2

1 COMMUNICATION AND EFFECTIVE

COMMUNICATION
BY

ELIAKIMU SANE

Communication is the process of sending and receiving messages that allow people to share
information, ideals and knowledge. Communication is an essential part of day to day activities of
human beings and other living things; nearly all human activities are done by communicating.
For example, people earn money; connect to their fellows, relatives and their God(s) through
communication. You can imagine how difficult life could have been without communication.

Types of human communication

The categorization of communication depends on the mode of message delivery whereby
communication may be through the words of mouth, through signals or written symbols. Thus;
we have verbal, nonverbal communication and written communication. Verbal communication is
communication through words. Three organs are involved in verbal communication. The organs
are mouth from which the words are spoken; ears for receiving words; and the brain for deciding
what to say and for interpreting the words to get meaning. Nonverbal communication is the type
of communication where human beings and other living things communicate without words and
includes such behaviors as facial expression, tone, touching, gestures, posture, body language
and spatial distance between the people in communication (Leutenberg & Liptak, 2008).
Although most people do not realize, to a large extent, face-to-face human interaction, i.e. verbal
communication, involves the two types of communication. When speaking, human beings
consciously or unconsciously use meaningful gestures and the tones to convey messages.

Written communication is a form of communication through written symbols. It includes the

communication through letters, printed and written electronic materials, emails, fax, short text
messages, etc.

All the three types of communication may be interpersonal and intrapersonal. Interpersonal
communication/interaction is that communication in which there is one-to-one communication
between people via face-to-face interaction, via electronic devices, letters and other means of
communicating. It may be a person communicating to another person, or a person
communicating to a group. Interpersonal communication is the communication which people
mostly use in their day to day interactions. In intrapersonal communication, communication is
within one’s self. Though intrapersonal communication may be seen socially abnormal, it is
helpful in retaining information. Students, for example, use intrapersonal communication in their
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own studies to remember the information they learn from books and lectures. Other examples of
intrapersonal communication are dreaming, thinking and monologues (i.e. people speaking to
themselves).

Effective communication
The meaning of effective communication can be derived from the two words “effective” and
“communication” to mean that a message is successful and it is received by the receiver as it was
sent or intended by the sender. In other words, effective communication is the communication
that put away all barriers of communication. For communication to be effective, the people in
communication should put into consideration things like the channel to be used, the time of
communication, the context of communication, communication behaviors, etc. Communication
behaviors include all verbal and nonverbal attributes of the people in communication.
Watzawick, Janet and Jackson (2011) argued that they include all human behaviors in the
context of communication. For them, communication is not a monophonic message unit, but
includes verbal, tonal, postural, contextual, silence, mobility, etc.

Improve your communication by avoiding

communication behavior disorders
Given the complexity of our societies coupled with a large number of activities and number of
people to serve in our societies, the need to team working and effective cooperation between the
service providers and their clients in the institutions are unavoidable. Effective communication
among the people working in the subsystems of the society is an important tool to enable team
working for the development of the society for no institution or organization can survive without
communication (both internal and external communication). Most service delivery in the society
institutions involves interpersonal interaction (person-to-person service delivery) between
service deliverers and their clients and among the service deliverers themselves. It is not doubt
that the goal of any institution is to deliver high quality services to its clients and it is the
expectation of the clients that they will get the best services from the institution(s). Surprenant
and Solomon (1987) argue that a major concern of all service organization is giving good
services to its customers. However, the quality of service delivery is not judged only on the
requested service alone, but also on the communication aspect between the service providers and
the clients and among the service providers themselves. In addition to providing the services
requested; good services are accompanied by good tone, use of ‘positive words’ and body
language of the service providers. This is supported by Sundaram and Webster’s (2000)
argument that service delivery typically comprises delivery of the requested service and good
and interpersonal communication between service employees and customers. They emphasize
that interpersonal communication is an integral part of any service delivery situation and it
greatly impacts customers’ perception. Hence; it is important for service deliverers, clients and
other stake holders to have good communication behaviors, for example at educational
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institutions where communication is, to a large extent, connected to imparting knowledge to

students. Courteous communication between them is a very important means of sharing
experiences and problems which may be facing them within and outside the institutions. The
interpersonal communication should be accompanied with behaviors which involve respect and
politeness in interaction. According to Watzlawick et al. (2011), all the behavior in an interaction
situation is communication and has a message value which affects another person’s behavior.
Since all behavior in context are communication, communication is not only a monophonic
message unit, but rather a fluid of multifaceted compound of many behavioral modes including
verbal, tonal, postural, contextual, silence, withdrawal, immobility, etc. The people in
communication should also have elements of politeness and protect other’s face. Brown (1990,
quoted in Swan, Deumert, Rajend & William, 2006); Yule (1996) and Yule (2010) describe
politeness as a process of showing concern for another person’s face. And Yule (2010) explains
face as the public self-image of a person; it refers to that emotional and social sense of self that
everyone has and expects everyone to recognize.

If communication behaviors of the service employees within and outside the society institutions
are not courteous, communication itself may hinder the quality of service delivery in the
institutions; thus communication behavior disorders in an institution threaten development of the
particular institution. This is so because communication disorders may create conflicts and
frustrations among the employees and their clients or superiors, and among the employees
themselves; the floor of information and service delivery in the institutions is affected by the
conflicts in the institutions. Similarly, the nature of service deliverer’s verbal and nonverbal
responses is judged by clients as friendliness and responsive (courteous) or the other way round.
Therefore, an institution will have good reputation and clients will appreciate services if they
judge the service deliverers’ communication as friendly and responsive. Thus, communication
behaviors contribute for the institutional development as they cause serious conflicts among the
institutional workers themselves and between workers and their clients and are, therefore,
unhealthy for the institutional development. Different scholars have also pointed the effects of
behavior disorders in interpersonal communication. Washington (2007) argued that the
ingredients of disrespect, mistrust, failure to understand and accommodate racial ethnic and
cultural differences, insensitivity, and poor communication of concerns combine to create a
“conflict pie.” Mutual respect, open communication will create a meaningful partnership where
each partner has an accepted specific role to play and responsibility for making it work.
Watzlawick et al. (2011) pointed that behavior that is out of context, or that shows certain other
kind of randomness or lack of constraint immediately strikes us. Similarly, Baumeister and
Bushman (2008:46) argue that the bad things have a stronger psychological impact than the good
ones. Thus, it is very important for service employees to observe their communication behaviors
during service delivering. Services are good and welcoming when accompanied with courteous
communication between service providers and their clients, and courteous communication
among the service employees themselves creates a good working environment in an institution.

However, the author is aware that what is considered as behavior disorder in one circumstance
may not be a disorder in another. Allan and Burridge (2006) argued that what count as courteous
behavior varies between human groups and this variation is boundless. Similarly, Yule (2010)
argued that ideas about the appropriate language to mark politeness differ substantially from one
culture to the next. Despite these observations, we still need to understand the common disorders
 5

at our particular societies and give them a special consideration to rationalize communication in
our society’s institutions.

Parasuraman, Zeithaml and Berry (1984, cited in Suprenant & Solomon, 1987), among other
factors for successful communication, identified three components which are related to person-
to-person interaction during service delivery. The three components are as explained below:

1. Courtesy: they argue that courtesy include politeness and friendliness. Friendliness is
defined in their work as a tactic that can increase individualization, moving the
transaction from the formal business realm to more personal level.
2. Communication: This includes informing customers in a language they can understand. It
increases personalization by recognizing the customer as an individual and is most
analogous to customized personalization.
3. Understanding: This is defined as learning the customers’ needs and providing individual
attention.

Taking the argument further, it may be argued that service delivery is not only providing the
requested service, for example, providing a document file requested by the customer from one’s
office; but how the service deliverer provides the requested service is part and a measuring unit
of quality service delivery. Thus, service delivery includes providing the requested service in a
language which shows that the needs of the customer are valued. A good service to customers is
that which the service provider put forward the needs of the customer and responds to a customer
in an appropriate language. Customers are not satisfied when welcomed by an impolite and
unresponsive language even when the requested service is provided to him/her. However, the
authors above have treated courtesy and understanding as two different things. Since courtesy is
friendliness and politeness in interaction, then understanding the needs of a person and providing
attention to the person, a client in this study, shows friendliness and politeness. Hence,
understanding is part and parcel of courtesy behavior. This is supported by Sen’s (2007)
argument that courtesy means the speaker understands the feeling of his/her listener.

Thus it may be concluded that the process of service delivery is as important as the requested
service itself. In service delivery, specifically those services which are intangible, it is difficult to
separate the requested service from the process of providing the service whether in public or
private institution. Clients expect to be served at the level of their expectation and, when they are
dissatisfied with the services, the organization or an institution authorized to provide the services
is at stake and even the service employees are disqualified from providing the services. In many
times, service employees lose their jobs for not being able to meet the expectation of the
institutions.

Sane (2012) studied communication behavior disorders of the service employees at Tanzania
higher learning institutions. The study aimed at finding whether the service employees
understand and respond appropriately to customers, give personalized attention to their
customers, use appropriate language to show that the needs of customers are appreciated, and if
they listen to their customers to understand their needs. He found that, in interpersonal
communication within the institutions, communication behaviors of the service employees were
not pleasing to the extent that they left customers discouraged and unsatisfied with the services
 6

offered at the institutions. Among the 208 student participants involved in the study, 51.4 percent
of the respondents were not satisfied with the communication behaviors of the administrators
who served them when they went in their offices for services, while 32 percent of the same
respondents were not satisfied with the communication behaviors of the academicians who
served them. Some of the dissatisfying communication behaviors of the service employees were
such as inattention to speakers, i.e. they continued doing their activities such as calling or
receiving unnecessary phone calls when a client spoke to them), insincerity where the employees
were reported that they gave false promises and spoke things they knew that were untrue,
employees were not emphasizing with speakers problems, use of abusive and threatening
languages, etc. Since the goal of the institutions is to deliver high quality services to its clients, it
was expected that the clients were getting satisfied with the communication behaviors by the
service providers. Contrary to this expectation, the study found that most service employees did
not pay attention to the students’ problems; they used annoying and abusive language when
communicating with their clients; and they did not empathize with students’ problems even when
a problem required a very simple solution.

Customer’s dissatisfaction with the service employees’ communication behaviors reflects their
dissatisfaction with the services they get from them. It is argued that it is difficult to distinguish
the quality of an intangible service and the process in which the service is extended (Fountain,
1999); and since many services are offered though interpersonal communication, customers
dissatisfaction with the communication behaviors of the service employees mean dissatisfaction
with the services. The service employees’ practices of communication disorders at their working
areas mean that they lack essential communication skills and they do not know the core visions
of the institutions where they are working. This also implies that their superiors do not hold them
accountable for their practices.

Sane (ibid) found that communication behavior disorders in communication were not only
practiced by service employees. Clients, students in his particular study, provoked the service
employees by their communication behavior disorders. Some students misbehaved when they
communicated their problems to the service providers; students were reported to use annoying
languages and actions to the administrators and academicians. For example, some students
forced service employees to serve them even when it was not time to work for them, or to be
served before others in queue. 44 percent of the students confessed that students discourteously
communicate to the service employees. Some service employees at one of the three surveyed
institutions in the study said that their negative or poor reaction and responses to students in the
institution were due to students’ communication behavior disorders. Some of the discourteous
statements said to them by some students who appeared for services at their offices are given
below:

If you don’t want to help me leave it, you are not the only person here; I need to see
my results; this person is very difficult to handle, she/he complicates things; don’t
bring your family frustrations at work; don’t threaten us, we did not come here
fortunately; do you think that you are the only teacher in the world? Life does not
end here, we will meet in some other places! Don’t disgust us, you would have not
been here if not us.
 7

However, such statements by clients might have resulted from their dissatisfaction from the
services or behaviors of the service employees and the employees’ poor or negative reactions to
the students’ wants or requests. Students could not show discourtesy behaviors in communicating
with service employees if they were fairly treated by the service employees during service
encountering. As it was argued by Pickhardt (2010) that how you treat your child teaches that
child how to treat you in return, service employees should show good communication behaviors
when communicating to their clients and the clients will show good behaviors in turn and there
will be mutual relationship between service employees and students at the institutions.

References
Allan, K and Burridge, K (2006) Forbidden Words: Taboo and the Censoring of Language.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Baumester, F and Bushman, B.J (2008) Social Psychology & Human Nature. Michele Sociedi.
Yule, G. (1996) Pragmatics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
_______ (2010). The study of Language (4th edn). Cambridge: Cambridge University Pres
Leutenberg, E. A and Liptak, J. J (eds.) (2008). The communication skills workbook: Self
assessment, exercises & educational handouts. Minnesota: Whole Person Associates
Rajend, M., Swan, J., Deumert, A., and Willium, L. (2009). Introducin Sociolinguistics (2nd edn).
Germany: Edinburgh University.
Sane, E. (2012). Communication behavior disorders by service employees at Tanzania higher
learning institutions. Unpublished manuscript, the University of Dodoma Tanzania.
Sen, Leena (2007). Communication Skills (2ndedn). New Delhi. PHI Learning Private Limited.
Sundaram, D. S and Webster, C. (2000). The role of nonverbal communication in service
encounters. Journal of Service Marketing. Vol 14(5): 378-378
Watzlawick, Paul., Bavelas, Janet B., and Jackson Don D. (2011). Pragmatics of Human
Communication. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc.
Washington, M. S. (2007). Is anybody listening? The Kidney Patient’s Role in Doctor/Patient
Communication. Retrieved from, http://kidneytimes.com/article.php?
id=20071012012200. Accessed on 23rd Dec, 2011.
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2 PUNCTUATION MARKS
BY

YUSUPH MASINDE

Punctuation is the art of dividing sentences by points or stops so as to make their meaning clear.
It controls the flow of movement within the sentence. In spoken speech; we pause between the
chunks of sentences or between one sentence and another to convey meaning. We use the same
techniques in writing, only that we use punctuation marks in writings instead of the pauses used
in spoken speech. It is argued by Collinson (2011) that correct punctuation is essential for clear
and effective writing. Well-planned word order requires a minimum of punctuation. The trend
toward less punctuation calls for skillful phrasing to avoid ambiguity and to ensure exact
interpretation (Robinson, 2001).

The general principles governing the use of punctuation

We do not just put a punctuation mark in a sentence; it should be put in a sentence for the
purpose of conveying meaning to that sentence. Thus, the following should be observed before
using any punctuation mark:

If it does not clarify the text it should be omitted; and, in the choice and placing of
punctuation marks, the sole aim should be to bring out more clearly the author’s
thought. Punctuation should aid reading and prevent misreading (Jowers, 2012).

The principal punctuation marks

Common punctuation marks used in our day to day writing are full stop (.); question Mark (?);
exclamation mark (!); colon (:); semi-colon(;) Comma (,); dash (-); hyphen (-); apostrophe (’);
quotation Marks (“ ”); and brackets ( )

Punctuation marks used to end sentences

There are three basic ending punctuations in writing: period/full stop, exclamation mark and
question mark. Periods are used to end a completed statement, while exclamation and question
marks help to define a sentence’s purpose (Hernandez, 2009).

Full stop (.)

Full stop is a punctuation mark denoted by a small dot. A full stop can also be called ‘point’ or
‘period’. A full stop is used to end a sentence. The next sentence after a full stop begins with a
capital letter. Its principal use is to end a sentence that is not a question or an exclamation. This
is used to let the reader know when a thought is finished. The following are examples of how to
use a full stop:
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University students spend the money luxuriously. Joseph is studying hard.

He has been declared redundant and is very upset.

Other uses of a full stop

 A full stop is sometimes, but not always, used in acronyms (abbreviations of names).
The S.L.C. is an important part of Flinders University.
 An abbreviation ends in a full stop when the final letter of the abbreviation is not the last
letter of the word. Example:
One editor is abbreviated to ed.
But two editors are abbreviated to eds (without a full stop), since –s is the final letter of
the word.
There is an ATM on the campus.
 There are usually no full stops in abbreviations involving the first and letters of a
word (contractions) Dr, Mr, Rd, St, but this is a matter of taste.
Abbreviations involving the first few letters of a word, as in Prof (Professor) are the
most likely to have full stops, as in Feb. (February), but again this is now a matter of
taste.
 The full stop is also used in decimal fractions. Example:
In 5.5 metres, 7.3 miles and 10.2 litres.
 It can also be used in dates. Example:
In 12.12.2012.
 It can also be used in times. Example:
As in 3.15 tomorrow afternoon.

Note:
In modern usage the tendency is to omit full stops from abbreviations. This is most true of
abbreviations involving initial capital letters as in TUC, BBC, EEC and USA. In such cases, full
stops should definitely not be used if one or some of the initial letters do not belong to a full
word. Thus, television is abbreviated to TV and educationally subnormal to ESN.

Question mark (?)

This is a punctuation mark which is placed at the end of a question or interrogative sentence. A
direct question (or interrogative sentence) is followed by a question mark. A question mark is
sometimes known as the ‘query’. Use a question mark at the end of a sentence that is asking a
direct question.

A question: What time is it?

Not a question: *I want to know what time it is.

A question mark is not used after an indirect question. For example, a question mark should not
be used in the following constructions:
*Please tell me what time it is.
*I need to find out where the books are.
*Mercy wants to know when John bought a red shirt.
 10

Exclamation mark (!)

It is usually appropriate after real exclamations or short commands. The exclamation mark goes
at the end of sentences to indicate a stronger voice or command, an urgent intention or warning,
or a surprising fact and when an author is trying to interject hard-hitting phrases. Exclamation
mark is also known as ‘exclamation point’. An exclamatory sentence is followed by an
exclamation point. Example:

What a good movie!

Oh dear!
Get out!

Use an exclamation mark at the end of a sentence or a word that is uttered in great excitement,
anger, fear, shock, surprise, and so forth.
The Grand Canyon was breathtaking!
Ouch!
That hurts! Shouted Tommy to his dentist.
Wow! Our team has won eight games straight in a row! Let’s hear it for the Warriors!

Note:
Use the exclamation mark sparingly. Using it too much weakens its effectiveness because they
can unnecessarily exaggerate sentences.

OTHER PUNCTUATION MARKS

Colon (:)
It is used within a sentence to explain, interpret, clarify or amplify what has gone before it.
Colons follow independent clauses and are used to call attention to the information that comes
after. Colon usually shows that some example, explanation or list is going to follow. It is also
used to punctuate speech in plays. It indicates a fairly close interdependence between the units
that it separates. The sentence before the colon should be complete in itself, not a sentence
fragment. For example:

 Use colon after the independent clause and before the word, phrase, sentence, quotation,
or list it is introducing.
Joyce has only one thing on her mind: girls (word)
Joyce has only one thing on her mind: the girl at the next door (phrase)
Joyce has only one thing on her mind: she wants to go out with Linda (clause)
Joyce has several things on her mind: her finals, her job, and Linda (list)
 Never use a colon after a verb that directly introduces a list.

Incorrect: The things on Joyce’s mind are: finals, work, and Linda.
Correct: The things on Joyce’s mind are finals, work, and Linda.
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 Colon indicates that what follows it is an explanation or amplification of what precedes

it.
I have some news for you: Joseph’s father has arrived.
 Colon is used to introduce a list of items. A capital letter is not usually used after the
colon in this context.
Please send him the following items: a passport, a visa application and the
correct fee.
The standard of school work here is extremely high: it is almost university
standards.
 Colon is also used to introduce lists or long quotations.
The recipe says we need: tomatoes, peppers, courgettes, garlic, oregano and
basil.
The boy has a huge list of things he needs for school: blazer, trousers, shirts,
sweater, ties, shoes, tennis shoes, rugby boots, sports clothes and leisure wear.
One of his favorite quotations was: “If music be the food of love play on.”
 Colon is used in numerals.
Hours 7:30 am
Dates 28:11:1977
A ration of 7:3
 Colon is also used to show subtitles of books.
The Dark Years: the Economy in the 1930s.

Note:
In informal writing, the dash is sometimes used instead of the colon. Indeed the dash tends to be
overused for this purpose.

Semicolon (;)
A semi-colon links two or more simple sentences, provided that the sentences are linked by a
common theme. Semicolons are used to separate clauses or phrases that are related and that
receive equal emphasis. Semi-colon is rather used just like a comma, but it conveys a long pause
than a comma. For example:

 Semicolons join independent clauses in a compound sentence if no coordinating

conjunction is used.
Michael seemed preoccupied; he answered our questions abruptly.
 Semicolons are used before a conjunctive adverb (transition word) that joins the clauses
of a compound sentence.
The emergency room was crowded; however, Warren was helped immediately.
 Semicolons help avoid confusion in lists where there are already commas.
 We traveled to Washington, America; Paris, France; Berlin, Germany; and Sofia,
Bulgaria.
 Semicolons are used between two sentences when a period is not desired.
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Sales of buttons and tee shirts were higher than expected; few people bought
flags, however.
 Semicolons are used to separate elements in a series if the elements themselves contain
commas.
Commission membership included Abdallah Hussein, Mayor; Harun Daruwesh,
and City.
Attorney; Samson James, School Board President; and Eva Rosen, State
representative
 A semi-colon joins two independent but related clauses or sentences.
The lecture was badly delivered; it went on far too long.
It is possible to avoid using the semi-colon here, by replacing it with a word such as and
or because, or by creating two separate sentences.
The lecture was badly delivered and it went on far too long.
 It is used in lists to separate items made up of several words.
To make a cake you will need a hundred grams of butter; a hundred grams of
sugar; a hundred grams of flour; a spoon of cocoa; and two eggs.
 It is mainly used between clauses that are not joined by any form of conjunction.
The children are tired; they are also hungry.
She was my sister; she was also my best friend.
He was a marvelous friend; he is much missed.

Note:
 A dash is sometimes used instead of a semi-colon but this is more informal.
 The semi-colon is also used to form subsets in a long list or series of names so that the
said list seems less complex,
The young man who wants to be a journalist has applied everywhere. He has
applied to The Times in London; The Washington Post in Washington; The Globe
and Mail in Toronto; The Age in Melbourne; The Tribune in Chicago.

Comma (,)
Comma is a very common and most frequent punctuation mark, but it is also the most
problematic because it serves many different purposes. It can be used to: introduce a word,
phrase or construction; separate long independent constructions; separate words within a
sentence or parts of a sentence; separate elements in a series; separate thousands, millions, etc. in
a number; and also prevent misreading. Commas are used whenever a reader ought to take a
pause. They tell readers to pause between words or groups of words, and they help clarify the
meanings of sentences.

Note: In modern usage there is a tendency to adopt a system of minimal punctuation and the
comma is one of the causalities of this new attitude. Most people use the comma considerably
less frequently than was formerly the case.
However, there are certain situations in which the comma is still commonly used. One of these
concerns listing. The individual items in a series of three or more items are separated by
 13

commas. Whether a comma is put before the ‘and’ which follows the second-last item is now a
matter of choice. Some people dislike the use of a comma after ‘and’ in this situation, and it was
formerly considered wrong.

Rules of comma
 Use a comma before a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, so*, yet, nor, for) if it joins
two sentences.

Ellen thought the movie was exciting, and Fred liked it more than any he had seen
that year.
Fred and Ellen saw a movie and went out to dinner afterwards. (No comma
needed because and is not joining two sentences.
(when *so, means therefore or as a result, but not when it means so that)
 Use a comma after introductory expressions. An introductory expression is a word or
words that lead up to the main part of the sentence.

Frankly, I have had enough of this cold and rainy weather.

When our bakery closed down, Jan had to make her own bread.
Confused by the freeway signs, Ralph got hopelessly lost in Chicago.
 Use commas to separate three or more items in a series. Use a comma after each item,
including the one before the conjunction (and, or).

Protestors wore black pants, red shirts, and green sashes.

Students can study before class, after school, or on Saturday afternoon.
 Use commas to set off words and phrases that interrupt the sentence if those words are
not essential to the purpose of the sentence.

Michelle took her seat at the table and, much to everyone's surprise, blew her nose on the
tablecloth.
I liked Brad's sense of humor. His lewd jokes, however, deeply embarrassed his
grandmother.
Bill, a man of much courage, grabbed the burglar's hand and bit off his trigger
finger.
Use a comma to set off a phrase at the end of a sentence if that phrase refers to the beginning or
middle part of the sentence, or to the entire sentence.
These phrases will usually begin with a word ending in –ed or –ing.

Teachers offered rewards to the students, trying to improve their test scores.
With a comma, the sentence means that;
Teachers offered rewards in an attempt to improve test scores.

(The phrase in an attempt to improve test scores might better be placed after teachers and set
off with commas.)

Teachers offered rewards to the students trying to improve their test scores.
Without a comma, the sentence means that;
 14

Teachers offered rewards only to students who were trying to improve their test scores.

If uses explained above do not apply, you probably do not need a comma. Most people over-use
commas.
 Commas are used after an introductory dependent clause (a group of words before the
subject of a sentence that do not form a complete sentence).

If your friends enjoy Chinese food, they will love this restaurant.
 Commas are used to set off introductory words, introductory adverbial, participial, or
infinitive phrases, and longer introductory prepositional phrases.

Incidentally, I was not late this morning. (Word)

Hoping for a bigger fish, Raymond spent three more hours fishing. (Phrase)
 Commas are used between independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction

(For, and, nor, but, or, yet, so).

My dog had fleas, so we gave him a bath.
 Commas set off nonessential phrases or clauses.

The man, I think, had a funny laugh.

 Commas set off an appositive (a word or phrase that renames a noun).

Tanya, Debbie's sister, gave a brilliant speech last night.

 Commas are used to solve problems that rise due to many individual items in a list
which might be quite long.

We opened the door, let ourselves in, fed the cat and started to cook a meal.
They consulted the map, planned the trip, got some foreign currency and were
gone before we realized it.
 Confusion may arise if the last item in the list contains ‘and’ in its own right. In such
cases it as well correct to put a comma before the ‘and.’

In the pub they served ham salad, shepherd’s pie, pie and chips, and omelette.
 In cases where there is a list of adjectives before a noun, the use of commas is now
optional although it was formerly standard practice. Thus, both;
She wore a long, red, sequined dress and
She wore a long red sequined dress are used.
 When the adjective immediately before the noun has a closer relationship with it than the
other adjectives no comma should be used.

A beautiful old Spanish village.

 The comma is used to separate clauses or phrases that are parenthetical or naturally cut
off from the rest of a sentence.
My mother, who was of Irish extraction, was very superstitious.
 15

 In such a sentence the clause within the commas can be removed without altering the
basic meaning. Care should be taken to include both commas.
 Commas are not normally used to separate main clauses and relative clauses.
The woman whom I met was my friend’s sister.’
 Commas are not usually used to separate main clauses and subordinate clauses.
He left when we arrived.
They came to the party although we did not expect them to.
 If the subordinate clause precedes the main clause, it is sometimes followed by a comma,
especially if it is a reasonably long clause.
Although we stopped and thought about it, we still made the wrong decision.
 If the clause is quite short, or if it is a short phrase, a comma is not usually inserted.
Although it rained we had a good holiday.
Although poor they were happy.’
BUT: The use of commas to separate such words and expression from the rest of the sentence to
which they are related is optional. Thus one can write:
However, he could be right.
Or
However he could be right.
So: The longer the expression is, the more likely it is to have a comma after it.

On the other hand, we may decide not to go.

 Commas are always used to separate terms of address, interjections or question tags from
the rest of the sentence.
Please come this way, Ms Brown, and make yourself at home.
Now, ladies, what can I get you?
It’s cold today, isn’t it?
 Commas may be used to separate main clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction, but
this is not usual if the clauses have the same subject or object.
Correct: She swept the floor and dusted the table.
Incorrect: *She swept the floor, and dusted the table.
 In cases where the subjects are different and the clauses are fairly long, it is best to insert
a comma.
They took all the furniture with them, and she was left with nothing.
 A comma can be inserted to avoid repeating a verb in the second of two clauses.

He plays golf and tennis, his brother rugby.

 A comma is used to separate a non-defining relative clause (a clause which adds extra
information, introduced by a word such as that, which or who) from the rest of the
sentence.
It is years since I read Anna Karenina, which is my favourite novel.
 16

Anna Karenina, which is my favourite novel, was written by Tolstoy.

 To separate some non-defining adjectival phrases from the rest of the sentence.

The speaker, getting to his feet, began to introduce his talk.

 When a subordinate (less important) clause comes before the principal clause.

If you do not understand, please tell me.

 To separate phrases in apposition (describing the same person or thing mentioned earlier)
from the rest of the sentence.

Dr. Kikwete, the President, said that he approved of the policy.

 To separate items in many kinds of lists.

I shall need a book, some paper, a pencil and a ruler.

At the sports club we can play tennis, squash, badminton and table tennis.
We need to buy bread, milk, fruit and sugar.
They are studying French, German, Spanish and Russian.
 To separate a number of connectives from the rest of the sentence:

too, however, nevertheless, though, of course, then, etc.

You can, however, do it if you wish.
Nevertheless, these results must be interpreted within their context.
This is, of course, the best action to take.
 Comma can be used before a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet)
linking two main clauses, when this clarifies the meaning.

The first vendor was selling ice cream with chocolate chips, and worms were
available from the second vendor.
 Comma can be between coordinate adjectives not joined by and.
People searching for good jobs, appealing writing can sell your ideas.
 Comma can be used when some adverbs or adverbial expressions are placed within a
sentence (instead of at the beginning or end of the sentence).
They tried, in spite of my advice, to climb the mountain.

Dash (—)
Dash is a punctuation mark in the form of a short line used to separate different related parts of a
sentence.
Note: The dash should be used sparingly. Depending on it too much can lead to careless writing
with ideas set down at random rather than turned into a piece of coherent prose.

Uses of Dashes
 In the middle of a sentence, a dash can put special emphasis on a group of words or make
them stand out from the rest of the sentence.
 17

Linda Simpson's prescription for the economy, lower interest rates, higher
employment, and less government spending, was rejected by the president's
administration.

Becomes:
Linda Simpson's prescription for the economy—lower interest rates, higher employment,
and less government spending—was rejected by the president's administration.
 The dash can also be used to attach material to the end of a sentence when there is a clear
break in the continuity of the sentence, or when an explanation is being introduced.

The president will be unable to win enough votes for another term of office—unless,
of course, he can reduce unemployment and the deficit soon.
It was a close call — the sudden gust of wind pushed the helicopter to within inches
of the power line.
 A dash is used to indicate a break, often informally, or to add parenthetical information.

He received a prize — and a certificate as well.

His research output included two books — both on astronomy — as well as
numerous articles.
 The Dash can be used to emphasize a word or phrase.

They said goodbye then-forever.

 The dash can also be used to add a remark to the end of a sentence.

They had absolutely no money-a regular state of affairs towards the end of the
month.
 The dash can also be used to introduce a statement that amplifies or explains what has
been said or summarize what has gone before.

The burglars took everything of value-her jewel, the silver, the TV set, her hi-fi
and several hundred pounds.
Disease, poverty, ignorance-these are the problems facing us.
 The dash is also used to introduce an afterthought.

You can come with me-but you might not want to.
 It can also introduce a sharp change of subject.
I’m just making tea-what was that noise?

 It can also be used to introduce some kind of balance in a sentence.

It’s going to take two of us to get this table out of here-one to move it and one to
hold the door open.
 The dash is sometimes found in pairs. A pair of dashes acts in much the same way as a
set of round brackets. A pair of dashes can be used to indicate a break in a sentence.

We prayed-prayed as we had never prayed before-that the children would be safe.

It was-on reflection-his best performance yet.
 18

He introduced me to his wife-an attractive pleasant woman-before he left.

 Dashes are used to indicate hesitant speech.

I do not-well-maybe-you could be right.

 They can be used to indicate the omission of part of a word or name.

It’s none of your b- (to mean none of you business)

He’s having an affair with Mrs. D- (a name of a person)
 They can also be used between points in time or space.

Edinburgh-London
1750-1790

Hyphen (–)
Most people confuse between dashes and hyphens. Hyphens are not the same as dashes. Dashes
are like brackets; they enclose extra information. Type hyphens with no space before or after
(e.g. step-by-step instructions) (Collinson, 2011). A dash is a space between a dash and a word
next or before it.

Uses of Hyphens
 Use hyphens in a compound adjective only when it comes before the word it modifies.
However, some compound adjectives are always hyphenated such as well-balanced.
A well-liked author an author who is well liked
A world-renowned composer a composer who is world renowned

Caution: Look up compound adjectives in the dictionary if you are unsure whether or not to
hyphenate them.
 Use a hyphen with the prefixes ex-, self-, and all-; with the suffix -elect; and with all
prefixes before a proper noun or proper adjective.
All-star ex-mayor pro-Canadian senator-elect anti-Semitic non-European self-control
self-image
 Use hyphens with compound numbers from twenty-one to ninety-nine and with fractions
used as modifiers.
Forty-two applicants
Two-thirds majority (two-thirds is an adjective modifying majority)
Three-fourths empty (three-fourths is an adverb modifying empty)
 Hyphen indicates a range.
1939–1945
Apostrophe (')
Apostrophe is a form of punctuation that is written as a raised dot in words. Many spelling errors
centre on the position of the apostrophe in relation to s.
 19

Uses of apostrophe
 To show possession, add an apostrophe and an -s to singular nouns or indefinite pronouns
that end in one or body.

Susan's wrench
Anyone's problem
 Put an apostrophe at the end of to plural possessive nouns that end in s.

All the teachers’ cars

My parents' house
The musicians' instrument
 Add an apostrophe before and an s to irregular plural nouns that do not end in s.

Women’s shoes
The men's department
 Add an apostrophe and an -s for singular possessive nouns that end in -s.

Chris's cookbook
The business's system
The girl’s mother
 Do not use an apostrophe with possessive personal pronouns including

yours, his, hers, its, ours, their, and whose.

 Apostrophes are also used in contractions, two words which have been combined into
one, to mark where the missing letter or letters would be.

I am= I'm; I have = I've

who is = who's; let us = let's
cannot = can't; he is, she is, it is = he's, she's, it's
you are = you're; they are = they're
Avoid confusing it's with its. It's is a contraction for it is; its is a possessive pronoun.
 An apostrophe is also used to indicate that a letter is missing. But this use should be
avoided in academic writing. It is better to say:

It's a well-known fact. It is a well-known fact.

 The apostrophe should always be included when telling the time.
It is nine o’ clock. (This is short for ‘nine of the clock’.)
Note: In the possessive form of a name or singular noun that ends in s, x, or z, the apostrophe
may or may not be followed by s.
James’s house, the fox’s lair, ‘Roz’s dress.
 They are sometimes used to indicate missing century numbers in dates,
The 60s and 70s’,
But, are not used at the end of decades, as in 1960s’, not 1960’s
 20

Quotation marks [Inverted comma/Quotes] (“ ”/‘ ’)

Quotation marks include both single, double and hash marks. Single (‘ ’) or double (“ ”) are
more common. These are sometimes called ‘speech marks’ in some books. Commas and periods/
full stops that finish quotes are always placed inside quotation marks. Other marks of
punctuation are placed outside quotation marks unless they are part of the quoted material. Place
semicolons and colons outside quotation marks. For example, He calls me his "Teddy bear"; I'm
not a bear. Place question marks or exclamation points inside the quotation marks if they
punctuate the quotation only. "Are we too late?" she asked. Place question marks or exclamation
points outside the quotation marks if they punctuate the entire sentence.Why did she say, "We are
too late"?

Uses of Quotation Marks

 Use quotation marks to enclose the exact words of a person (direct quotation). Do not use
quotation marks around a paraphrase (using your own words to express the author’s
ideas) or a summary or paraphrase of the author's words.
George said, "Kurt has a red hat."
 Quotation marks set off the titles of magazine articles, poems, reports, and chapters
within a book.
"The Talk of the Town" is a regular feature in Time magazine.
 They show the titles of journal articles in a reference list.
Paul, T. (1994). ‘New methods of laser detection,’ Laser Technology, vol. 25, p. 309

Brackets (Parenthesis)
Parenthesis includes all the four kinds of bracket symbols found on most computer keyboards ( (
), { }, [ ], < >). They are used to enclose information that is in some way additional to the
main statement. The information so enclosed is called ‘parenthesis’ and the pair of brackets
enclosing can be known as ‘parentheses.’ Therefore, in academic writing use parentheses to
enclose citation material, to enclose letters used for listing. They are also used (but sparingly) to
enclose words or phrases that are not essential, as in the sentence you are reading. They enclose
author-date references in the text. For example, a number of experiments (Smith1987; Tan 1990;
Wong 1991) indicate that this is correct. They enclose the number for an equation, and bracket
parts of an equation together. Example, x = 2(a+b). Brackets also enclose figures within a
sentence.
Grades will be based on (1) participation, (2) in-class writing, and (3) exams.

The information that is enclosed in the brackets is purely supplementary or explanatory in nature
and could be removed without changing the overall basic meaning or grammatical completeness
of the statement. Elements inside parentheses are related to the sentence but are nonessential.
The material within brackets can be a single word, a phrase or a sentence. Brackets, like
‘commas’ and ‘dashes,’ interrupt the flow of the main statement but brackets indicate a more
definite or clear-cut interruption. The fact that they are more visually obvious emphasizes this.

Sentences that appear in brackets in the middle of a sentence are not usually given an initial
capital letter or a full stop. See the following examples:

They very much desired (she had no idea why) to purchase her house.
 21

If the material within brackets comes at the end of a sentence the full stop comes outside
the second bracket.
If the material in the brackets is a sentence which comes between two other sentences it is treated
like a normal sentence with an initial capital letter and a closing full stop. See the following
example:
He never seems to do any studying. (He is always either asleep or watching television.)
Yet he does brilliantly in his exams.
Punctuation of the main statement is unaffected by the presence of the brackets and their
enclosed material except that any punctuation that would have followed the word before the first
bracket follows the second bracket.

He lives in a place (I am not sure exactly where), that is miles from anywhere.
When the group inside the parentheses forms a complete sentence but is inserted inside a larger
sentence, no period is needed. However, if a question mark or exclamation point is allowed,
when needed
The snow (she saw it as she passed the window) was now falling heavily.
When parentheses are used to enclose an independent sentence, the end punctuation belongs
inside the parentheses.
Mandy told me she saw Amy’s new car. (I saw Amy’s car before Mandy.) She said it
was a nice car.

Note:
 In a dictionary round brackets are used to separate off the pronunciation and to separate
off the etymologies.
 Square brackets are sometimes used to enclose information that is contained inside other
information already in brackets.
 Square brackets are used within a quotation to explain, clarify or correct the original
words.
 Square brackets are also used for editorial comments in a scholarly work where the
material within brackets is more of an intrusion to the flow of the main statement than is
normally the case with bracketed material.
 Brackets are used to clarify, or to avoid confusion. In your academic writing such
confusion should not arise, and so this use of brackets will not be necessary. For
example:
He (Mr Brown) told him (Mr Jones) that he (Mr Green) had been accepted for the job.

References
Collinson, I. (2011). A rough guide to punctuation. Downey for the learning centre. The
University of New South Wales. Retrieved from http://www.Ic.unsw.ed.au. Accessed on
15 August 2012
Crayne, V. (2012). Dialogue: How to punctuate, use tags and vary the structure of your dialogue.
Retrieved from www.crayne.com. Accessed on 10th October, 2012.
Hernandez, K. (2009). End Punctuation. USA: University of Houston Press.
 22

Jowers, J. (2012). Punctuation. Study Advice Service. Retrieved from

http://www.bristol.ac.uk/arts/exercises/grammar/grammar_tutorial/page47.htm.
Lavrentiev, A. (2008). A Tag for Punctuation? London: MS SIG Working Paper Panel.
Robinson, J. et al (2001). Punctuating and Formatting Dialogue. Douglas College learning
Centre.
Stein, G. (1985). Punctuation (2nd Edition). Boston: Beacon Press.
 23

3 Reading culture
BY
Eliakimu Sane

Reading is the process of passing your eyes through written materials to examine and
interpret the words and sentences in the materials to get knowledge or for leisure. Fideles (n.
d.) adds that, in reading, readers translate symbols, or letters to get meaning. The reader
must follow the sequence of symbols arranged in a particular way. For example, the
sequence for English is from left to right, Hebrew and Arabic from right to left and Chinese
from top to bottom.

Reading culture is that habit of reading continuously without being pushed by someone or
by the fear of examination. According to Madumulla (2005), reading culture is built within a
person; a person reads different reading materials without getting pushed by someone to
read. A reading culture among the Tanzania students and people is not generally pleasing.
Reading in Tanzania has not yet been given a serious attention. It is common sight to see
people sitting idle for quite a number of hours in a bus without reading even a newspaper.
Madumulla (2005) argues that Tanzanian people stop reading immediately after they
complete their school or university studies. Similarly, Ruterana (2012) gives a common
adage, “if you want to hide something to Rwandans and Tanzanians, you will only put it in a
book. But if you want something to be known, just whisper it to one person [ italics mine].”
From these observations, it is clear that lack of a reading culture for Tanzanians has been the
case because reading is not of vital focus in Tanzanian education. Teachers and parents do
not encourage learners to read books in or out of the schools and they (teachers and parents)
themselves do not read books for knowledge or for leisure. Teachers, parents and guardians
should be positive role models for students to read.

Efficient reading
For the reading activity to be efficient, the one reading has to define the purpose of reading
and decide what to read for the purpose. One should also be able to identify the specific
parts or sections of the materials to read to meet the needs. For example, one who is reading
for a research or an assignment has to identify the relevant literature to read for the purpose;
one will be able to identify relevant materials to read by skimming them before the actual
reading process takes place. One should also have the reading skills and should be able to
interpret words to extract meaning from the words and sentences (i.e. one should know how
to read and write). There are also different reading styles depending on the purpose of
reading, one need to be familiar with these reading styles for reading to be meaningful. Also
 24

a reader needs to guess the meaning of unfamiliar words from the context to help
understanding, instead of stopping to find the meaning of every unfamiliar word in a
dictionary. A reader who posses all these qualities and puts them into consideration before
and after the reading process is known as an efficient reader. An efficient reader, according
to Mohammed (2002), is defined as:

The one who skims the text before beginning to study the text, forms the
sounds of the words with his/her mouth or even whispers them as he reads in
order to help in pronunciation, define the purpose of reading a text before
starting to read, varies the reading speed depending on the purpose of reading
the text.

Types of reading
Readers use different reading types/styles depending on the defined purpose of the reading.
Reading, for example, may be for obtaining specific information or for getting a general
knowledge. These types of reading are explained in detail in the following subsections:

Scanning/Reading for specific information

In scanning, a reader looks over a text quickly to search for specific information. It is also known
as search technique. Usually, a reader has a specific information or concept in mind and he/she
looks it up in the material(s) to find its meaning and other related information. The specific
information are such as time, place, names, meaning, etc. For example, one may open specific
pages of a book and quickly jump into specific paragraphs or lines to get the needed information.

Skimming/Reading for general idea

Skimming, also known as survey reading is a process of looking over a text quickly to get a
general idea of the text. Reader’s eyes move fast at the titles of the materials, tables of contents,
and the first and the last sentences in paragraphs. Students skim when reviewing for
examinations, few moments before entering in an examination room; some people skims
newspapers before buying them. We also skim books to see if they are relevant for our purpose.
We are advised to skim materials in libraries to see if they are relevant for our defined purpose
before we start reading them or before we buy them for use.

Study reading/Intensive reading

This is a type of reading in which a reader reads and thinks about what is being read so that it is
understood, remembered and contextualized. It needs to be worked at, with time for reflection,
thought analysis, criticism, comparison, notes made, points highlighted and emphasized, the
whole summarized. Study reading is done when one is reading for and assignment or a
presentation. Students are encouraged to do intensive reading in order to write meaningful
assignments, reports and presentations.
 25

Extensive reading
Extensive reading involves reading many and a variety of books for general or universal meaning
and pleasure. In extensive reading, reading is beyond reading the school books. Susser and Nobb
(1990) define extensive reading as the process of reading large quantities of materials or long
texts for global or general understanding, with the intention of obtaining pleasure from the texts.
It is individualized with people choosing the books they want to read and, for students, the books
are not discussed in the class. In this type of reading, people choose what they want to read and
read a variety of materials in terms of topic and genres. Researchers (i.e. Davis, 1990; Leung,
2002; Madumulla, 2005; Nation, 1997; Ranadya, Rajan & Jacobs, 1999; and Ruterana, 2012)
have proved extensive reading to be the best recreational way, and it improves language
competence and thinking abilities of a person.

References
Davis, Colin. (1990). Extensive reading: an expensive extravagance? ELT Journal, vol. 49(4):
329-336.
Fideles, N. V. (n. d.). Types of reading. Accessed on 7th June, 2012, from
http://www.scribd.com/doc/16632368/types-of-reading-and-reading-techniques
Madumulla, J S. (2005). Hali ya usomaji wa riwaya katika Tanzania. In Sewangi, S S., and
Madumulla, J S. (2006) (eds). Makala ya Kongamano la Taifa la Jubilee ya TUKI-2005.
Dar-es-Salaam, TUKI.
Mohammed, H. I. (2002). Learn to communicate effectively: A course bookof communication in
academic and other professional settings. Morogoro: Mzumbe Book Project
Nation, Paul. (1997). The language learning benefits of reading. The Language Teacher, Vol.
21(5):13-16
Ranandya, W.A., Rajan, B. R.S., and Jacobs, G. M. (1999). Extensive reading with adult learners
of English as a second language. RELC Journal, 30, 39-61
Ruterana, P. C. (2012). Enhancing the culture of reading in Rwanda: Reflections by students in
tertiary institutions. The Journal of Pan African Studies, vol.5 (1), 36-54
Susser, Bernard and Nobb, Thomas N. (1990). EFL extensive reading instruction, research and
procedure. JALT Journal Vol. 12(2). Accessed online through http://www.cc.kyoto-
su.ac.jp/~trobb/sussrobb.html on 17th June, 2012.
 26

3 Extensive Reading for Knowledge

and Fostering English Language
Competence in Tanzania
By
Eliakimu Sane
We cannot neglect the fact that English is a form of human capital in Tanzania and in the world.
In Tanzania, people with competence in the language get better paying jobs and people with
average competence struggle to survive. For example, the interviews for official jobs in the
Country are conducted in the English language. Even where the profession does not require
English, the language is used in the interviews to keep others from getting the job. English is also
the language of the academics in the country and the reality is that the subject materials are best
absorbed by those who are competent in the language, which competence they acquired either by
self-effort or because of a learnt family background or by being educated in English medium
primary schools. On the other hand, those with poor command of the language, a majority of
Tanzanian students belong to this category, are unable to absorb the subject materials and fall
behind in life and job opportunities. Neke (2003) argued that the dominance of English in
Tanzania has shifted internal scientific and technological innovations and inventiveness since its
continued use in post-primary education made it difficult for students to understand and
internalize scientific and technological principles due to poor proficiency. Also Roy-Campbell,
Qorro, and Zaline (1997) argued that because students in Tanzania understood very little English
they absorbed very little subject matter, and when they joined the world of work they translated
the little they have into Kiswahili where they also lost some contents in the process of
translation. Hence, the teaching and learning of English in the country needs further
improvement immediately.

Let it be known in advance that the author is in no way supporting or opposing the two rival
camps for and against the use of English as official language and medium of instruction in
Tanzania. The author’s argument is practical and not ideological: since English language is
currently used as the medium of instruction, the official language, and an important tool to
access better paying jobs in Tanzania and anywhere else, there has to be favorable environment
for everybody to access it. Even when the medium of instruction is changed from English to
Kiswahili language, there will still be a need for the English language in the country and students
will continue learning it as a subject in schools and colleges, hence they will need to attain
competence in the language. There are those who would want to learn the language for social,
political and economic reasons like, for instance, to work in tourism and hospitality industry; for
higher studies in the English speaking countries; for diplomatic assignments; for translation
 27

purposes; and others for its aesthetic qualities. Thus, more strategies are required to improve
English language proficiency in the country.

Since the social uses of English language in Tanzania are very limited and give very minimal
learning input to the language learners, it is clear that there is not much of English language
learning outside the classroom and the language competence will continue to be poor in the
country. The way out of this problem is to promote and encourage extensive reading by students
in secondary schools. Extensive reading involves reading many books and reading a variety of
books for general, universal meaning. Reading should be beyond reading the school books.
Susser and Nobb (1990) define extensive reading as the process of reading large quantities of
materials or long texts for global or general understanding, with the intention of obtaining
pleasure from the texts. Because extensive reading is individualized with students choosing the
books they want to read, the books are not discussed in the class. The best way to improve one’s
knowledge of a foreign language is to go and live among its speakers. The next best way is to
read extensively in it (Nuttal 1982, cited in Ranandya, Rajan & Jacobs, 1999).

Secondary school is a right place to introduce extensive reading in English because of three
important reasons. First, most pupils enter the primary school without Kiswahili knowledge.
They learn Kiswahili when they are in the primary school; that being the case, they should be
given the opportunity to develop their Kiswahili knowledge in the primary schools. Second, at
the time the students enter the secondary school they would have acquired basic knowledge of
English from the primary school where they learned English as a subject; it is also in the
secondary school where English is the medium of instruction; so they acquire enough vocabulary
which needs to be reinforced by extensive reading. And lastly, by the time the students enter
secondary schools, they would have gained reading and writing skills which are very essential in
extensive reading. Generally, reading requires learners to have abilities to read and write words
of a language, a learner is also required to have abilities to interpret the written words for the
reading process to be meaningful. Madumulla (2005) argues that a person requires sufficient
reading and writing abilities for reading culture to develop. These (reading and writing) skills are
taught in the primary education; therefore, introducing learners into extensive reading by the
time they enter secondary schools is quite possible and productive.

If English language learning in Tanzania is not reinforced by reading books, then what was
learned in the classrooms will be lost. Learning needs to be consolidated by life experience.
Gupta (2009) observed that the experience of a learner in the world of reality must resemble the
drills and activities they underwent in the classroom. It is thus important that the extensive
reading program is encouraged in order for the learners to have opportunities to keep meeting the
words they have learned in the classrooms and perceive how the words that they learned in the
classrooms are used in a variety of linguistic environments. This will help the students in
realizing the range of language uses and areas of language knowledge. Through extensive
reading, English language learners will get opportunities to add and understand new vocabulary
as they are used in various grammatical backgrounds. They will learn, for example, how people
engage in word-play to convey different kinds of information in different contexts.

Reading should be encouraged because reading will help people to improve their language
competence, be it English or Kiswahili. Reading will help people to improve their grammar,
 28

vocabulary and sociolinguistic competence in the target language. Reading will make people
acquire new knowledge and help them get refreshed at the same time. Madumulla (op. cit.)
explains reading as among the things that can make a person refresh his/her mind and is also one
of the things to be done by a person when relaxing. Similarly, Nation (1997) argues that learners
can develop their language knowledge at their own pace through extensive reading because
reading is essentially an individual activity and, therefore, learners of different proficiency levels
could be learning at their own speed without being locked into rigid class program. It allows
freedom to learners to follow their interest in choosing what to read.

Several studies have evaluated reading as an effective way of improving English language
competence of non-native speakers of English language. Renandya, Rajan, and Jacobs (1999)
studied the impact of extensive reading on language proficiency of a group of Vietnamese
government officials studying English. The study examined whether extensive reading could
sufficiently be implemented with adult second language learners. The results indicated that adult
second language learners could benefit largely from a carefully planned and systematically
implemented extensive reading program.

Davis (1990) reports the Project to Assist Secondary Schools in English Skills (PASSES) which
involved forty of the weakest secondary schools in Singapore. Each school was encouraged to
introduce uninterrupted salient reading as well as weekly extensive reading period where
students read for twenty minutes each day. The project was run for five years (1985-1990) and it
succeeded in raising the schools’ English language pass rate at O-level 1 above the national
average compared with the equivalent schools not included in the project. Students’
improvement in the English language was seen in their development of vocabulary, their use of
more varied sentence structure, and was better at spotting and correcting grammatical mistakes in
their writing and speaking. They also showed an overall improvement in writing skills and
increased confidence and fluency in speaking the language. The study reported that extensive
reading program did not only improve the students’ English language skills, but also their
personal growth like more personal attitudes to studying, effective thinking skills, wider
knowledge of the world and understanding of other people in the world.

Leung (2002) wanted to discover the effectiveness of extensive reading and to understand the
extensive reading process from the perspective of a foreign language learner. The subject of the
study was the researcher herself who had Chinese as her first language. She had taken up
learning the Japanese language ten years before the time of the study when she learned how to
write and pronounce Japanese, and learned some phrases for self introduction, greeting and so
on. She had very elementary proficiency of the language at the time of the study. She started
reading simple and interesting materials which helped her to learn simple vocabularies. She
started reading the language out loud to get a feeling for the language and learned the
conjunctions of the language. She reported that after nine (9) weeks she had improved her
vocabulary knowledge. The largest improvement was manifested in her ability to identify words
and use them to construct more semantically correct sentences. The improvement resulted from
the large linguistic input she received through extensive reading. The researcher admitted that
extensive reading exposed her to words previously learned which reinforced her existing

1
O-level stands for ordinary level secondary education which is the post primary education before Form Five and
Six. O-level includes Form One to Form Four classes.
 29

knowledge of certain vocabulary items and allowed her to apply her vocabulary knowledge in a
meaningful way.

These studies have a significant message for Tanzania. The implication is that if extensive
reading is encouraged and implemented in a systematic way in the Tanzanian post primary
education, the general knowledge, mental health and the English language competence of
Tanzanians will improve considerably since the method is proved to have been effective in other
third world countries where English is not the official language or the language of instruction. It
is high time that the country’s educational policy framers change the concept of reading in
schools where reading is currently done for examination. Like Davis’ (1990) formulation,
reading should be a supplementary class library scheme where students read pleasurably
“without pressure for testing or marking,” and Madumulla (ibid) formulation that reading is more
enjoyable when a person is relaxed and free from work stress. Students should be motivated to
read, the government, for example, can support reading seminars and projects to motivate the
students to read, read for pleasure, read for information, and read for language competence. For
reading to be successful, the following reading characteristics, as recommended by Ranandya et
al. (1999) could be adopted.

 Students read a large amount of printed materials

 Students choose what they want to read
 Students read a variety of materials in terms of topic and genre
 The material students read is within their level of comprehension
 Students take part in post-reading activities
 Teachers read with their students, thus serving as role model of good readers
 Teachers and students keep track of students’ progress
 Teachers provide help and guidance where needed
In the Tanzanian context, what we need to comprehend from these characteristics is that reading
should go beyond what is currently read in secondary schools. Students should read more
materials in English than the eight books they read for four years. They should be encouraged to
read magazines and newspapers in the English language. They should also be allowed to choose
what to read and when to read. This implies that different reading materials should be available
in the schools. Students should not be restricted in what to read and when to read. For example,
all the students in Tanzania read the same books to answer their examinations and the books are
read when a teacher is teaching and monitoring the reading2; examinations are also set to get the
students answer them through the prescribed books which make students read summaries of the
books as explained earlier. Students in secondary schools should be encouraged to read materials
that interest them because reading is for knowledge acquisition and enjoyment. As Madumulla
(ibid) pointed out, the government should make its people understand the importance of
recreation in their lives. Reading is among the recreation facilities to be encouraged, rather than
drinking, sports and games which are predominant in the country.

2
English language teaching in Tanzania is broken into grammar part (which takes larger part of the teaching) and
books reading and analysis.
 30

Another lesson to learn from the above study is that Tanzanian students should have role models
of good readers. Currently, neither the parents at home nor the teachers at schools take their time
to read for students to learn from them. Students are not raised in a way that they could realize
the importance of the reading activity. They are not even asked about what they have ever read
or nobody explains to them about an interesting book he/she has read and what enjoyment one
has got from reading. Parents and teachers need to be guiding their students to read and even
award them for their each progress in reading, and then we will improve their reading habit. A
teacher is a very good role model of students because, in most cases, students tend to be attracted
by their teachers’ behaviors as they are in contact with them in most of their school time.

References
Davis, Colin. (1990). Extensive reading: an expensive extravagance? ELT Journal, Vol. 49(4):
329-336.
Gupta, Deepti. (2009). Communicative language teaching: an Indian teacher resolves a
methodology dilemma. In Vyas, Manash A. and Patel, Yogesh L. (2009). Teaching
English as a Second Language: A new Pedagogy for a New Century. New Delhi: PHI
Learning Private Limited.
Leung, Chin Yin. (2002). Extensive reading and language learning: a diary of a beginning
learner of Japanese. Reading in a Foreign Language, Vol 14(1).
Madumulla, J S. (2005). Hali ya usomaji wa riwaya katika Tanzania. In Sewangi, S S., and
Madumulla, J S. (2006) (eds). Makala ya Kongamano la Taifa la Jubilee ya TUKI-2005.
Dar-es-Salaam, TUKI.
Nation, Paul. (1997). The language learning benefits of reading. The Language Teacher, Vol.
21(5):13-16
Neke, S.M. (2003). English in Tanzania an Anatomy of Hegemony. Retrieved from
http://african.rug.ac.be/texts/researchpublications/publications_on-line/
English_in_novel.htm on 22nd Sept, 2010.
Ranandya, W.A., Rajan, B. R.S., and Jacobs, G. M. (1999). Extensive reading with adult learners
of English as a second language. RELC Journal, 30, 39-61.
Roy-Compbell, Zaline M., Qorro, Martha A. S. (1997). Language Crisis in Tanzania: The Myth
of English versus Education. Dar-es-Salaam: Mkuki na Nyota Publishers.
Susser, Bernard and Nobb, Thomas N. (1990). EFL extensive reading instruction, research and
procedure. JALT Journal Vol. 12(2). Accessed online through http://www.cc.kyoto-
su.ac.jp/~trobb/sussrobb.html on 17th June, 2012.
 31

5 LETTER WRITING
By
Eliakimu Sane

With the development of technology, i.e. mobile phones, emails, face book, twitter and the
means of transport being simplified, letter writing has suffered the consequences. People opt for
simplified means of communicating between themselves. Notwithstanding the development of
simplified means of communication different from letter writing, communication through letters
has remained to be a very useful and important means of communication in organizations. This is
so because we still need to write letters for job applications, letters for complaints, letters to ask
for permission at job, leaves, covering letters for job recommendation, etc. Since not many
people understand the importance of letters before they start job applications and that the
majority of people now concentrate on other forms of communication, letter writing skills remain
largely unknown to many people. As a result, many people write very poor letters and many
copy their friends letters when it comes to writing letters for official purposes. A simple
observation made by the author of this chapter, show that many students in universities and many
staff in institutions write very poor letters. The weaknesses in the letters are seen in the grammar,
wording and the structure of the letters. Some letters are direct copies of other people’s letters
because some people copy their colleagues or a friends’ letters since they lack confidence in
writing their own letters.

It should be known that the letter you write for job application or for any official purpose is a
good tool to judge your intellectual abilities even before seeing you or interviewing you. The
way you structure, choose words to use in your letter and grammaticality of your sentences show
your addressee that you are not a smart person to meet their requirements. Some people may be
very smart in their fields of specializations but may be judged poor because of their poor letters.
It is, therefore, suggested that people should learn to write official/business letters because letter
writing has become a necessary activity in the today’s economy.

Things to note about official letter writing

 Official letters should be in a good structure.
 Official letters should be short: You should not bore your addressee by writing a very
long letter; you should avoid putting superfluous information in your letter. Include only
the necessary information in your letter (i.e. the purpose of writing the letter) since you
will attach your CV with the letter. Your letter should be limited to one page.
 Formality: Your letter should be formal and polite, do not use colloquial or shortened
words in your letter, even when the addressee is your close friend. You should be polite
 32

even when you are writing a letter for complaint. Formality and politeness is shown
through the choice of words in your letter.

Parts of official letters

1. Your address: This is written on top of the right hand corner of the paper. It should be
only an address and don’t include your names in this part.
2. Date: It is important to show the date of writing the letter. Date helps for references when
needed in future. It also helps in understanding if the letter is received in time, or there
were some delays somewhere.
3. Reference number: When organizations write letters they use reference numbers which
are identification number to help in keeping and retrieving the file when needed.
Reference numbers vary depending on each institution or organization. They may be
arranged department wise, school wise or depending on any other section in the
organization. Taking example of the University of Dodoma where there are around 1000
staff workers. The central administration may have categorized its staff in terms of
academic staff and administrative staff, and each staff has his/her personal file and copy
of letters written to these staff need to be filed in their personal files. Writing a letter to
any academic staff, the administration may use a reference number such as
UDOM/AC/PF538/6. UDOM stands for the University of Dodoma; AC stands for
academic staff; PF538 stands for personal file number 538; and 6 stands for the number
of the letters written to the particular staff until that particular time. If you are replying to
a letter which had a reference number, you should repeat this on your letter above the
addressee’s address (It should be preceded by the words “Your ref:). Leave a space
between the reference number and the addressee’s address.
4. The name and address of the addressee, the person you are writing the letter. This is
written below the date, on the left hand corner of the paper. You should start writing the
address with the title of the addressee. For example, “The general manager,” “The head
master,” “The DVC ARC,” etc.
5. Salutation: This is written below the addressee’s address. Leave a single space between
the addressee’s address. Salutation depends on whether you know the person you are
addressing the letter, i.e. if the addressee is a man or a woman. If you know the sex of the
person, just write Dear sir! (For a man), Dear madam! (For a woman). Again, salutation
depends on the status of the person you are writing the letter. For example, if the
addressee is your subordinate, salutation can include his/her name, e.g. Dear
Eliakimu. /Mr. Eliakimu. /Dear Flora/Mrs. Flora. / etc.
6. Title of the letter: This is written below the salutation. It is the synopsis of your letter.
Normally, the addressee will first look at the title of your letter before looking at anything
else. Since the title of the letter introduces the aim of your letter, it should be formatted to
 33

catch your readers’ attention. Therefore, the title of the letter should be either bolded or
underlined. You should only underline it when your letter is hand written. Don’t do both
bolding and underlining at the same time. Some people may decide to introduce the title
with a preposition re others may just write the heading/title, all are right.
7. Body of the letter
The body of your letter should be structured in four short paragraphs with the following
contents:

Paragraph one: State why you are writing the letter and where you saw or heard the job
advertisement. For example you may write:
I would like to apply for a post of …as it was advertised in the daily
newspaper on 21st August 2012. Or With reference to you advertisement
on the daily newspaper of 21st August 2012, I am writing to apply for a
post of… at your organization. Or I would like to apply for a position as
a teaching partner at your organization, if there is any position to offer
me. I have learned about your organization through its outstanding
performance in serving the community at rural areas in Arusha against
HIV/AIDS related problems.

Paragraph two: Briefly explain about your qualification and experiences, especially that
which is related to the job you are currently applying. You may give the
following arguments for example: I have two years experience of
working as …During this time I gained enough experience in designing
and preparing new television programs. Or working as a customer care
officer for two years, I gained enough experience in understanding and
working on customers’ needs, especially with new customers in an
organization.

Paragraph three: Show that you believe that you are suitable for the job that you are
applying. Explain why the company should employ you. Or why are
you are seeking to change the job you are currently employed. For
example you may provide the following arguments: Given the
experiences I have in this job, I have a feeling that I can work to meet
the needs of the organization. Or I believe that I will be able to bring
my useful experiences to the success of your company. Or if you offer
me the opportunity to work at your company, I will use my talents,
experiences, and creativities to work hardly for the success of your
organization.

Paragraph four: Tell the reader that you are ready to be interviewed when needed. If the
advertisement for the job did not require your CV, include your phone
numbers in this paragraph so that they can contact you for an
interview. For example you may provide the following arguments:
I am ready for an interview when needed. I can be contacted at 0761
000 001. Or as requested in the advertisement, I am attaching a copy
 34

of my CV with this letter. I am ready to appear for an interview if

contacted three days before the interview date.

8. Ending: To end the letter you would write yours sincerely or yours faithfully, etc.
9. Signature: You should sign your letter before sending it. This should come after ending
your letter and your full name should appear just below the signature.

Example of an application letter

P.O.BOX 11031,
DODOMA,
TANZANIA.

25th October, 2012.

THE VICE CHANCELLOR,
THE UNIVERSITY OF ZIZO,
P.O. BOX 305,
MWANZA, TANZANIA.

Dear Sir!
A REQUEST FOR A POST OF ASSISTANT LECTURER IN LINGUISTICS
I am writing to apply for the post of assistant lecturer in linguistics which was advertised on the
daily newspaper of 23rd October 2012.

I hold master’s degree in linguistics and I have a two years working experience as an English
teacher in secondary school. I have also worked as a part-time instructor in English at the
University of Moshi in Kilimanjaro Region and a part-time instructor in communication skills at
the institute of Judicial Education in Singida Region.

Having enough experience in teaching and being a very motivated teacher, I have a feeling that I
will work to meet the objectives of establishing the course at your institution if you offer me a
chance to work as a part-time lecturer in Linguistics.

I have attached a copy of my curriculum vitae with this letter for reference. I am ready to appear
for an interview when needed.

I thank you in advance for your consideration.

Yours sincerely,

……………..
Eliakimu Sane
 35

Letters addressed to more than one person

Some requests require authorities from heads of different sections. For example, an employee at
a University requesting a permission to travel out of the region of employment has to request
permission to travel from the college Principal. For the college Principal to grant the permission,
he/she has to know if the employee has everything related to his/her work in a good order before
his travel and his absence may not affect the college’s functions. The Principal will know these
through the head of the department and dean of the school in which the employee is working, or
any other authorities depending on the University.

In such circumstances, a letter has to be addressed to more than one person. The addresses for all
the people who should authorize the request are written on the left hand side of the paper. All the
subordinates in the hierarchy are introduced by an abbreviation u. f. s which stands for under
further signature. The letter should have all the addresses for the people to authorize it in the left
hand side arranged according to the rank of the people addressed, i.e. the address of the person
with high rank in the organization should appear at the top and followed by those with lower
ranks. This is so because the letter will pass to the officers with lower ranks before it reaches the
top authorities. For example, a letter will pass to the head of department before it reaches to the
dean of school. See the example in the next page:
 36

A letter addressed to more than one person

Box 300,
Dodoma-Tanzania.

25th June, 2012.

The Director of Human Resource Management,
Patapata Secondary School,
Box 201,
Dodoma.

u. f. s. The Discipline Master,

School of Fine Arts and Arts Subjects.

u. f. s. The Head,
Department of Arts Subjects,
P. o. box 626,
Dodoma-Tanzania.

Dear Madam!
A REQUEST FOR A STUDY LEAVE
I would like to call your attention on the heading above. I am Eliakimu Sane, who is an
employee at your school, working at the Department of Arts Subjects.

I am writing to inform you that I intend to start my bachelor degree studies (B. A. Education) in
the next year 2013 at the University of Dodoma and therefore I am requesting a study leave of
three years from 21st January, 2013 to pursue my intended studies.

I am attaching with this letter a copy of my admission letter from the University for further
reference.

I hope that you will consider my request.

Yours sincerely,

……………..
Eliakimu Sane

In replying the letter above, the person address will use the same channel to inform those in
authority and the person with a request that the request is agreed or not. Using the letter above,
for example, the human resource manager will have the address of those with higher ranks
(bellow him/her) start at the bottom and lastly the name of the addressor. If there are other people
with higher ranks and authorities or even with lower ranks and authorities but need to be
informed about the matter, these will be carbon copied the letter, just to let them know about the
fact and if there is anything they need to do about the decision. In addition, the reply will have a
 37

reference number since it will be kept in the personal file of the person with the request. See the
following example:

Patapata Secondary School,

Box 201,
Dodoma.

18th December, 2012.

Ref: PT/AC/PF-23/5

Eliakimu Sane
Patapata Secondary School

u. f. s. The Head,
Department of Arts Subjects.

u. f. s. The Discipline Master,

School of Fine Arts and Arts Subjects,
P. o. box 626,
Dodoma-Tanzania.

RE: A GRANT OF STUDY LEAVE

Reference is made to your letter of 25th June 2012. I am glad to inform you that your request for
study leave is accepted as from 21st January, 2013 as you requested. However, you will be
required to submit your progress report to the headmaster’s office at the end of every semester
for the whole period of your study.

Patapata secondary school would like to congratulate you for having been selected to pursue
your degree in education at the University of Dodoma and wish you good luck in your studies!

Parapanda M. N.

…………….
Human Resource Manager

c. c. Head master
c. c. The School Manager
c. c. Bursar
 38

JOB RECOMMENDATION LETTERS

These are letters written to recommend someone to a particular organization in which he/she is
applying for a job. They are also written to recommend someone to pursue further studies. They
are usually written by someone who supervised you in a job, taught or supervised you in
education. You must be honest when recommending someone for a particular job because you
may cause serious problems by recommending someone for a particular job when you know that
she/he doesn’t possess the qualities. Just think how serious problems you will cause by
recommending someone for a medical doctor position while the person is not qualified for the
position.

Important things to consider when writing a

recommendation/covering letters
Your address and the contact information: You should have your address and contact
information, i.e. your address (usually the organization/institution address, phone numbers and e-
mail address) written at the top right corner of the paper.

Date: The date of writing that recommendation data should appear just below your address and
contact information. Leave a space between the address and the date.
Addressee’s address: If you know where the letter is going, use the full address of the addressee.
Usually we don’t know the addressee for the recommendation letters and that the person you are
recommending may use the letter in many places when applying for job or positions, we do not
write addresses; instead, we write a sentence ‘To whom it may concern:’ on the right hand side
of the paper below the date.

Title of the letter: This appears below the words ‘To Whom It May Concern:’ It should include
the name of the person and the organization. See the following examples, Eliakimu’s service with
Afrocquick; or Eliakimu’s schooling at UDOM; or Re: Eliakimu at UDOM; or RE: ELIAKIMU
The body of the letter: The body of the letter should have the following structure and contents:

Paragraph one: Introduce that the person is known to you and the organization and for how
long.
Paragraph two: In this paragraph, explain the position or if the applicant is a student, the courses
taken by the applicant.
Paragraph three: Explain the strength or weaknesses of the person you are writing the covering
letter.

In ending the letter, include your full name, signature and you title/position you hold at the
institution
 39

EXAMPLE COVERING LETTER FOR JOB RECOMMENDATION

Box 111
Dodoma
Tanzania
0712 375 775
John Kajasho
Tanzania chief coordinator
jojasho@gmail.com

17th December, 2012

To whom it may concern:

RE: ELIAKIMU SANE’ SERVICE WITH AFROQUACK

In regard with the heading above, Eliakimu Sane is an individual well known to Afroquick
Society Organization with a record of service spanning three years. He has had roles of teaching
at the organization at the following dates:

English language teacher May 2006-January 2008

African history teacher February 2008-January-2009

As a teacher, Eliakimu worked as advanced secondary school students’ teacher. In his teaching,
he was responsible for preparing lesson plans and teaching the subjects to Form Five and Six
students. As a teacher, Eliakimu lived and worked with other teachers coming from cross-
cultural environment.

Afroquick Society Organization is a charity based organization found in Arusha rural, providing
education to students from poor families.

During his time with Afroquick, Eliakimu has been hard working, passionate, and reliable, and
his effectiveness is indicated in the times he has been invited to return.
Please feel free to contact us with any question.

……………………..
John Kajasho
Tanzania chief coordinator

Stop copying letters from your colleagues by

learning to write good letters
 40

6 REFERENCING IN
ACADEMIC WRITING
By

Eliakimu Sane

Academic writings and presentations are part of everyday life of University students and
academic staff. Academic writings are graded when their authors support their arguments by
citing other people’s researched ideas and observations. Citation helps a reader of a material to
know the validity of the written or presented material; therefore, citation supports, proves and
explains an idea or argument. By citing, an author also shows the reader, of a material, what and
how other authors have argued about the same topic under discussion. Citation and quotation are
one and the same. They are used to mean a piece of work or idea taken from a book, article,
speech, presentation, etc.

Acknowledging/referencing
It is important to acknowledge when you have incorporated other people’s ideas in your work
because it is an academic offence to use other people’s ideas as if they are your own ideas. In
academic writing, any idea or view cited from books, articles, journals, mass media (i.e. radios,
TVs, newspaper, and magazines) must be acknowledged. Acknowledgement is done to admit
that the ideas you have incorporated in your text are not yours and you have just borrowed them
from the owner you have referenced. Acknowledgement in academic writing is, therefore, a
process of admitting that the ideas you have incorporated in your work are not your own ideas
but you have borrowed them from the author or the owner you have shown. Acknowledging and
referencing are one and the same. It is discouraged, in academics, to provide arguments which
their backgrounds are not shown. For example, it is illogical and unethical in the academic world
to give the following arguments without showing their sources: the population of Tanzania is
thirty six million people; Tanzania exported a million grams of Tanzanite last year; more than
one hundred people were killed during the war between Tanzania and Idd Amin. One must have
obtained the information somewhere to give the arguments above; therefore, the source of
information must be provided. The arguments will be facts only when their backgrounds are
provided. Acknowledgement is done by including information about the source of the materials,
surname of the author and the date in which the material was published or released, along with
the quoted idea(s). It should be known that acknowledging and acknowledgements are two
different things. Some people also have been wrongly using the terms referencing and citation
synonymously. A citation is that piece of work or idea taken from a book, article, speech,
presentation, etc.
 41

Those who do not acknowledge when they have incorporated other people’s ideas in their work
are committing an academic offence academically known as plagiarism. Plagiarism, in academic
context, is the process of taking other people’s ideas or views and using them in academic
writing as if they are your own ideas. Plagiarism also includes the process of copying other
people’s work(s), or assignment(s) and presenting them as if they are your own. In academic
context it is strictly prohibited and it is an academic offence to copy other people’s works and
present them as if they belong to you. It is not academically intellectual, however, to copy other
people’s works in your paper, even when you acknowledge them. You are encouraged to develop
your own original work and support it with ideas and evidence from other people’s works, where
necessary and acknowledge them by providing relevant references. Plagiarism will lead to the
dismissal of one’s academic work. For students, one is subject to being discontinued from studies
when proved to have plagiarized. Another form of plagiarism is by giving citations of the
materials which you have not read, or referencing the authors who are not the real owners of the
materials you have cited. Some people also include some references in a reference list while they
have not cited them in in-text citation; one is plagiarizing if he/she includes, in a reference list,
the materials not used in his/her academic work.

Things to note when you have quoted/cited

an idea from another author
The process of academic writing or preparation for presentation(s) takes a long period of time to
accomplish. For example, writing a paper may take a week(s) or years to complete and the
author(s) read a lot of materials from different sources such as books from library, articles from
the internet and journals. It is very hard for the author to remember every material cited in the
paper if he/she did not take note of their bibliographic information at the moment they cite them,
or their information are not directly entered in the academic paper. Therefore, an academician
has to take note of the following things during the process of writing a paper or preparing for a
presentation. The information is very important in writing a reference list at the end of your
academic paper.

Book: author(s), book title, date of publication, city of publication, and the publication
industry

Journal: author(s), article title, journal title, date of publication, and page number(s).

Newspaper: author(s), article title, name of newspaper, section title and page number(s),
date of publication.

Web site: author(s), article and publication title where appropriate, as well as a URL, and
a date when the site was accessed.
 42

Abbreviations commonly used in citation

and referencing
In referencing, some words which appear to be long are abbreviated for space and economic
reasons. The following are the abbreviations used in academic writing:

op. cit.
This is an abbreviation from the Latin words “opera citato” meaning work cited.” In academic
writing we use an abbreviation op. cit. in parenthesis at the end of a quotation from other
people’s ideas to mean that the owner of the idea is the one cited above. If the quotation is next
to another quotation you have made earlier and there is no any quotation from another person in
between, the abbreviation “op. cit.” itself is enough, but if there is another quotation intervening
in between, use surname of the author followed by op. cit in italics.

et al.
Is also from a Latin phrase ‘et alia’ meaning ‘and others.’ The abbreviation ‘al’ is followed by a
full stop because it is an abbreviation of alia. Et al. is used in academic writing when you don’t
need to mention all the authors in one publications, it is used in publication with more than two
authors when you have mentioned all the authors in an earlier mention.

n. d.
An abbreviation for the words ‘not dated’ used to indicate that the date of publication of a work
is not indicated. Example (12) According to Sane (n. d.) teachers’ proficiency in the surveyed
schools is very poor to the extent that they do not qualify to teach even at primary schools.

ibid
Also from Latin word ‘ibidem’ meaning in the same place; ibid is used just as op. cit. only that
ibidem is used when the ideas are from the same title of the author.

Words used to introduce quoted ideas in an academic work

Among the words used to introduce quoted materials in academic works are as exemplified
below:
…state/states that…; …argue/argues that…; …narrated that…; … observes that…; …
said that; according to …; in …views…, etc. The dots before that words stand for the
author’s name and the year of publication, and the dots after the words stand for the
author’s idea(s).

It is also possible to quote ideas without using the words and then write references at the end of
the quotation in parenthesis. See the example below:
In previous times, traditional teaching methods such as the Grammar-Translation
Method and Audio-lingual Method produced learners who spent many years
 43

studying English, but these methods are considered unsuccessful by Applied

Linguists because of limited oral proficiency (Liu, cited in Rew-Jang, 2008).
Or
“The 2005 English language syllabus is based on competence; this means that
what the students get from teachers is supervision and not lecturing” (Msuya,
2010).

Methods of Acknowledging sources

There are two ways of acknowledging people’s ideas in academic writing. These are in-text
referencing/citing also known as referencing within text and footnoting.

In-text referencing
In-text referencing also known as referencing within text is a way of incorporating other people’s
ideas within the text. The quoted ideas may be put at the beginning of paragraphs, in between
paragraphs, or at the end of paragraphs. In in-text referencing, we may start with the author’s
surname and the year of publication in parenthesis followed by the author’s argument; it is also
possible to start with the author’s argument and then the authors surname and the year of
publication put in parenthesis at the end of the quotation. See the following examples:

Sigala and Martin (1999) found that… (Start with the surname(s) of the author(s)
followed by the year of publication separated by a comma)

China has developed a very strong economy since the year 2000 (Sane, 2011). The
quoted material starts followed by the name(s) of author(s) and the year of
publication, both in parenthesis. The author’s name and the year of publication are
separated by a comma.

When quoting a book with two authors in the text use the word ‘and’ between the names, and if
reference is in parenthesis, use an ampersand (&), example (4) Sane and Sigala (2000) found that
education in Tanzania has lost its standards, or example (5) Education in Tanzania has lost its
standards (Sane & Sigala, 2000).

In referencing to a work by three, four or five authors; all the relevant names have to be indicated
in the first reference to the work. See the following example:

Communicative Approach as the one having the following dimensions: grammatical

competence, which is the linguistic knowledge of phonology, morphology, syntax
and grammatical rules; discourse competence (Canale, Swain & Richards 1980).

In later references to this work only the first author’s name is started and the abbreviation
‘et al.” is used.

Sociolinguistic competence is the ability to make appropriate function of utterances

depending on different social contexts and interlocutors (Canale et al., 1968).
 44

In referencing to a work by six or more authors, cite only the surname of the first author
followed by et al. (italicized and a full stop after ‘al’ followed by a comma and the year of
publication. In a reference list provide the initials and the surnames of the first six authors, and
shorten any remaining author to et al.

Referencing more than one publication of the same author in the same year, you may cite like the
following example:

Johnson (1994a), in his later works (Johnson, 1994b).

In referencing different authors with the same surname use their initials in reference followed by
their surnames.

According to B. Smith (1989) and F. Smith (1997)…

Where reference is made to the work by a body (institution, organization, association, etc.) where
no specific author is responsible for the work, the official name of the body is used as the author.
…It had long been evident that the most children in Africa attend school in late ages
(UNICEF, 1976, p. 48)…thus the UNICEF (1970) concluded that…

Referencing anonymous work

When work’s author is designated as ‘anonymous’ cite in text the word ‘anonymous.’ Example
(10) A recent article (anonymous, 1993) stated that…
In case of articles in newspaper or magazines where no author is named, the title is used instead
of the author. Example (11) A recent article (war over, 1991) stated that…

Referencing personal communication

Personal communication may be letters, e-mails, personal interviews, telephone conversations,

and the like. Because they do not provide recoverable data, personal communications are not
included in the reference list. We cite personal communication in text only, just like we cite other
sources. Give the initials as well as the surname of the communicator and provide the exact date.
Example (13) According to T. K Letus (Personal communication, April, 2011)…

Citing works cited in another author’s work

Sometimes you may encounter ideas suitable for your academic work cited in another author’s
work. It is possible to cite the ideas even though you have not actually read the quoted source. In
such circumstances, you are required to cite the original source of the work as well as the work
in which it appears in parenthesis. See the following example:

“Competency is not necessarily synonymous with native like communication.”

(Byram, 1997 as cited in Hinkel, 2005).
Or
Richards (1993 as cited in Flowerdew & Miller, 2005) states that the quality of
teaching will come about through the use of instructional materials that are based
on findings of current theory and research
 45

Footnoting
A footnote is a note placed at the bottom of a page to comment or add further information on a
designed part of a text. A footnote is placed at the bottom of a page because it is related but of
lesser importance in the main work or idea. Just like we footnote, authors may decide to write
references in a footnote instead of putting them within the text. Footnotes are numbered in
accordance with their appearance in the pages, the quoted ideas are signaled by a number and the
number will appear at the bottom of the page with the author form which the ideas are obtained.
You will use the same procedures of in-text referencing.

For easy footnoting using your computer, highlight the material you want to footnote or show a
reference at the footnote, then on the task bar, click reference, then click insert footnote;
numbers will appear automatically and you will insert your footnote or reference.

Methods of quoting other people’s ideas into

your academic writing
By paraphrasing
Paraphrasing also known as indirect quotation is a process of incorporating other people’s ideas
in your work by using your own words and expressions to express the same idea of the author.
Paraphrasing is done after you have read and understood the ideas by the author. The main
purposes for paraphrasing are:

 To shorten the expression(s) for space and economical reasons

 To make the idea clear and simple to be understood
 To make the expression fit into the context of use

By direct quoting
Direct quotation, where necessary, is done by taking the ideas of the author just as it was argued
by the author without any modification of the expression, i.e. the authors words, expression,
punctuations and phrasing are left an altered. Direct quotation in an academic text is shown by
enclosing the quoted material in inverted commas, if the quoted material/idea does not exceed
two lines. This form of direct quotation, as will be exemplified, is done within the paragraph of
the text. Another form of direct quotation is through putting the quoted material in a separate
paragraph and indenting it. This is done when the material exceed more than two lines. The
separated and indented paragraph is single spaced and it should be known that there is no any
necessity of putting it in inverted commas. In a direct quotation, the exact page(s) where the
materials are quoted should be indicated. Example (3) “China has developed a very strong
economy since the year 2000.” (Sane, 2011, p. 20), or alternatively you may write as (Sane,
2011:20).
 46

Writing a reference list

A reference list is a list of all materials you have included, or rather you have cited in your
academic work. It includes all the specific information about the material you have used.
Therefore, a reference list includes the necessary information like the names of the authors,
title of the material, year of publication, place of publication/the city in which the material
was published and the name of the company or organization that published the material. If it
is a journal or newspaper article, the name of the journal or the newspaper that published the
material is included instead of the city and the name of the publisher. Since we write only
the surname(s) of the people you have used their ideas in you work, it is important to have a
reference list because it provides all the necessary information for a particular material that
you have cited in you academic paper. A reference list in an academic paper is written at the
end of the paper, just after the conclusion of your work before the appendices. You are
advised to have these information entered in a reference list soon after you have cited the
authors’ ideas in your work because as it was said earlier, an academic paper may take you a
long time writing it, so some of the information may be lost in a long run and or you may
forget to enter some of the references you have used since you may also have used so many
authors in your paper. Having a reference list adds qualities to your academic work by
proving the authenticity of the ideas you have cited, and also helps those who would be
interested with some ideas you have used in your text to find the particular material for their
own use through the information you have provided in a reference list. A reference list
differs from a bibliography because a reference list is a list containing necessary
information for all the materials you have cited in your academic writing, while a
bibliography is a list of all relevant materials which can be consulted or which were
consulted for the topic under discussion, though they all appear at the end of the work and
they are written in the same format. It is very important to have all the materials you have
cited in a reference list because what you incorporate in your work is just a part of the whole
work, therefore some readers may be interested to read the whole work, referencing will
help them to know where to get the work for their own use. Things to include in a reference
list depend on the source of the material you have cited.

How to organize and write your reference list

 Arrange your references alphabetically, according to the authors’ surnames
 Do not number or bulletin your reference list, just leave a double space between one
reference and another
 Use the authors’ surname(s) (just as you used them in in-text citation) followed by first
name(s) in full or in initials. The surname(s) and other names or initials are separated by
a comma.
 47

 Write your references by starting with the authors’ surnames, followed by the dates of
publication, title of the material, city/place of publication and finally the publishing
company or organization.
 Format the title of a book by bolding, or italicizing, or underlining it. It is important to
remember that only one of the formatting style is enough, you should not use, for
example, bolding and italicizing together.

The Open Journal Publishing 3provided the following guides to APA referencing style:

 When writing a reference list of any work that is not a journal, such as a book, article, or
a web page, capitalize only the first letter of the word of the title and subtitle, the first
word after a colon or a dash in the title, and proper nouns. Do not capitalize the first letter
of the second word in a hyphenated compound word.
 Copy the title of a book/an article/whatever, as far as spelling of words such as
‘behavior’/’behavioral’ are concerned, and this also goes to the direct quotations) exactly
as in the original.
 Capitalize all major words in Journal titles

It is important to know that different sources of material (i.e. books, journal articles, articles from
newspaper, chapters from books, articles from the internet, etc.) have their different ways of
putting them in a reference list, though this difference is not in in-text citation. Remember that in
in-text citation, we only write the author’s surname or surnames, if they are more than one and
the date in which the material was published. The ways of putting in a reference list the materials
from different sources will be exemplified bellow as they were obtained from the Open Journal
Publishing.

Forms/styles of writing reference lists

There are many forms/styles of writing reference lists used in academic writing. The forms are,
for example, American Psychological Association (APA), American Sociological Association
(ASA), Chicago manual of style, Oxford referencing form, Harvard referencing form, etc. Some
institutions have their preferences on certain forms of writing reference lists. In this chapter, two
ways of writing reference lists, the APA and the Chicago manual of styles are discussed. The two
styles4 use the same referencing processes; their differences are in the way of writing reference
lists.

By using APA style

3
APA reference style guide (2009). The Open Journal of Publishing, 1-13. Accessed online on 10th Sept 2012
through http://www.files.ithuta.net/OpenJournals/SAJIP/Authors/APA%20reference%20style%20guide.pdf
4
Don’t bother about the punctuations separation the authors, dates, titles, cities of publication and the
publisher/publishing industry. Some people use a full stop and others use a comma, they are all right.
 48

A book with only one author

Rose, L. (1977). Crime and punishment. London: Batsford.
A book by two authors:
Gordon, E.W., & Rourke, A. (1966). Compensatory education for the disadvantaged. New York:
College Entrance Examination Board.
A book by three or more authors
Meyer, B.S., Anderson, D.P., Bohning, R.H., & Fratanna, D.G., Jr. (1973). Introduction to plant
physiology. New York: Van Nostrand.
Reference to more than one publication of the same author in the same year
Johnson, P.D. (1994a). Pedagogy. London: Routledge.

Johnson, P.D. (1994b). Advanced pedagogy. London: Routledge.

A book with an institution, organization or association as author

Rand Afrikaans University (1970). The new university: A practical guideline. Johannesburg,
Gauteng: Rand Afrikaans University.

A book with (an) editor(s)

Strunk, W. (Ed.). (1976). Adult learning. New York: Macmillan.

Part/chapter of an edited book

Hartley, J.T., Harker, J.O., & Walsh, D.A. (1980). Contemporary issues and new directions in
adult development of learning and memory. In L.W. Poon (Ed.), Aging in the 1980’s:
Psychological issues, (pp. 239-252). Washington: American Psychological Association.

Shirom, A. (1989). Burnout in work organizations. In C.L. Cooper & I.T. Robertson (Eds.),
International review of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Vol. IV (pp. 25-49).
New York: Wiley.

Anonymous work
War over. (1991, 7 January). The Star, p. 1.

Anonymous. (1993, 17 February). Best practices. The Star, p. 10.

Unpublished manuscript submitted for publication

Jordan, B. (1989). Psychology of adolescent parents. Manuscript submitted for publication.

Unpublished manuscript not submitted for publication

Ryder, M. (1987). Wonder woman: An Amazon legacy. Unpublished manuscript.

An abstract
Phillips, E. (1985). The Australian scene [Abstract]. Australian Journal of Ecology, 3(2), 25-29.
Bevins, G.D. (1987). Theory and practice at an Australian university. Doctoral dissertation.
Montreal: McGill University.
Unpublished dissertation or thesis
 49

Little, P. (1965). Helplessness, depression and mood in end stage renal disease. Unpublished
master’s thesis, Wits University, Johannesburg, South Africa.
Conference proceedings, no author or title
International Microcomputer Conference. (1984). Conference proceedings held at the Western
Australian Institute of Technology, Perth, 22 – 24 May 1984. Perth: Western Australian
Institute of technology.

Conference proceedings, with author

Field, G. (2001). Rethinking reference rethought. In Revelling in reference: Reference and
information Services section symposium, 12-14 October 2001 (pp. 59-64). Melbourne,
Victoria, Australia: Australian Library and Information Association

Unpublished paper presented at a meeting

Lanktree, C., & Briere, J. (1991, January). Early data on the trauma symptom checklist for
children (TSC-C). Paper presented at the meeting of the American Professional Society
on the Abuse of Children, San Diego, CA.

Newspaper article
Mustapher, S. (19th February, 2010). Improvement of English teaching remains at bleak. Daily
News
 50

An example of a reference pages

USING APA STYLE

References
Andrewes, S. (2005). The CLT Policy: Questioning the communicative approach.
Modern English Teacher, 14(3), 4-9.
Barker, T.L. (1994). Doing social research (2nd edn). New York: McGraw-Hill Inc.
Berns, M. S. (1990). Contexts of competence: Social and cultural considerations in
communicative language teaching. New York: Plenum Press
Crosswaite, C and Curtice, L. (1994), Disseminating research results-the challenge of bridging
the gap between health research and health action, Health Promotion International, Vol.
9, 289-296
Davies, D. (2005). Varieties of Modern English: An introduction. London: Pearson Education
Limited.
Ellis, R. (2003). Task-based language teaching. Oxford: OUP.
Freeman (Larsen-Freeman), D. (2003). Techniques and principles in language teaching. (2nd
Edn). New York: Oxford University Press.
Gupta, D. (2004). CLT in India: Context and methodology come together. ELT Journal, 58 (3)
pp. 266-269.
Habermas, J. (1970). Towards a theory of communicative competence. Inquiry, 13, 360-375.
Hinkel, E. (2005). Handbook of research in second language teaching and learning. New Jersey:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Hymes, D. (1972). On Communicative Competence. In J.B Pride and J. Holmes (eds).
Sociolinguistics. Hurmondsworth: Penguin.
Ismail, M.J. (2007). English in Zanzibar: triumphs and tribulations. NAWA Journal of Language
and Communication, 2-12.
Johnson, K and Johnson H (eds). (1999). Encyclopedic dictionary of applied Linguistics. Oxford:
Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
Kipacha, A. H. (1993). The extent to which communicative approach (CLT) develops
communicative level competence in EFL classroom: The case of ‘A’ level ELT in
Tanzania. Unpublished MA Dissertation. University of Dar-es-Salaam.
Kothari, C.R. (2004). Research methodology: Methods and techniques (2nd edn). New Delhi:
New Age International Publishers.
Le Ha, P. (2008). Teaching English as an international language: Identity, resistance
and Negotiation. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters
Legère, K. (n. d.). Formal and Informal Development of Swahili Language: Focus on Tanzania,
from www.ingref.com/cpp.../abstarct1422.html, Accessed on 1st Sept 2010.
Mabala, R. (1994). Teaching literature in English in Tanzania secondary schools: Cinderella or
ugly sister? In Rubagumya, C (Ed.). (1994). Teaching and researching language in
African classrooms. Bristol: Multilingual Matters Ltd
Mustapher, S. (19th February, 2010). Improvement of English teaching remains at bleak. Daily
News, pp.1, 5.
 51

USING CHICAGO MANUAL OF STYLE

References
Bhushan, Ravi. “Communicative language teaching.”
http://mypdfsearch.info/Communicative-Language-Teaching-An-Overview.html
(Accessed on 26th May 2011).
Grenfell, Michael and Harris, Vee. Modern languages and learning strategies: in
Theory and Practice, London: Routledge, 1999.
Habermas, Jürgen. “Towards a theory of Communicative Competence.” Inquiry, 13
(1970): 360-375.
Hymes, Dell. “On Communicative Competence.” In Sociolinguistics, edited by John,
Bernad P., and Holmes, Janet, 269-293. Hurmondsworth: Penguin, 1972.
Ismail, Maryam J. “English in Zanzibar: triumphs and tribulations.” NAWA Journal of
Language and Communication, 2007, 2-12.
Kothari, Commission. Research methodology: Methods and eechniques (2nd edn). New
Delhi: New Age International Publishers, 2004.
Malekela, G A. “English as a medium of education in post-primary education in
Tanzania: Is it fair policy to the learners?” In Language of instruction in Tanzania
and South Africa (LOITASA), edited by Brock-Utne, Birgit. Dessai, Zubeida,
Pitman, Allan and Qorro, Martha A. S, 33-42. Dar-es-Salaam: E & D Publishers,
2003.
Mustapher, Swaum. “Improvement of English teaching remains at bleak,” Daily News,
19th February, 2010.
Rubagumya, Casmir M. Language in Tanzania, The Open University of Tanzania, 1997.
_____ “English medium primary schools in Tanzania: a new ‘linguistic
market’ in Education?” In Language of Instruction in Tanzania and South Africa,
edited by Brock-Utne, Birgit, Dessai, Zubeida, Pitman, Allan and Qorro, Martha
A S,43-60. Dar-es-Salaam: E& D Limited, 2003.
_____ A three-tier citizenship: can the state in Tanzania guarantee
linguistic human rights? International Journal of Educational Research, vol.
31(1) (2007): 5-13
Savignon, Sandra J. Communicative Competence: An Experiment in Foreign Language
Teaching. Philadelphia, PA: Center for Curriculum Development, 1972The Columbia
Encyclopedia (6th edn). “Dodoma”, 2008. <http://www.encyclopedia.com> (Accessed on
February, 2011).
 52

6 CURRICULUM VITAE
BY
ELIAKIMU SANE

A Curriculum Vitae (usually abbreviated as CV) is a document that contains detailed information
about an individual possessing it. It is a short written document that lists your education and
previous jobs, which you send to employers when you are looking for a job; it is called a resume
in America.5 A CV is usually attached with an application letter when someone is applying for a
job somewhere, though some people may just submit their CVs at an institution to show his/her
qualification for getting employed when the institution needs a person with such qualifications;
some people also publish their CVs through the internet or mass media like newspapers; this is a
good way to advertise you widely. CVs are also required by some organizations and institutions
when one is applying for a scholarship or is applying for further studies.

Good CVs advertise and sell the people possessing them to employers who need people with
certain qualifications. A good CV is not only that which is well written and organized, but also
that which shows good qualities of an individual (i.e. one’s experiences, level of education 6,
creativities, professionalism, etc). An interesting thing about a CV is that it is alive; it grows as
you grow (i.e. we keep changing our CVs as we add knowledge, change our jobs and positions in
our jobs, as the number of years increases, and the like). Therefore, one cannot use one CV for
years. Let someone read your CV for errors before you submit it somewhere.

Smart people, especially those hunting for a job, will always have their CVs with them wherever
they go. People keep their CVs in hard copy together with their certificates or in soft copies
through storage devices. Your email address is a very good place to store your CV; you may save
it in your email address or email it to someone. This is a safe an easier way to keep your CV,
through this method, you may travel with your CV anywhere in the world and get it at any time
you need.

Important information in a CV
Any CV must contain7 your personal data/information, your education background, your current
and previous job(s), membership and association you have been attached to, additional skills you
have and your referees.
5
Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (New edition). Pearson
6
Of course, when an organization announces for job(s), the level of education required is specified; don’t bother
about your level of education, there are works which require people with the level of education like yours.
7
There is no a single way to order these information in a CV. You may decide to begin with any of these
information depending of the requirements of the job you are seeking, i.e. some jobs may emphasize on the working
experience of an applicant, hence one may begin his/her CV with working experience. It is, however, advised that
you begin with your personal information when writing any CV.
 53

Personal data
This is an essential part of a CV, it tells people about your social and biological
information. At this place, include your full official names (some may begin with their
surname, followed by first name and other names, and others may begin by their first
name followed by other names). Indicate your sex here, i.e. whether you are a man or a
woman, also indicate whether you are married of not (your marital status), and also if
you are divorced. It is important to indicate your sex because some positions may have
been reserved only for a certain sex, or there are important arrangements like
accommodation to be made, your names may not be good sources of identifying your
sex. You should also indicate whether you are married or not. Your contacts, i.e. e-mail
address and telephone/cell phone contacts are also required here for your employer to
contact you when satisfied with your qualifications.

Other important things to include at this section are your addresses. Two addresses
should be included here. One is the address of the place you were born. This is important
because it will help your employers find necessary information about you when the
information are needed, for example if you are seriously sick and they need to send you
back home, though someone is also required to say about his home of residence after
employment. This is also important for your employer to give you the benefits you
disserve, for example transportation costs and similar benefits. This address will also
help your employer to know your nationality. Another address to include is the address
of the place you are currently living. This is important to help them know, if they want
to send you a letter of reply, where will the letter find you. It is also important to show
your nationality here.

Education background
Show your education background starting with the highest level of education you
reached to the lowest level of education, that is be primary school for our case in
Tanzania. You should also include the dates for each level of your education and the
awards (certificates) you received at each level of education (i.e. Bachelor of Arts with
Education, Advanced Certificate of Secondary Education, etc.).

Work experience
In this part indicate the works you have ever done before, include also the job you are
currently doing, if any. It is also important to show the institutions and the dates and the
positions you held at the institutions.

Publication and international conference papers

For academicians and others like governmental leaders, it is important to show if there
are papers you have published or presented in international conferences. They are
helpful in showing your intellectual growth and abilities.

Membership and associations

 54

You should also indicate if you have been or you are currently a member in a certain
group or association. Indicate the name of a group and if you held or hold. This is
important for your employer to know if you are good at cooperating.

Extra curriculum activities

It is important to show what other activities you do apart from those required at your job,
i.e. those things you do when you are not at work. In this section say whether you do
things like reading (and what materials do you read), watch movies, you are a
professional singer, professional footballer, etc.

Referees
These are people who may be asked to provide information about you when you are
asking for a job. Some employers or others may want to know about you, especially
your working behavior, before they employ or give you a chance you applied. Your
referees should be people who supervised you at work, your teachers at school or
instructors at college. They should not be your relatives, because your relatives may not
be honest about you. You should provide at least three referees. Make sure that you
indicate necessary information about your referees, which is their full names, their
contact address and phone contacts and the names of institutions they are working and
the position they hold at their working institutions. Make sure that the people are
informed before you use them as your referee. It is also important to arrange them
according to their ranks, for example a professor must come before a Doctor or an
Assistant Lecturer. See the example for a CV in the next pages.

CURRICULUM VITAE FOR SAMSON MAPAMBANO

 55

Personal History
Surname: Mapambano
First name: Samson
Born: 21/07/1977
Address: Box 1647, Arusha
Sex: Male
Marital status: Single
Nationality: Tanzanian
Current address: P. o. box 1101, Dodoma
Phone: 0754 887 588/0712 994 431
Email: mapambano_9@yahoo.com

Education history
2009-2011 MA. Education at the University of Dodoma Tanzania

2006-2009 BA. Education at the University of Dar-es-Salaam Tanzania

2003-2005 Advanced certificate of secondary education at Mzambarauni secondary school,

Arusha Tanzania

1999-2002 Certificate of secondary education at Masasa secondary school, Arusha Tanzania

Employment history
Nov, 2011-present Assistant lecturer in Education and at the University of Dodoma Tanzania
2010-Nov, 2011 Tutorial assistant in Educational studies and at the University of Dodoma,
Tanzania

Sept-Dec 2006; Swahili/English interpreter at Support for International Change

May-July, 2006; Arusha Tanzania and May-July, 2008
 56

Voluntary activities
May, 2005-Sept-2005 Volunteered as HIV/AIDS educator with Students for International
Change Organization found in Arusha Region, Tanzania

Courses taught
Education Foundation
Early Childhood Education

Academic activities participated

February, 2012 Participated as a member of curriculum review team for the Department of
Education Foundation

Membership in associations
2006-2009 University of Dar es Salaam Ati AIDS Movement

Referees
Prof. D. Panga Professor in Linguistics
Department of Languages and Linguistics.
The University of Singida
Box 11 Singida-Tanzania.
Phone: 0111-111111
e-mail: pangadama@yahoo.co.uk

Write other two referees.

 57

SKILLS FOR JOB INTERVIEWS

BY
PETER MBALAMWEZI
“The Interviewer’s job is to find a reason to turn you down; your job
is not to provide that reason” ––John Laferve 55

Introduction
Job interview refers to a practice in which a person/persons (interviewers) ask questions to
another person (interviewee) to see if one is suitable for a job position to be filled in. Job
interviews are a source of concern for students and graduates who haven't had much experience
with them. With a bit of luck, what is written here will help to make them less so. Perhaps the
most important key to a successful interview is to be well-prepared for it and to have some
knowledge of what to expect. Equipped with this information you should be able to approach
your interview with confidence and hopefully, even pleasurable anticipation. Remember, the
employers want you and you want the job. Bear in mind that no matter how impressive your
background resume, and your application letter you may fail to be employed if you cannot SELL
yourself when you meet a prospective employer.

Pre- Interview Preparation

The interview itself is merely an exercise in two-way communication between the recruiter and
the interviewee and each attempts to "sell" the other. The recruiter "sells" the job and his/her
company while the interviewee "sells" himself or herself as the person best suited to fill it. The
first step is to read the job description carefully and understand the content. Having understood
the job description and decide that the job suits you the following steps should be followed:

Researching the Employer/ Organization

Find out all you can about the employer. Information may be available from various newspapers,
trade publications and employer’s annual reports, the internet, speaking to the current employees
or speaking to people who referred you to the employer. As a bare minimum you should know
what products the employer produces or the services it provides, history, mission, and where it is
located. Knowing all this may help you during the interview as most of the questions are
expected to reflect the employer’s activities.
 58

Identifying Essential Items/Tools to Take

Depending on the nature of the interview, the interviewee needs to prepare tools to accomplish
the exercise. The commonly needed items embody:
i) Writing materials: A pen and writing pad for taking notes.
ii) A portfolio containing original documents that demonstrate interviewee’s knowledge
and qualifications for the job or demonstrating any other projects one has involved.
iii) Copies of interviewee’s CV and a list of references arranged in a professionally
recommended order. However, the CV should not be read because it is expected that
the interviewee is familiar with one’s history.
iv) A list of questions the interviewee expects to ask at the end of the interview when
given chance.

Punctuality and Appropriateness

As mentioned previously, the job interview will require you to "sell" yourself. Your first
impression means a lot, your appearance; manner and attitude are of first importance. Punctuality
and appropriateness should be exhibited by fulfilling but not limited to the following aspects:
i) Timing - you must be on time for your interview since nothing creates a worse
impression than being late. Arrive at the interviewing place 30 minutes before the
appointment time to allow cooling off, familiarizing with the environment and
reducing stress.
ii) Dress in an appropriate manner- Even if the nature of the job applied discourages
neatness don’t dress dirty clothes, avoid bright coloured clothes by sticking to neutral
colours like blue, grey, black, brown and so on. For men where possible wear suits;
for women skirted suit. Always put your employer in your mind. Appropriate
dressing can be recognized by visiting the organization and observing the current
employees or by observing employees of similar organization near the interviewee’s
residence.
iii) Be neat-clean hair, nails and shoes regardless the nature of the job you are asking for.
iv) Check your appearance while waiting to be allowed to enter the interview enclosure.
The interviewee may accomplish this by visiting the rest/wash room for final check
up because 7% of the interviewers’ opinions is formed by what you say. The rest is
judged on one’s appearance, actions and sound.
v) Since the first impression is once shown, demonstrate self confidence, assurance and
determination throughout your presence in the interview premise. The impression you
make as you enter will very likely influence the attitude towards you throughout the
interview session.
vi) Make sure you turn off your mobile phone immediately before entering the interview
enclosure. This is a sign of value to what is about to take place.

Mannerism at the Interview Premise/Room/ Enclosure

i) Knock the door (three times) even if you have been invited to enter (even if it is open)
to seek for permission. Avoid slum-shutting the door as it may annoy the interviewers
and so commence the interview with malice to you.
 59

ii) As you enter, walk confidently and look at the interviewers as you approach. Your
eye contact should demonstrate confidence. Bear in mind that confidence differs from
arrogance.
iii) Look around quickly and get the right greeting address which caters for the
interviewers.
iv) If there is unoccupied chair, do not sit on or shift it unless you have been invited to do
so.
v) If there is an offer for a drink, you don’t have to accept it unless it cannot interfere
with the interview process and make you judged awkward.

Approaches and Techniques during the Interview Session

Approach your interview with a reasonable degree of confidence and self assurance. Convince
yourself that you can do the job as well as the next person and probably better if you put your
mind to it. Recruiters are invariably impressed with the Interviewee who displays real interest
and enthusiasm. You should therefore, give display of your all around abilities: personality,
speaking power, knowledge, tact, intellect, mental fitness and good manners. To exhibit such
characteristics, the interviewee needs to behave in the following ways:
i) Avoid picking your nose or teeth, chewing gum, cheeks, smoking, licking lips etc.
These may signal bad manner as well as lack of confidence to the interviewee.
ii) Maintain eye contact otherwise, you will give the impression that you are
disinterested or untrustworthy but do not stare at interviewers.
iii) When inevitable to sneeze or blow your nose do it undisgustingly to avoid
embarrassment to interviewers.
iv) Take care of your posture- sit upright and don’t cross your legs (at the knees).
v) Avoid irritating manners such as grunts, clearing throat or gap fillers like eeh.., you
know…,Ok…
vi) Attend to the interviewer's body language and other cues to sense when the interview
is concluding; do not stay behind.
vii) Show enthusiasm and laugh or smile only when appropriate. Jokes should only be
initiated by the interviewers.
viii) Since tone, speed, pitch, volume and clarity mark emotion and feelings, they need to
be regulated and handled with care.
ix) Do not respond to something you did not understand. Ask for clarification or if you
are unable to respond satisfactorily, admit the fact.
x) Take few seconds before answering the questions if you need to think.
xi) Be concise and precise to save time- Answers need be sufficient but not too long to
affect the allocated time. Maximally, two minutes can do for typical responses.
xii) Listen to the questions carefully- Avoid assuming that you know what the question is
going to be as soon as the interviewer begins. Wait till the interviewer completes
talking (do not interrupt or cut in a talk).
xiii) When the question is repeated stick to your previous responses again and again.
xiv) When paraphrasing what the interviewer has said (for clarity) do not correct one.
xv) Hold your temper (especially when you face a hostile remark). Sometime such
remarks are deliberately imposed to cause anxiety and stress to decentre the
interviewee to let one be oneself.
 60

xvi) Restrict your responses to what has been asked only unless the addition is to your
advantage.
xvii) Answer the questions honestly, rather than telling the interviewer what you think she/
he wants to hear.

Ending the Interview

The Interviewee is, in most cases, given a chance to ask question(s). Do not leave the chance
unused; ask few sensible questions before leaving. The questions may be like:
i) How soon will the decision for this position be made and which medium will be used
for feedback?
ii) What are the opportunities for advancement in your organization?
iii) What are the criteria for promotion in your organization?
iv) Does the organization provide additional education for employees who want to
develop their skills?
v) Are there any benefits provided by your organization to employees?
vi) May you let me aware of the salary embraced to this position? This may also be asked
after one has received a letter of offer for the position.
Thank the interviewers for short listing you among the interviewees. Leave with a warm smile
and you may handshake if entertained by the interviewers. Let them initiate if not just leave.
You may write a follow-up thank you letter expressing gratitude and asking to know any new
information.

What do most employers demand?

i) Effective communication- employers need candidates with ability to get on with a
wide range of people.
ii) Team working- Candidates with abilities to mobilize people and enhance working as
a group in accomplishing the organizational goals.
iii) IT Skills – Candidates who are computer literates.
iv) Flexibility- Candidates who are multipurpose i.e. who can perform a variety of tasks
to achieve a common organizational goal.
v) Problem solving- Candidate who can identify problems and look for their solutions.
vi) Quick learning- Employee who can learn and understand faster thus able to take new
tasks in the organization.
vii) Good attitude-Employee who is dedicated to hard working, honest, polite and
cooperative.

The Sample Questions for Job Interviewees

i) What are your future career plans?
ii) Do you consider your education valuable? Why?
iii) What do you consider to be your strengths and weaknesses?
iv) Why did you choose your particular career?
 61

v) What qualifications do you have that make you feel you would be successful in your
field?
vi) What do you think determines a person's progress in any organization?
vii) What personal characteristics are necessary for success in your chosen field?
viii) Do you prefer working with others or by yourself?
ix) What do you know about opportunities in the field in which you are trained?
x) What do you expect to be doing in five, ten or fifteen years?
xi) What are the disadvantages of your chosen field?
xii) Do you feel you have received a good general training?
xiii) Have you ever had any difficulty getting along with fellow students and teacher?
How did you overcome the situation?
xiv) What jobs have you held? How were they obtained, and why did you leave?
What jobs have you enjoyed most? Least? Why?
xv) Have you ever trained anyone to do a job?
xvi) What do you know about our organization and why do you think you might like to
work for it?
xvii) What interests you about our product or service?
xviii) What salary do you expect on this job?
xix) Is it an effort for you to be tolerant of persons with a background and interest
different from your own?
xx) What are your own special abilities? How can they help to accomplish the
organizational goals?
xxi) Which area(s) of the field interests you most? Why?
xxii) What experience related to this position have you had?
xxiii) How would you summarize your overall knowledge and skills in the field? (Mention
strengths and areas of special interest.)
What is your educational background? (Start from secondary to tertiary level not
kindergarten)
xxiv) Which race, sex, are you most comfortable to work with?
 62

GRAMMATICAL CONCORD
BY

NYINGE, DAUD

“If a language is a building, the words are the building blocks and
the grammar is the architect’s plan” (Sesnan, 1997:54)

Mastering English language competency by non-native speakers is encountered by numerous

impediments. Findings from the researches (For example see Nyinge, 2012) reveal that, among
many other challenges, people face a great challenge on subject-verb agreement. Consider the
following data obtained from the study by Nyinge (ibid: 45-46):

(a) Another things to consider?

(b) What was their names...?
(c) There is some conditions...
(d) Another uses of rice?
(e) In the next period, we shall study other tense.
(f) Present tense is an action, which happen now...
(g)...Wanjilo need to wear...
(h) ...an action which have started but...

The above sentences are incorrect. Subject-verb agreement errors crop up in both spoken and
written English. To avert the situation, a firm grasp of the rules of subject-verb agreement is
imperative. This chapter therefore, gives you some guidelines pertaining to the challenge in
question, which is interchangeably referred by many grammarians as grammatical concord.
The term concord in this respect refers to formal agreement in person, number, gender or tense
(or more than one of these combined) between two or more parts of a sentence (Booij, 2007:82).
Crystal (1997:95) further defines agreement/concord as grammatical links between words.
Therefore, the concept of subject-verb agreement merely denotes syntactical correspondence
between subject and the predicate. This chapter discusses subject-verb agreement in terms of
distinction between subject and predicate, nature of the agreement, agreement in terms of person
and agreement in terms of number. However many pages of this chapter will focus on number
agreement.

Distinction between Subject and Predicate

The term Subject denotes the clause constituent about which something is stated/said [in the
predicate] (Crystal, 1997:94, 438 and Warriner & Laws, 1973: 7, 56).
The term Predicate refers to the part of a sentence, which says something about the subject
(Warriner & Laws 1973:12). A verb is a word class displaying such contrasts as tense, aspect,
voice and mood, and typically used to express an action, event, or state (Crystal, 2002:470).
 63

The following sentences draw a line of demarcation between the subject and the predicate:
1. Still waters (SUBJECT) run deep (PREDICATE).
2. The seeming quietness of a volcano crater (SUBJECT) is misleading (PREDICATE).
3. A round walnut table with drop leaves (SUBJECT) stood in the middle of the dining
room (PREDICATE).
4. Juma and other sudents (SUBJECT) were soon ready for the examination
(PREDICATE).
5. The licence (SUBJECT) expires in two years (PREDICATE).

Nature of agreement
Subject-verb agreement can be either bilateral or unilateral. The former occurs when V can only
be combined with W, and vice versa, For instance in the present tense, verb to BE- I takes only
am and vice versa. The later, on the other hand, occurs when V can only be combined with W,
but W may also be combined with X (or even, Y and Z). For instance, in the present tense, verb to
BE- we can only combine with are, but are may also combine with you or they.

Agreement of person
Except a few forms of verb to BE, it is only the present tense that is subject to grammatical
concord. The simple present tense ending-s/-ies/-es is used on a verb only if the subject is 3 rd
person singular. Consider the table below.

Perso Singular Verb Plural Verb

n
1st I Eat We eat
2nd You Eat You eat
3rd he (Ally), she (Debora), Eats they eat
it (the dog) (students)

Auxiliaries (Primary Auxiliaries)

Auxiliary verbs assist the main verbs to express several basic grammatical contrasts such as
person, number and tense. They are often referred to as helping verbs.
 Past-tense forms of main verbs and auxiliary ones, except to BE, are not part and parcel
of grammatical concord.

 All modal auxiliaries are not part and parcel of grammatical concord.
 64

Auxiliary DO
In the present tense, helping verb do has two forms: do and does. It is only the 3rd person which
is affected by grammatical concord.

Person Singular Ver Contracted Plural Verb Contrracted

b Neg. Neg.
1st I do don’t we do don’t
2nd you do don’t you do don’t
3rd she (Mary), he (Juma), does doesn’t they do don’t
it (Mary’s cat) (People)

Auxiliary HAVE
In the present tense, helping verb have entails two forms: have and has. It is only the 3rd person
which is affected by grammatical concord.

Person Singular Ver Contracted Plural Verb Contracted

b Neg. Neg.
1st I have haven’t We have haven’t
2nd You have haven’t You have haven’t
3rd she (Mary), he (Juma), it has hasn’t They have haven’t
(Mary’s cat) (People)

Auxiliary BE
In the present tense, helping verb be entails: am, is and are.

Perso Singular Verb Plural Verb

n
1st I am We are
2nd You are You are
3rd she (Mary), he (Juma), is they are
it (Mary’s cat) (People)

Only auxiliary verb to BE has person agreement in past tense (Hudson: 1999). In the past tense,
helping verb be entails: was, and were.
 65

Person Singular Verb Plural Verb

1st I was We were
2nd You were You were
3rd she (Mary), he (Juma), was they (People) were
it (Mary’s cat)

 Second person you whether singular or plural takes a plural verb are/were (Sesnan:
1997:72).
 In unlikely conditional sentences were is used instead of the expected was:
If I were you, I would spend almost all the time studying
If I were the President, I would motivate local wirters.

Agreement in number
Subjects and verbs in sentences must agree in number. When a word refers to one person or
thing, it is singular in number, but when a word refers to more than one, it is plural in number
(Zandvoort, R.W and Van Ek, J.A, 1975:80). Put bluntly, singular subjects take singular verbs
while plural subjects take plural verbs. In this respect, the biggest challenge is to figure out
whether, the subject/verb is singular or plural.

Expletive Constructions
Sometimes it is possible to construct sentences using syntactically correct subjects, but
semantically empty ones (subjects which are meaningless). Such subjects are generally referred
to as expletives. When this occurs, the subject complement affects the verb preceding it:
Expletives are interchangeably regarded as pleonastic or dummy subjects (Svenonius, 2001:4).

Here comes David.

Here are the answers.
There are four people.
Here is and there are are contracted into here’s and there’s respectively.

Questions
Questions beginning with who, where, which, what, how, why, when, etc are treated the way
expletive constructions above are, on condition that singular inverted subjects take singular
verbs:
What are your plans?
What is your plan?
Yes/no questions are basically formed when primary auxiliaries start:
Are Mwanajuma and George among the graduands?
 66

Does Amina speak French?

Nouns after a What-clause

When we use a what-clause as a subject, we use a verb in singular if the following noun is
singular and a verb in plural if the following main noun is plural:
What concerns me is graft in this country.
What concerns me are poverty and graft in our country. (Formal)
What concerns me is poverty and graft in our country is also allowed in spoken English.8

Sentences Beginning with Preposition Phrases

Like in the above cases, when a preposition phrase begins, the subject is likely to precede the
verb/predicate. In this case, the subject affects the verb preceding it:
Into the room, jump the two boys.
Into the room, jumps a tall boy
In the master bedroom sleeps my father.
In the master bedroom sleep two white boys

Collective Nouns
This sub class of nouns embodies a group of people, animals, or things. Examples of collective
nouns include family, group, air force, class, committee, assembly, panel, swarm, board, crew,
army, cast, group, herd, couple, company, jury, navy, flock, team, herd, press (journalism),
public, school, staff, police, defense, team, university, crowd, senate, etc.
When reference is made to the members of the group acting in unison, the collective noun is
singular, and the verb must equally be same:

The team is very good.

The public is the best judge.
The University Council meets thrice a year.
The crowd was tired (Denoting one unit).

When the individuals in the group act separately, such nouns call for the use of a plural verb:
The staffs were uploading the results of supplementary examination.
The public are the best judges on the conduct of the politicians. (Meaning several
individuals)
The couples are taking dinner

Some collective nouns are always plural: cattle, people, deer, sheep, trout and salmon. Bruntly
put:

 Group nouns can be considered as a single unit, and, thus, take a singular verb.

8
Retrieved from http://www.ecenglish.com on October 26th, 2012 at 12:05 Hours.
 67

 Group nouns can be considered as individual members within a single unit and, thus,
take a plural verb.
 Group nouns can be given plural forms to mean two or more units and, thus, take a plural
verb.

Modifiers between Subjects and Verbs

Words, phrases and clauses between subjects and verbs should never be part of subject-verb
agreement, since they do not affect agreement despite being closer to the verbs than the subjects
are.

Words giving additional information

Words such as with, together with, accompanied by, along with, besides, including, as well as,
except, no less than, in addition to, etc never compound the subjects; therefore, such words do
not affect the number of the subject:

The coach, together with the players, was cheering lustily.

The hits, as well as the final score, are recorded by the official scorekeeper.
The album, including all the photos has an attractive cover.
The instructor accompanied by his wife and children has gone for annual leave.

Prepositional phrases
The special effects in the movie were particularly original.
The lights in the stadium have been turned on.
Both of the coaches for the varsity team work seriously.
The captain of any of our teams has a special responsibility.
The age of the huge sequoias is hard to believe.

The appositives
Normally appositives9 do not affect the agreement:
Kikwete, the fouth President of the United Republic of Tanzania has many challenges to
address in his reign.
You, student need to have 16/40 as a minimum course work score.

Relative clauses
The man who published a lot of research papers, theses and books has been awarded.
People who like the music composed by Celine Dion are many.

9
An appositive denotes the part of the sentence offset by commas that gives information about the subject.
Retrieved from http://english.stackexchange.com on October 26, 2012 at 11:20 Hours.
 68

Other Constructions
The following constructions do not affect the number:
The gun, loaded with bullets, was caught by the police.
Determined to pass, the student studies up to midnight.
Enclosed with the fence were ferocious dogs.

Relative Pronouns
A relative pronoun must agree with its antecedent 10 in number. If the antecedent is singular, the
relative pronoun is singular but if the antecedent is plural, the relative pronoun becomes plural.
Pollock, Sheridan and Williams (1969:211) point out that the biggest challenge arises on how to
find the antecedent of the relative pronoun:

There are three members of our class who (plural) have won prizes in national essay
contests.
Ally is one of those athletes who (plural) are always trying.
Ally is the only one of the athletes who (singular) is always trying.

Indefinite Pronouns
The following indefinite pronouns are singular.
Anybody Each Everyone/every Nobody Much Somebody
Anyone/one Either Everything No one Litle (Negative) Someone
Anything Everybody Neither Nothing A litle (Positive) Something

Singular indefinite pronouns take singular verbs (Zandvoort, R.W and Van Ek, J.A, 1975:185
and Hacker: 2006):
Neither of them is faithful.
Much has been said on the death of Kanumba.

Some indefinite nouns such as all, any, most, none, more, part, some, half, a lot of are singular
or plural depending on the prepositional phrase that follows them.

Some of our luggage was lost. (Some denotes a certain amount of) - Singular
Some say yes and some say no. (Some denotes a number of persons) – Plural.
All his money was lost. (All denotes ‘the whole of’) – Singular.
All students register before November. (All denotes ‘without exception’) – Plural
None of his advice makes sense. -Singular
None are so deaf as those that will not hear. -Plural.
None of us knows where Balali had gone. (None denotes neither) – Singular

10
An antecedent is a part of a sentence to which some other parts grammatically refer (Crystal, 1997:421)
 69

Some indefinite pronouns are always plural (both, few (negative), a few (positive), many, other
(s) and several):

Both were at fault in the opinion of the Constitutional reform.

Many of my classmates are going on the trip to Bagamoyo.
Many find English a useful language to know.

Note: Another and the other are singular, therefore, take singular verbs:
Another student joins our group. (Another denotes an additional-one)

In some cases, especially when other is used correlatively with preceding some, it takes a
singular subject (Zandvoort, R.W and Van Ek, J.A, 1975:185):
Some idiot or other has been scribbling on the window-pane.

Miscellaneous:
One of, the only one of, the number of, a number of, no, and many a.
Constructions that embody one of... take plural verbs:
He is one of those people who hate corruption during intra party elections.
Constructions that entail the one of... take singular verbs:
He is probably the only one of the contestants who does not practice negative
compaining.
Constructions that entail the number of... take singular verbs:
The number of students taking LG course hinders seminar presentations.
The number of illiterate standard seven leavers has greatly increased these days.
Constructions that entail a number of ... take singular verbs:
A number of students are not fluent in speaking English.
A number of employees have marriage vows.
Constructions that entail many a ... take singular verbs:
Many a true word is spoken in jest.
Incase no precedes the subject, the verb should be singular:
No talking and no giraffing is allowed in the examination room.

Nouns bearing weird forms

Some nouns look as if they are plural in form but they are simply singular in meaning/idea. In
this context, what is taken into account is the meaning of such nouns: news, diabetes, AIDS,
statistics, mumps, phonetics, mathematics, civics, aerobics, electronics, mechanics, metaphysics
and measles.
Other plural nouns taking singular verbs include a gallows, a bellows, a shambles, alms,
barracks, pair of steps and a new headquarters.
 The word Pains in the sense of trouble and effort usually takes a plural verb, but a
singular attributive adjunct:
Many pains have been taken to give the most approved spelling.
 70

Nouns ending in ics may be either singular or plural depending on the usage. When such nouns
denote a school subject, a science or a general practice, they are regarded as singular:
What is phonetics?
Ethics is a study of morality.
Economics is a complex but fascinating subject.
Politics is a wide-ranging field.

When they are preceded by the, some, all, his, their, your, her or other modifiers, they are treated
as plural ones:
His politics are subject to change.
His politics are subject to change.
The man’s ethics were deplorable (Pollock, Sheridan and Williams (1964:209).

Nouns that indicate two parts embodied in them take plural verbs: scissors, tweezers, trousers,
glasses, pants, pliers and shears.
The scissors you bought are very sharp.
The tweezers my brother is asking for are on the table.

However, if such words are preceded by the phrase pair of, the word pair becomes a subject, and
therefore the constructions take singular verbs:
A pair of glasses is on the dressing table.

Names of Sports Teams

Names of sports teams that do not end in s take plural verbs:
The Coastal Union are determined to win this year.

Names of Games
Names of games ending in-s such as billliards, draughts and dominoes.
Draughts is exclusively a man’s game in Tanzania.

Note:
Cards are not good for the kids (Here cards is plural on the ground of pieces).
Names Denoting Practical Matters:
Gymnastics are currently a popular feature of popular education.
Names of Countries
Names of some countries are plural in form but they are singular in meaning:
The United States is imperialist.
The Netherlands publishes many books.
The Philippines has a tropical climate.
However, when reference is made to the citizens, a plural verb is correct:
The Netherlands are washed by the North Sea.
Works (factory) may take a singular verb:
Price’s works was small.
Titles of Books/Movies/short stories
 71

Such titles may be plural in form, but are considered singular in meaning and therefore, they take
singular verbs:
The Percy’s Relinquish was published in 1765.
Great Expectations is the first novel by Dicken that I have read.
The Hundred Dresses is a story about a lonely girl.
Titles of Organizations and Companies:
Brown Brothers has a sale of sports clothes this year.
Morgan and Company advertises used cars.
Groups of Words
Any group of words referring to a single thing or thought is used with a singular verb:
What we want is more dresses.
Multiplications
In multiplications, we find both the singular and the plural of to be or to make:
Twice twelve is/are (make/makes) twenty-four.
However, singular verbs are preferable:
Three times three is nine.
Words Indicating Amounts/Quantity and Time
Words or phrases expressing periods of time, fractions, percentage, units, weights, measurements
and amounts of money are usually singular; as such words are regarded as a single unit:
Two weeks never seems long enough for vacation.
Five thousand shillings is enough for lunch.
Twenty thousand dollars is all I need to purchase a car.
Two thirds of the examination time has gone.
Three years is usually enough for all undergraduate programmes.
A couple of minutes is needed to accomplish the task.
Note:
When the words dollars and shillings are used to refer to the dollars and shillings themselves, the
words in question take a plural verb:

Dollars are often used for international commerce.

Shillings are often used for our local business transactions.

Gerunds
Sometimes gerunds are used as subjects of sentences. In this respect, they take singular verbs:
Reading books is my hobby.
Driving in big cities is very challenging.
Having too much free time is very dangerous.
When two gerunds are linked by and a plural verb is used:
Smoking cigarette and swimming in deep sea are both dangerous.
 72

Infinitives
When an infinitive is used as a subject, the verb should be singular:
To cheat in the examination room leads to discontinuation from the studies.
When two infinitives are joined by and, take a plural verb:
To drive in big Cities and to deliver public speeches require prectice.

Compound subjects
A compound subject consists of two or more connected subjects that have the same verb.
Subjects joined by and take a plural verb (Warriner and Laws 1973:22):
Sharks and eels are dangerous.

Note:
When the reference is made to a single/the same person or to two or more things considered as a
unit (one thing), the constructions take singular verbs (Warriner and Laws 1973:132):

A sweater and skirt makes a good outfit for school. (Here, sweater and skirt is considered
one outfit).
Rice and fish is my favourite dish.
A wife and mother has challenging job (One person is meant).
The Hai MP and the CHADEMA chairperson has been very active in the Parliament.

Singular subjects joined by or or nor take a singular verb:

Neither a rabbit nor a raccoon demages a garden
Plural subjects joined by or, nor, either/or, neither/nor and not only/but also take a plural verb:
Either politicians or religious leaders are responsible for the current religious intolerance
in Tanzania.

Rule of Proximity:
When a singular subject and a plural subject are joined by or or nor, the verb agrees with the
nearer subject:
Flowers or a book usually makes an appropriate gift.
Either the leader or his followers do not understand the instructions.
Neither the students nor their course instructor is competent in using internet.

In case the construction compounds a positive and a negative subject and one is plural while the
other is singular, the verb agrees with the positive subject:
It is not the Deans but the VC who appoints the heads of departments.
The employees but not the Principal have shown their discontent following excessive
salary deductions.
 73

Conclusion
Bluntly put, I have exhausted subject-verb agreement in terms of the distinction between subject
and predicate, nature of the agreement and agreement in terms of person and number. However,
various agreement features seem to be combined in the course of the discussion. It should also be
understood that only the subjects affect the verbs. Going by this therefore, the verbs we use in
sentences change depending on the subjects.

References
Crystal, David. (1997). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. 2nd ed. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Hudson, Richard. (1999). Subject-Verb Agreement in English. English Language and
Linguistics.3:173-207.
Nyinge, Daud. (2012). Assessment of English Language Input in Tanzanian Community-based
Secondary Schools: The case of Dodoma Region (Unpublished Dissertation).
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Further readings
Hogue, Ann. (2003). The Essentials of English: A Writer’s Handbook. NY: Pearson Education,
Inc.
Langan, John, and Janet M. Goldstein. (2003). English Brushup. 3rd ed. New York: McGraw-
Hill.
Levin, M. (2001). Agreement with collective nouns in English. Lund: Lund University Press.