Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2022) 29:30793–30801

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-19633-w

TREND EDITORIAL

The way forward to sustain environmental quality through sustainable

sand mining and the use of manufactured sand as an alternative
to natural sand
Vijaya Bhoopathy1 · Senthil Selvan Subramanian2

Received: 26 July 2021 / Accepted: 5 March 2022 / Published online: 24 March 2022
© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2022

Introduction (Freedman et al. 2013). Every year, there is an increase in

demand for sand in developing countries; therefore, sand is
The rapid rise in urbanization and construction of large-scale extracted between 32 and 50 billion tonnes globally (United
infrastructure projects are driving increasing demands for Nations Environment Programme (UNEP 2019). This sand
concrete construction materials globally (Brunauer and mining is a global activity, which leads to negative impacts
Copland 1964), “Man consumes no material except water socially and environmentally, and it finally affects the fresh-
in such tremendous quantities.” Concrete and cement com- water ecosystems (Lois Koehnken Max et al. 2020). Con-
posites are presently the most economical materials used in tinuous extraction of sand decreases the amount of sedi-
the construction industry. Over the most recent 15 years, the ment supply by lowering the water table on the river beds.
accessibility of good-quality sand dwindles gradually. Thus, Despite the quantity of sand used in our day-to-day activi-
the State and the Central Government of India has taken ties, our dependence on sand significantly increases (Marius
several steps to control and regulate unsustainable excava- Dan Gavriletea 2017). Through several years, natural sand
tion of riverbed sand mining. This comes amidst to develop is shaped by the erosion process, which is extracted at a
ecological concerns and a more noteworthy consciousness speedier rate than their re-establishment. This leads to mine
of the security of natural bounties. the greater quantities and to find an alternative substitute
(Padmalal and Maya 2014). Excessive common river sand
mining has made civil engineers search for an appropri-
Literature review ate elective fine aggregate and such an elective material is
“manufactured sand (M-sand).” This depletion of natural
Worldwide consumption of sand has increased, and they are sand for the construction sector has led to the production of
also extracted at a greater rate. In addition, it naturally has a manufactured sand (Ilangovan et al. 2008). Figs 1, 2, and 3
major impact on the marine ecosystems (Torres et al. 2017). depict sand mining in the river and beach.
Time is running out for sand (Bendixen et al. 2019). The
abundant supply of sand and gravel is diminishing rapidly
in areas surrounding cities (Stebbins 2006). Indiscriminate Marine sand mining and impact on marine
sand mining threatens the existence of riverine habitats biodiversity

The main emphasis of this study is focused on a signifi-

Responsible Editor: Philippe Garrigues.
cant increase in marine sand mining. Due to a significant
* Vijaya Bhoopathy increase in marine sand mining, the seabed fauna and flora
bvijayasuresh@gmail.com are affected as shown in Fig. 4. There is a net decline in
Senthil Selvan Subramanian faunal biomass due to the extraction and dredging of aggre-
senthils10@srmist.edu.in gates from the bottom zone of the sea. It also destroys the
1
organisms, habitats, and ecosystems and eventually affects
Department of Civil Engineering, Dr. M.G.R. Educational
the biodiversity composition. Additionally, the fine aggre-
and Research Institute, Chennai, Tamilnadu, India
2
gate particles are rejected by releasing dredging boats, vast
Department of Civil Engineering, SRM Institute of Science
dust plumes, and changing water turbidity. Thus, it ends in
and Technology, Tamilnadu, Kattankulathur, Chennai, India

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30794 Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2022) 29:30793–30801

mining to environmental assessments before issuing per-

mits. In this connection, the court observed that “Excessive
sand mining on either side of the river is one of the major
causes of environmental degradation and it also causes a
threat to the biodiversity. Over the years, India’s rivers and
ecology have been badly affected by the alarming rate of
unrestricted sand mining.” Likewise, the National Green
Tribunal is another Indian court, which has issued orders
to close down various sand mines in 2013, yet, this has not
led to appraisals. Excessive river sand mining is considered
as one of many recognized factors, which affect the riverine
Fig. 1   Depletion of natural sand due to continuous sand mining ecosystems to reach a rapid decline in biodiversity (World
Wildlife Fund 2018). In the river banks of Hungarian Maros,
sand mining has created a change in the morphology and fre-
quency of levees, which leads to the gradual disconnection
of the river from its floodplain (Kiss et al. 2018).

Environmental effects of sand mining

The current study highlighted the impacts of bed degrada-

tion which leads to loss of properties, undermine bridge
supports and pipelines, and the degradation of landscape,
which cause a change in the morphology of the river bed,
and it further constitutes one aspect of the aquatic habitat.
Next, the lowering of the water table destroys the riparian
Fig. 2   Beach sand mining
vegetation as shown in Fig. 5. As a result of it, a change in
morphology of the river and bank erosion destroys the ripar-
ian vegetative cover.
Excessive sediment deposition increases the turbidity to
prevent the infiltration of light for photosynthesis, and so it
eventually reduces the food accessibility of aquatic fauna.
Moving on, an excessive pumping of groundwater in the
process of mining the channels depletes the groundwater
level by causing scarcity of irrigation and drinking water.
In extreme cases, it leads to ground fissures and subsidence
in adjacent areas. As the bed elevations and flood heights
decrease, there is a decline in the hazard for the human habi-
Fig. 3   River sand mining in India tat of floodplains. This leads to the damage in the engineer
works, and the supply of overbank sediments on the flood-
plains is reduced as the flood heights decrease drastically. An
unregulated and unscientific sand mining tends to increase
the channel bank.
the major changes to aquatic and riparian habitats over large
areas (Tillin et al. 2011).
It is imperative that continuous sand mining causes deple- Impact of sand mining on ecosystems—
tion of natural sand which ultimately leads to the degrada- quick scoping review (QSR)
tion of rivers. Moreover, an excessive mining leads to riv-
erbank erosion and deepening of rivers with enlargement of The quick scoping review (QSR) approach is adopted to sys-
coastal inlets and river mouths. This excessive river sand tematically quantify the documented impacts of sand mining
mining leads to the destruction of aquatic lives, and it affects on river systems. This QSR methodology identifies a concep-
the entire ecosystem. In 2012, the Indian Supreme Court tual model based on the factors connecting the sand mining
has directed the various state governments to subject sand activities and the potential direct and indirect impacts on the

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Fig. 4   Marine sand mining and

impact on marine biodiversity
(Tillin et al. 2011)

ecosystems (Collins et al. 2015). The various direct and indi- involved in the guidelines are the identification of areas
rect impacts of river sand mining are depicted in Fig. 6. of deposition, where mining is allowed by forbidding the
The abiotic impacts of sand mining are studied by the QSR areas of erosion and proximity to infrastructural structures
approach (Lois Koehnken et al. 2020). This study includes the and installations. Similarly, satellite images are utilized
changes in the channel morphology, alterations in the move- for identifying areas of sand deposit and quantity. Corre-
ment and compositions of sediments, impacts on water qual- spondingly, the annual rate of replenishment and allowing
ity, and the alterations related to the flow regime as depicted time for replenishment after mining in the area is carried
in Fig. 7. A detailed summary of the impacts associated with out. Measures for the protection of ecology and the envi-
sand mining is structured by the QSR approach and is pre- ronment are established for identifying the possible ways
sented in Fig. 8. of scientific and systematic mining. A benchmark (BM)
concerning for the mean sea level (MSL) is fixed for an
essential in-mining channel reach (MCR) and no mining
Guidelines for sustainable sand mining operation at the lower benchmark level (Sustainable Sand
Mining Guidelines 2016, 2018). Also, permanent gaug-
The broad principle for any sustainable sand mining ing facilities are made compulsory for mining the sites
guidelines preserves the natural resources by utilizing through excessive operations. The most established unit of
it for the present and future generations. The initial step administration is carried out by the district for an effective
involved in managing the river resource depends on the planning and monitoring. It is suggested that every district
preparation of the district survey report. These processes prepares this document by taking an account of the river

Fig. 5   Channel cross section. A

Riparian zone. B Bank erosion
(Stebbins, 2006)

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Fig. 6   Direct and indirect

impacts of sand mining by the
QSR approach (Lois Koehnken
et al. 2020)

stretch in that district as an ecological unit. Besides, the sustainable development policy for the protection of ecology
production of aggregate in a particular area is a function and the environment. Sustainable development is designed
of the availability of natural resources, the economy of on the three pillars, which include economic, social, and
the area, and the size of the population. Also, the various environmental. Sustainable development in any part of the
developmental and infrastructural projects are undertaken country will not achieve it, if the environment protects the
in that particular area and protection of bank erosion. The people below the poverty line. Similarly, the sustainable
Malaysian Sand Mining Guidelines DID 2009 have given development cannot be achieved through an inappropri-
setbacks for sand mining from river systems, which is ate economic growth. These guidelines support promoting
depicted in Fig. 9. environmental protection, elementary concept, physiologi-
cal, limiting negative hydrological and social impacts lead-
ing to sustainable economic development. At the district
The sustainable sand mining management level, these factors are accounted for in the most efficient
plan manner. The sustainable mining management plan needs
to be dynamic. A survey has been carried out by the Dis-
The available natural resources are utilized in an efficient trict Environment Impact Assessment Authority (DEIAA)
and environmentally friendly manner in a scientific and sys- with the assistance of other departments in the district at
tematic way. It focuses with an objective focusing on the regular intervals. This sand mining process is permitted by

Fig. 7   Summary of impacts associated with sand mining identified by the QSR approach (Lois Koehnken Max et al. 2020)

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Fig. 8   Details of the papers are included in the review by the QSR approach (Lois Koehnken Max et al. 2020)

depending on the measured annual replenishment volume. replenishment study is well understood, the assessments are
So, an absolute elevation is maintained below without any not undertaken presently at the state level. The guidelines
extraction, and this extraction on the river bed methods is prescribed in “Enforcement & Monitoring Guidelines for
limited to bar skimming. This mining is initiated from the sand mining (MoEFCC 2020)” emphasize the methodology
downstream portion of the bar, and it is only allowed dur- adopted for the replenishment study. Correspondingly, an
ing dry seasons. So, this plan should include a long-term adequate amount of sand replenishes, and then, excavation
monitoring program along with a record of the annual status. is limited in that area. The district survey report (2019) for
sand in Vellar River Perambalur District, Tamil Nadu, rec-
ommends 261 million metric tonne (MMT) mineable sand
Demand–supply assessment at an annual replenishment rate of 7.25 MMT. This annual
replenishment volume of sand for various rivers across
A gap assessment is performed by the State for analyzing Tamil Nadu is studied from the district survey report of that
the demand–supply situation and, accordingly, the rules/ particular district. The Public Works Department (PWD) of
regulations and policies are framed by the State. Annual Tamil Nadu has estimated the demand for the sand as 53.71
replenishment study is carried out across Tamil Nadu in all million tonne per annum (MTPA). In the year 2016–2017,
districts as per the district survey report (DSR), which is the total supply of sand is 18.36 metric tonne (MT) with
prescribed in the Sustainable Sand Mining Guidelines by 15.12 MT from river sand and 3.24 MT from M-sand (Sand
the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change Mining Framework Government of India 2018). The defi-
(MoEFCC 2018). Since the need for undertaking the annual cit in the State is estimated at 35.56 MT, and to meet this

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Fig. 9   Example of setbacks for

sand extraction from river sys-
tems provided by the Malaysian
Sand Mining Guidelines (DID,
2009)

deficit, the Public Works Department (PWD) has issued the broadly utilized across the globe and specialists from all over
circular by instructing its officials to use manufactured sand the world. It has become mandatory for utilizing the M-sand
in government projects as an alternative to river sand. On owing to its consistent gradation and zero contamination.
average, there is a demand for 25,000 loads of M-sand daily Consistently, Karnataka gathers around 9 million tonnes per
across Tamil Nadu. In this regard, the government has per- year of sand, out of which a major share is sourced from
mitted 358 M-sand manufacturing units to push the State riverbed mining. The Center for Study of Science, Technol-
for M-sand to meet the demand–supply gap. This transition ogy, and Policy (CSTEP) has led an examination to assess
enables the sustainable use of sand to manufacture it in the the present interest for sand in Karnataka. It is reported that
future. it has produced 26 million tonnes per year in 2014 and this is
The scarcity of river sand forces the builders to look for expected to increase to 56–81 million tonnes for each year by
an alternative material and many have started using manu- 2030. This appeal has prompted a look through an elective
factured sand as a substitute for construction activity. The material, for example, M-sand with a specific end goal to
necessity for the use of manufactured sand increases with take care of the demand. Furthermore, the State Government
the river sand supply dropping by over 80%. In India, Tamil of Karnataka has made it obligatory for the Public Works
Nadu occupies the second longest sandy beach area covering Department (PWD) to utilize M-sand for the development of
about 1.076 km (670 miles). To mention in particular, the structures, bridges, and different works in September 2013.
Palar, Vaigai, and Cauvery River basins have been subjected Consistently, 47 and 59 billion tonnes of development
to illegal sand mining continuously. In Tamil Nadu, each material are mined all-inclusive (Steinberger et al. 2010),
measuring 200 cubic feet of sand is mined approximately out of which, the speediest and the biggest extraction share
every day between 5500 and 6000 truckloads (SibiArasu (68 to 85%) is for fine aggregate (sand) and (32 to 50%) is for
2017). Continuous extraction of river sand has a huge impact coarse aggregate (Krausmann et al. 2009). In a roundabout
on the river beds, which has resulted in a decrease in the way, the worldwide utilization of aggregates is evaluated
amount of sediment supply and lowering of the water table. through the generation of cement for concrete, as concrete is
The Kerala government is reportedly the first State to start made of cement, sand, gravel, and water. In 2012, 3.7 billion
using M-sand extensively for construction. It has started tonnes of cement is generated by 150 nations (US Geologi-
popularizing the M-sand in 2004 after facing an acute short- cal Survey. 2013a). Also, the construction industry requires
age of natural sand. On the other hand, the accessibility of around six to seven times more huge amounts of sand and
manufactured sand is troublesome except in Kerala and in a gravel for every tonne of cement and the world utilization
few sections of Southern and Western India. It has a demand of aggregates surpasses 40 billion tonnes per year (US Geo-
of 50,000 tonnes of M-sand per day, but the manufacturers logical Survey. 2013b). One approach to reduce the usage of
do only 25,000 tonnes. So, it has mooted the idea of desilting sand is to enhance the utilization of existing structures and
reservoirs to quarry sand without causing ecological dam- foundations. Reused construction materials and quarry dust
age to rivers. Also, there is a broad consensus on the need to are the substitute for river sand.
desilt dams, as it has yielded not only sand but also clay for An investigation is led by the Indian Institute of Science
the brick and tile industry. According to reports, M-sand is (IISc), Government of Karnataka, on the appropriateness of

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M-sand as a fine aggregate. This examination details that the requires 200 million tonnes of aggregates every year for their
physical qualities of M-sand are like river sand, yet it is con- construction purposes. This demand for sand in the State of
trasted with it. This M-sand substituted concrete has a higher India stood for 24 million tonnes a year, against the supply
compressive strength of 6–9% and higher flexure strength of of 14 million tonnes (Nagesh Prabhu. 2015). The location of
12–15%. Also, the specialized examination has demonstrated licensed sand pits in remote areas has led to high transpor-
that manufactured sand is utilized as another option to river tation costs. This low-value by-product obtained from rock
sand. As of late, the Karnataka State Cabinet has chosen to crushers is effectively and efficiently used in the production
give 5% sponsorship on enthusiasm to set up the manufactured of high-value products in the construction industry.
sand units in areas that need normal sand assets, as announced
in The Hindu. Keeping in mind the end goal to make a request,
the State Government of Karnataka has additionally energized
the utilization of produced sand in all government ventures. Advantages of using manufactured sand
Today, the Bangalore Airport and the Bangalore Metro are in concrete
the portion of the real tasks that have used this manufactured
sand. Owing to the shortage of naturally available river sand, The particles are cubical with definite and consistent particle
M-sand has emerged as a sustainable alternative for the con- size distribution, and the fine content is generally higher than
struction industry. Manufactured sand is used as an alterna- natural sand. This surface texture of the particles is rough and
tive construction material thereby reducing the demand and has higher crushing strength. This particle size distribution
dependence on naturally occurring sand. is thick, and the surfaces are less weathered than the normal
According to reports, M-sand is broadly utilized across sand. M-sand created from hard rock has the lower difference
the globe and specialists from all over the world. The in mineralogy. There are no organic impurities in M-sand,
demand is mandatory for the utilization of M-sand, owing and the presence of silt is less than 3% by weight, and this
to its consistent gradation and zero contamination. The tran- M-sand has a consistent gradation. It is produced by con-
sition to manufactured sand enables the future sustainable forming to zone II grading as per IS 383 (1970). This has per-
use of sand. fect grading and is angular in shape, which in turn increases
the compressive strength by 10–15%. It has also consistently
graded with greater precession by constantly removing the
Manufactured sand, a solution, and a viable micro fines, and hence, it has a higher “fineness module
alternative to river sand index” than the natural sand. M-sand is more cost-effective
than the river sand, since it is produced in areas very close to
The growing demand for the fine aggregate in the construc- the construction site thereby reducing the cost of transpor-
tion industry has driven our attention to the use of manu- tation. This manufactured sand is used in compliance with
factured sand. Besides, the global scarcity of natural sand the new European Standards, as per EN 13, 139 (2006). The
and the remote location of sandpits has led to the use of Cement Concrete and Aggregates Australia (CCAA) has car-
manufactured sand. There are various factors that have ried out extensive research and has developed the guidelines
driven us towards the production of M-sand such as global to support the replacement of natural sand with manufactured
scarcity for river sand, growing demand for fine aggregate, sand. This M-sand produced from hard rock has consistent
the remote location of sandpits, and the presence of impu- particle size distribution, and it is more cost-effective than
rities like silt and clay in natural sand. This depletion of river sand. Besides, it is produced in areas very close to the
natural sand is due to continuous sand mining of the river construction site thereby reducing the cost of transportation.
sand globally, which has led to the use of manufactured sand Table 1 shows the number of impurities present in river
as an alternative. The International Center for Aggregates sand. This river sand contains 5 to 20% of clay and silt, 2 to
Research (ICAR) has given the promising results on the use 4% of marine products, and 6 to 10% of oversized materials,
of manufactured micro fines up to 17% in concrete. Hence, whereas manufactured sand is free from these impurities.
sand dredging is heavily taxed, and it is banned almost now Table 1  Comparison of impurities in river sand and M-sand (Aswath
in Tamil Nadu. Now, the river sand is available on the river 2015)
beds, which contains about 5 to 20% silt and clay impurities
SI. no Impurities present River sand Manu-
(Fate 2014). The presence of even minor quantities of silt factured
and clay impurities affects the strength, and it damages the sand
screed and concrete (Sreenivasa.G. 2012). Hence, the river
1 Clay and silt 5 to 20% Nil
sand is processed well before use to bring the impurities to
2 Marine products 2 to 4% Nil
the acceptable limit. About 65 to 80% of the concrete mix
3 Oversized materials 6 to 10% Nil
is composed of sand and aggregates. In the UK alone, it

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30800 Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2022) 29:30793–30801

Manufactured sand is utilized in many nations such as Nor- Acknowledgements  This work was supported by Dr. M.G.R. Educa-
way, South Africa, India, and Australia. In the USA, limestone tional and Research Institute.
and granite record for 86% of the rock; it is used to produce
Author contribution  Both the authors equally contributed to the prepa-
manufactured sand, while the rest are from basalt, dolomite, ration of the manuscript.
sandstone, and quartzite (Ahn and Fowler 2001). The molten
igneous rocks have produced about 10 to 30% of quarry fines. Data availability  The data and material are available within the
Limestone contains dolomite, and chalk quarries commonly manuscript.
deliver around 20 to 25% of fines, though sandstone quarries
create up to 35% of fines, as given by Manning 2004). Declarations 
The aggregates obtained from the Vertical Shaft Impact
(VSI) crushers are more cubical than the other crushers. Ethics approval  This is a new work and is submitted to the Environ-
mental Science and Pollution Research. The manuscript is prepared as
This shape of the particles obtained from other jaw crush- per ethical standards.
ers is flaky. So, the crushed aggregate from the VSI crusher Consent to participate  Yes
acquires improved particle shape, and it reduces surface Consent for publication  Yes
roughness than the other crushers.
Competing interests  The authors declare no competing interests.
From the experimental work, it is noticed that legiti-
mately prepared M-sand enhances the strength and dura-
bility characteristics of concrete through better bonding
than the river sand (Vijaya and Senthil Selvan 2015). By References
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