Students’ behaviors are managed and changed by the consequences of classroom behavior. To
manage behavior through consequences, use this multi-step process:

1. The problem must be defined, usually by count or description.

2. Design a way to change the behavior.
3. Identify an effective reinforcer.
4. Apply the reinforcer consistently to shape or change behavior.
Consequences of behavior are directly related to the events that either come immediately before or
after them. Table 4.2 provides examples of behavioral outcomes as they relate to various events.

Table 4.1. Popular models and techniques for dealing with discipline referrals
Model Techniques emphasized
Focusing on
Prevention
Preventative
Effective teaching practices, frequent monitoring, clear rules and procedures,
classroom
social praise, and so forth
management
Systematic reinforcement, modeling of prosocial behavior, verbal instruction,
Prosocial behavior
role playing

Classroom moral discussions of real-life dilemmas, hypothetical situations, and

Moral education
literature; role playing; student participation in school government

Social problem Direct teaching of SPS skills (e.g. alternative thinking, means-ends thinking),
solving (SPS) self- instruction training, dialoguing
Effective
Values clarification activities, active listening, communication and interpersonal
communication
skills training for students and teachers
models
Focusing on Correction and Control of Misbehavior

Direct instruction; reinforcement techniques, including social praise, material

Behavior reinforcers, and tokens; punishment-oriented techniques, including verbal
modification reprimand, response cost, and time-out; group contingency techniques such as
the Good Behavior Game; behavioral contracting

Teacher assertion, systematic use of behavior modification techniques,

Assertive discipline
continuous monitoring

Confrontation questioning, classroom meetings, classroom moral discussions,

Reality therapy social problem solving, behavioral contracting, logical consequences, time-out,
preventative techniques such as democratic governance

Focus on Treatment
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Direct instruction, modeling and rehearsal, coaching, self-instruction,

Social skills training
manipulation of antecedents and consequences
Aggression Social skills training techniques, self- instruction (e.g. anger control training),
replacement training moral discussions
Parent management
Parent training in application of behavioral techniques
training
Variety of therapeutic and educational techniques, depending on the particular
Family therapy
model
Behavior therapy Variety of cognitive, behavioral, and operant techniques

Reinforcement and punishment follow a clear set of basic principles:

1. reinforcement or punishment always follows behavior,
2. reinforcement or punishment follows the target behavior as soon as possible,
3. reinforcement or punishment fits the target behavior and must be meaningful to the child, and
4. multiple reinforcers, or punishments are likely more effective than single reinforcers or
punishments.
Reinforcement

Table 4.2. Technique, behavior, consequence, and probable effect

Probable future effect
Classification Exhibited behavior Consequences
on behavior
Positive Jane will continue to
Jane cleans her room. Jane’s parents praise her.
reinforcement clean her room.
Carmen will continue to
Positive Carmen brushes her teeth after Carmen receives a nickel each
brush her teeth after
reinforcement meals. time.
meals.
Positive The teacher praises and Rob will continue to
Rob works quietly at his seat.
reinforcement rewards Rob. work quietly at his seat.
Jason complains that older boys Jason’s parents allow him to
Negative Jason will continue to
consistently beat him up, and he remain at home because of his
reinforcement miss school.
refuses to attend school. complaints.
Balin will have
Negative Balin complains of headaches Balin is allowed to go to bed
headaches whenever
reinforcement when it is time to do homework. without doing his homework.
there is homework to do.
Jim’s car washing behavior is Jim will stop washing
Extinction Jim washes his father’s car.
ignored. his father’s car.
Carmen will stop putting
Extinction Carmen puts glue on Joe’s seat. Carmen is ignored.
glue on Joe’s seat.
Marta is spanked each time
Marta will not sit on the
Punishment Marta sits on the arm of the chair. she sits on the arm of the
arm of the chair.
chair.
Takeo will not put
Takeo puts Gwen’s pigtails in the The teacher administers the
Punishment Gwen’s pigtail in the
paint. paddle to Takeo’s posterior.
paint.
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Although reinforcement and punishment can be equally effective in reducing specific target behaviors
in the classroom, reinforcement is by far more effective in helping children develop alternative, more
functional behaviors. When Jeremy was in third grade, his teacher instituted a procedure in which he
would receive a tally mark if she looked over and saw that he was tipping back in his chair. She
placed 4 Xs under each chair leg to remind him not to lean back. A more positive approach would be
to let Jeremy earn a tally mark each time she looked over and saw that all four legs were down. This
would reinforce the desired behavior. It is important to always begin with a number of reinforcing
strategies before resorting to punishment as a means of reducing unwanted or aversive classroom
behaviors.

Schedules
Schedules define and identify the amount of work required or the time that must elapse between
reinforcers. Some schedules are continuous, providing a reinforcement or punishment every time the
target behavior occurs. Fixed or variable interval schedules are time related, and fixed or variable ratio
schedules are related to how much work is completed. Fixed schedules result in higher rates of
performance than continuous schedules. In classroom settings, most teachers use fixed ratio interval
schedules. They are effective because the child knows exactly what is expected and the requirements
of performance are clearly spelled out. Keep in mind that variable schedules are not as good for
shaping new behaviors but are excellent for maintaining well-learned behaviors.
A simple system to evaluate the most common classroom problems (e.g. talking out, being out of the
seat, not focusing or paying attention, disruptive behavior) appears in Figure 4.4. Information
obtained is usually observed at 15-second intervals. If any of the behaviors occur, whether once or
more than once, a single notation is made for that interval.

Positive reinforcement

The appropriate application of positive reinforcement has repeatedly been demonstrated to increase
both on-task behavior and work completion (for reviews, see Barkley, 1990; DuPaul & Stoner, 1994;
Goldstein, 1995; and Walker & Walker, 1991). In the early elementary school grades, teachers exhibit
a significant degree of positive reinforcement for desired behaviors (White, 1975). That is, when a
desired behavior is exhibited, teachers frequently respond with a consequence that is likely to increase
the reoccurrence of that behavior. Jeremy’s first-grade teacher offered frequent praise when he was
sitting quietly in his seat.
By middle elementary school and through secondary school, however, teachers begin paying
increasingly greater attention to undesirable behaviors and less attention to appropriate behaviors.
Unfortunately, paying attention to the undesirable behavior causes it to cease in the short run but
occur more frequently in the long run.
Children with ADHD may often be more interested in tasks other than those on which the teacher is
focusing (Douglas, 1972). This leads to significantly more nonproductive activity and uneven,
unpredictable classroom behavior. Interestingly, the overall rates of negative teacher-child
interactions involving typical students are also higher in classrooms containing children with ADHD
(Campbell, Endman, & Bernfeld, 1977). According to reports, teachers are more intense and
controlling when interacting with children with ADHD. Within school settings, children with ADHD
appear to experience negative consequences because of their temperament and a performance history
that often involves beginning but not completing tasks. Many teachers in this circumstance
unfortunately tend to focus on the misbehavior rather than on the reduction or termination of the
behavior. This may further disrupt the classroom by disturbing other students.
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This naturally occurring pattern of teachers paying less attention to desirable behavior and more
attention to undesirable behavior, as children progress through school, places children with ADHD at
a greater disadvantage than their classmates. In the first few grades, when teachers appear to be
making a conscientious effort to positively reinforce their students, the child with ADHD often does
not receive his or her share of reinforcement. In the later grades, as teachers exhibit less positive
reinforcement, perhaps because they feel that it is not needed, the child with ADHD is placed at even
greater risk.

Response discrepancy observation method

You may also want to determine the amount of time a student exhibits on- and off-task behavior. One
simple behavioral observation method is called response discrepancy because it allows you to record
a discrepancy between the target student and a typical class peer (Rhode, Jenson, & Reavis, 1992).
Figure 4.5 presents a form to use for this system. To begin, match the target student with a same-sex
peer who exhibits typical classroom behavior. Next, check off the type of activity: class, small-group
activity or independent activity. The observation period lasts 15 minutes, and behavior is recorded at
10-second intervals (for a total of 90 intervals). The left side of the box is used for the target student
and the right side is used for the classroom peer. At the end of each 10-second interval, record a + for
on-task activities or - for off-task activities for each student. Ignore behaviors between the recording
points. At the end of the 15-minute observation period, compute the percentage of on-task behavior
for each student. This may be accomplished using the formula provided in Figure 4.6 (Rhode et al.,
1992).
Figure 4.6. Operational definitions of behaviors in the TOAD system
Spoken words, either friendly, neutral, or negative in content, are directed at either the teacher
Talking Out without first obtaining permission to speak or unsolicited at classmates during inappropriate times
or during work periods
The child is not supporting his or her weight with the chair. Up on knees does not count as out-of-
Out of Seat
seat behavior.
The child is not attending either to independent work or to a group activity. The child is therefore
Attention
engaged in an activity other than that which has been directed and is clearly different from what
Problem
the other children are doing. This includes the child’s not following teacher directions.
The child’s actions result in consequences that appear to be interrupting other children’s work.
Disruption These behaviors might include noises or physical contact. They may be intentional or
unintentional.

Positive reinforcement should follow immediately after good behavior. It should be specific and
initially continuous, slowly moving to an intermittent schedule. Material reinforcers provide the child
with something tangible. Social reinforcers are more versatile, and, even if material reinforcers are
used, a kind word from the teacher should always accompany them. It is also easier to increase
behavior than decrease it. Thus, when choosing a target behavior, it is preferable to focus on
behaviors to be increased rather than on those to be decreased. Shea and Bauer (1987) described the
following process to apply positive reinforcement effectively:
• Select a target behavior to increase, define the behavior, and choose a reinforcer.
• Observe the child and watch for the behavior.
• Reinforce the target behavior every time it is exhibited.
• Comment in a positive way about the behavior when providing reinforcement.
 14

• Be enthusiastic -and interested.

• Offer assistance.
• Vary the reinforcer.
Rhode, Jenson, and Reavis (1992) provided a well-defined model for reinforcement in the classroom.
This model, presented in Table 4.3, is an excellent summary of reinforcement contingencies.
Be certain to select reinforcers that are age appropriate and not necessarily time-limited. Most
important, do not deny students their basic rights (e.g. lunch, bathroom use, playground time) and
then define these rights as positive reinforcers. At times, the use of a reinforcement list or menu can
facilitate choosing a reinforcer that is meaningful to the child. You can provide a list of enjoyable or
free time activities and ask the child to rank them by preference. You can ask the child what he or she
might do with free time, where he or she might like to sit, what he or she might like to learn about,
and also what kinds of activities make him or her feel needed, proud, and important in the classroom.

Negative reinforcement

Negative reinforcement requires the child to work for the removal of an in-place, unpleasant
consequence. The child’s goal is to get rid of something that is unpleasant rather than to earn
something that is desirable. In a negative reinforcement model, instead of working to earn a positive
consequence, the child works to distance him- or herself from an aversive consequence. Negative
reinforcement is often used in the classroom to manage problem behaviors. Teachers inadvertently
pay attention to a child who may not be complying and withdraw their attention contingent on the
child’s compliance. Surprisingly, this strengthens rather than weakens the noncompliant behavior.
The next time a similar situation occurs, the child again will not comply until confronted with the
aversive consequence (i.e. the teacher’s attention). Negative reinforcement is often seductive and
coercive for teachers. It works in the short run but in the long run is likely to strengthen rather than
weaken the undesirable behavior.
Many of the same variables that affect positive reinforcement-immediacy, frequency, consistency–
affect negative reinforcement. Behaviors that in and of themselves may not be negative become
negative reinforcers when paired with certain events. For example, a teacher approaching a child who
is not working quickly becomes a negative reinforcer, even though the action itself, the teacher
walking up to the child, does not have a negative connotation (Favell, 1977). Clark and Elliott (1988)
found that negative reinforcement was rated by teachers as the most frequently used classroom
intervention. Children with ADHD often experience negative reinforcement because of their
temperament, which makes it difficult for them to complete tasks; their consequent learning history
reinforces them for beginning but rarely for finishing.

Reinforcement Menu: Reinforcement Menu: Tenth-Grade

Reinforcement Menu: Third Grade
Kindergarten Geometry
Main Courses Main Courses
Main Courses
• Play the piano • Go to the library to work on a
• Challenge someone to a game of
• Paint special project related to a
chess
• Look out of the study unit
• Use the computer
window • Arrange the game shelf and
• Do extra credit problems to
• Use the toys at the pick a game to play
raise grade
back of the room • Listen to a story with
• Make up a quiz and give it to
• Work with puzzles earphones
the class
• Use model clay • Work in the art corner
 15

• Move a chair to • Read and record a favorite • Sit at the teacher’s desk while
another place story with expression and doing homework
• Choose a carpet clarity • Prepare the bulletin board using
piece to sit on • Work on scrapbook for history display of student’s choice
• Use the computer project using magazines in the • Write a letter
• Cut and paste room • Read
• Talk to a classmate • Leave 5 minutes early for • Play charades
• Drink lunch • Discuss past or forthcoming
• Hug • Be line captain athletic or social events
• Use colored chalk • Be in charge of taking • Have a creative exhibit period
• Swing feet attendance (i.e. show-and-tell for older
• Walk around in the • Get a drink at any time without students)
back of the room asking permission • Be excused 15 minutes early to
• Watch a science • Be in charge of passing out clean erasers and chalkboard
video papers and other class
• Sing materials
• Be excused 15 minutes early to
clean erasers and chalkboard
Daily Specials
• Monday: Appear as a guest
Daily Specials
lecturer in another math class
• Monday: Visit first
Daily Specials • Tuesday: Do a special
grade
• Monday: Watch a video crossword puzzle involving
• Tuesday: Finger
• Tuesday: Use the computer geometry concepts
paint
• Wednesday: Be a group leader • Wednesday: Play a math game
• Wednesday: Play a
• Thursday: Add another piece with another student
game with teacher
to class mural • Thursday: Construct a special
• Thursday: Make a
• Friday: Help plan the Friday paper model using geometrical
mural
group activity figures
• Friday: Use the
• Friday: Solve mysteries
computer
involving mathematical
solutions

Modeling

Through modeling, observation, and then imitation, children develop new behaviors. Modeling can be
as simple as having a child watch another child sharpen a pencil. By watching the model, a child can
learn a new behavior, inhibit another behavior, or strengthen previously learned behavior (e.g. saying
“thank you”). To use modeling effectively, you must determine whether a child has the capacity to
observe and then imitate the model. In classroom settings, a student’s response to modeling is
influenced by three factors: 1) the characteristics of the model (e.g. is this a student whom the other
students like and respect?), 2) the characteristics of the observer (e.g. is this child capable of
observing and imitating the behavior), and 3) the positive or negative consequences associated with
the behavior. Children are more likely to respond to teacher modeling when they view their teachers
as competent, nurturing, supportive, fun, and interesting. Children are also more likely to imitate
behavior that results in a positive consequence.
 16

Younger children have been reported as more frequently imitating others than older children. Children
consistently model someone whom they value or look up to. They also imitate the behavior of a same-
sex child more often than that of a different-sex child. They model someone whom they perceive as
successful and socially valued regardless of whether the teacher perceives that child as successful and
socially valued. Finally, if a child observes a model being reinforced or punished for certain behavior,
this influences the likelihood that the child will then model that behavior.
Modeling is a powerful tool, often underutilized by teachers. When teachers are cheerful and
enthusiastic, their attitudes are contagious. When they are respectful of students, students respect each
other. When teachers are patient, fair, consistent, and optimistic, their students exhibit these traits as
well. Teacher behavior sets the tone for the classroom environment.

Shaping

Waiting for the appropriate target behavior or something close to that behavior to occur before
reinforcing the behavior is referred to as shaping. Shaping can be used to establish behaviors that are
not routinely exhibited. Walker and Shea (1991) described the steps to effective shaping:
1. Select a target behavior and define it.
2. Observe how often the behavior is exhibited.
3. Select reinforcers.
4. Decide on close approximations and reinforce successive approximations to the target
behavior each time it occurs.
5. Reinforce the newly established behavior.
6. Reinforce the old behavior on a variable schedule, and begin reinforcing the new behavior on
an every-time or continuous schedule. The key to successful shaping is to reinforce closer
approximations and not reinforce lesser approximations.
Any behavior that remotely resembles the target behavior should initially be reinforced. Prompts can
be used and then faded. Shaping can be used for all kinds of behavior in the classroom, including
academics. Steps toward successive approximation, however, must be carefully thought out;
otherwise, behaviors that are not working toward the desired goal may inadvertently be reinforced.

Punishment

Punishment suppresses undesirable behavior but may not necessarily eliminate it (McDaniel, 1980).
In some cases, suppression may be of short duration, and when the punishment is removed, the
behavior may reoccur. Punishment can involve presentation of an unpleasant consequence or the loss
of a pleasurable consequence following the occurrence of the undesirable behavior. Punishment is
designed to reduce the probability that the behavior that precedes it will reoccur. Although
punishment is an efficient way of changing behavior, it can become seductive and reinforcing for
classroom teachers and can be overused. The greatest problem with punishment is that it does not
provide an appropriate model of acceptable behavior. Furthermore, in many classrooms, punishment
is accompanied by an emotional response from the teacher. Although most teachers consider
punishment as involving a reprimand, time-out, or loss of an activity such as recess, in many
classrooms, physical punishment designed to embarrass children into submission is still used, even
though it has a high emotional cost. Shea and Bauer (1987) made a strong case for minimizing the use
of punishment, especially more severe punishment, such as embarrassment or spanking, because these
interventions are likely to erode self-esteem and further impair an already strained teacher-student
relationship. When punishments are used, these guidelines should be followed:
1. All students are aware of which behaviors are punished and how they are punished.
 17

2. Appropriate models for acceptable behavior are provided.

3. Punishments are offered immediately, consistently, and fairly.
4. Punishments are offered impersonally.
5. A natural or logical consequence should be used as often as possible.
6. The student being punished must understand the relationship between his or her behavior and
the punishment.

Response cost

Response cost is a punishing technique that translates to the equivalent of losing what you possess or
have earned. Earned consequences are considered reinforcers. When they are lost, this is response
cost. The child places in jeopardy what he or she has earned as the result of inappropriate behavior. In
many situations, response cost in the form of a penalty or fine is combined with positive
reinforcement. To be effective, more reinforcers must be earned than lost. Response cost is often used
to reduce off-task behavior and improve compliance with directions.
Response cost may be the most powerful means of managing consequences for children with ADHD
or other disruptive behavior problems (Rapport, Murphy, & Bailey, 1982). In a traditional model of
response cost, many children with ADHD may immediately go bankrupt. Alternative systems have
included adjusting the ratio of the number of reinforcers provided for each positive behavior versus
those lost for negative behavior as well as increasing the number of opportunities to exhibit positive
behavior and receive reinforcement. In the former case, six points might be provided for the
appropriate behavior but only one point lost for the negative behavior. In the latter case, increased
opportunities are provided, making it easier for children to earn a greater number of points, thereby
decreasing their chances of going bankrupt when they exhibit negative behavior. A slightly altered
form of response cost has been found to be quite effective with children with ADHD (Rapport,
Murphy, & Bailey, 1982). Under this system, the child is initially provided with a maximum number
of points or tokens to be earned during a school day and must work throughout the school day to
retain those reinforcers. Some impulsive children seem to work harder to keep their plates full rather
than attempt to fill an empty plate. Possibly because they have a long history of not working well for
positive reinforcement, a system in which they are provided with all of their reinforcement initially
and must work to keep, a response cost system may appear more motivating or attractive to them.
A response cost system can be as simple as chips in a cup, marks on a chart, or marbles in a jar. A
more complex means of managing response cost includes electronic devices such as the Attention
Training System (Gordon & Davidson, 1981; Rapport, 1987). The Attention Training System is a
remote-controlled counter that sits on the student’s desk. This device provides the student with a
digital readout showing the number of points he or she has earned. Using a remote control device,
points can be added or removed from anywhere in the classroom, contingent on the child’s on- and
off-task behavior. By not having to move within physical proximity of the child, the teacher avoids
becoming a negative reinforcer when the child is off task. DuPaul, Guevremont, and Barkley (1992)
demonstrated the efficacy of response cost contingencies for managing classroom behavior and
academic productivity using the Attention Training System. Response cost contingencies led to
marked improvements on task-related attention and a reduction in ADHD symptoms during work
time.
Morgan and Jenson (1988) suggested the following guide-lines for using response cost in the
classroom:
1. Use the procedure for most, if not all, of the classroom day for the target behavior.
2. Make certain the number of students with whom you are using the program is manageable.
3. Make certain there are more opportunities for success than for failure.
 18

4. Build in additional incentives, including additional reinforcers that can be earned at the end of
the week, by retaining a minimum number of reinforcers through the week.
5. Consider incorporating self-monitoring techniques in which students can administer response
cost independently when they recognize a rule violation.
Time-out
Time-out from reinforcement excludes children from the opportunity to participate with others and
receive any kind of positive reinforcement. Time-out is by far the best known disciplinary technique
among teachers. It is also the most likely to be overused and misused in the classroom. Although a
brief time-out of a few minutes duration can exert a positive influence on classroom behavior when
applied appropriately, many teachers apply time-out ineffectively as often as effectively (Walker &
Walker, 1991).
The least restrictive form of time-out consists of removal of certain reinforcing activities or objects
from the misbehaving child for a short period. Time-out, in a restricted environment outside of the
classroom is the most extreme form of this type of discipline. The child cannot see the classroom nor
interact with others.
The effectiveness of time-out is well established; however, additional research is needed to identify
specific situations, parameters, and procedures associated with the success of time-out for children
with ADHD. Clearly, time-out holds a low probability of directly affecting children’s ADHD
symptoms for the better. Time-out can be quite effective for noncompliant children, but for children
with ADHD, you must distinguish between noncompliant behaviors and behaviors resulting from
ADHD.
In general, for time-out to be effective:
1. students should be separated from reinforcement,
2. the time should be short,
3. confrontation should be avoided,
4. verbal interaction should be limited, and
5. a time-contingent release should be provided (Bean & Roberts, 1981). Time-contingent
release refers to the amount of time and the contingencies (e.g. sitting quietly) required to
earn release. These contingencies should be explained and provided to the child prior to
entering time-out. Children warned less in time-out also respond better (Roberts, 1982).
The length of time-out is also critical in determining effectiveness. A 4-minute time-out was found to
be significantly better than a 10-second or 1-minute timeout among a group of elementary school
students (Hobbs, Forehand, & Murray, 1978). Long periods of time-out constitute seclusion and lose
their punishing value. It is also important for the time-out activity to be less reinforcing than the
setting or activity from which the child is being removed. If a particular activity the child is leaving is
non-reinforcing, this child may in fact learn to misbehave as a means of going to time-out to do
something else. Work should not be missed due to time-out. Time-out should be boring, uninteresting,
and something the child places last on his or her list of chosen school activities. The effectiveness of
time-out depends on a number of factors, including the child, your ability to apply the intervention
consistently, the child’s understanding of the intervention, the rules governing the intervention,
characteristics of the time-out area, duration of timeout, and the ability to evaluate the effectiveness of
time-out quickly. If time-out does not work in the first few interventions, an alternative strategy
should be considered. Eight parameters should define the use of time-out (Scarboro, & Forehand,
1975):
1. A warning that time-out may come should be offered.
2. The child should be consistently removed and placed in time-out when the behavior reoccurs.
3. A specific location should be defined for time-out.
4. A specific duration for time-out should be set.
 19

5. The consistent schedule for time-out use should be defined.

6. A defined behavior should lead to time-out.
7. Clear contingencies should be defined for the child to be released from time-out.
Time-out can be effective in typical classroom settings because it restores order by removing the child
who is disrupting class, by reducing the opportunity for peer approval that maintains some children
who disrupt, by reducing the opportunity for students to manipulate situations, and by allowing the
student to demonstrate appropriate behavior before exiting time-out. In elementary classroom settings,
time-out should be from 2 to 5 minutes. If a student is not in control, an additional minute should be
added. Teachers should not force resistant students into time-out but should seek help from the
principal or other school personnel. Finally, as soon as possible after time-out is over, something
positive in the student’s behavior should be reinforced. Table 4.4 contains a list of dos and don’ts for
time-out. Table 4.5 contains a thorough list of procedures for implementing seclusionary time-out.
There are many things you can do to minimize the need to use time-out. Make sure that classroom
activities are more reinforcing than time-out. Provide students with ample but not excessive
opportunities to comply. Provide disruptive students with additional positive consequences for not
requiring time-out in a given time span.
Table 4.4. The “Dos and Don’ts” of time-out
Do Don’t
Don’t start the procedure without explaining time-out to
Do explain the total procedure to the child before
the child first in a calm setting that is not emotionally
starting time-out.
charged.
Do prepare a time-out setting for the child that is Don’t just pick any place. Make sure it isn’t too dark,
clean, well-lit, and ventilated. too confining, dangerous, or not ventilated.
Do pick a place or situation for time-out that is Don’t pick a place that is scary or that could be more
boring or less reinforcing than the classroom. reinforcing than the classroom.
Do use a set of structured verbal requests with the
child, such as the recommended precision request Don’t threaten the child repeatedly with a time-out.
format.
Do remain calm, and don’t talk with the child when Don’t get into a verbal exchange with the child on the
he or she is being taken to time-out. way to time-out or while the child is in time-out.
Do place the child in time-out for a set period that Don’t tell the child to come out of time-out when he or
you control. she is “ready to behave.”
Do require the child to be quiet for 30 seconds at the Don’t let a child out of time-out when he or she is
end of the time-out period, before being let out. crying, screaming, yelling, or having a tantrum.
Do use a short period of time (e.g. 5-10 minutes). Don’t use exceedingly long periods.
Do require the child to complete the request that led Don’t allow the child to avoid compliance to a request or
to time-out or missed academic work. miss academic work by going to time-out.