1

CHAPTER 1
Earth and Universe
PLANETS
 All the planets around the Sun revolve in Elliptical orbits
 VENUS is often called as the earth's twin because of their similarity in
Size , mass and density
 MARS has some dark patches on its surface
 Jupiter's Surface is made of H, He, CH4
 It has circular light and dark bands
 Temp - -130 C
 Unlike Other planets Uranus revolve around the Sun in a clockwise orbit from E to
W.

EARTH
Evidence of Earth's Sphericity
 Circum navigation of earth
 The First Voyage around the world was by Ferdinand Magellan
 Modern navigation and air routes are based on the assumption that earth is
round

The Circular Horizon

 It widens with increasing altitude
 If earth is flat it would remain same
 Ships visibility

Sunrise and Sunset

 If earth were flat the Whole world would see Sunrise and Sunset at same time
 Shadow cast by Earth on moon during LUNAR Eclipse
 Planetary Bodies are Spherical
 Driving poles on level ground, Aerial Photographs

DAY and NIGHT

 As Sun rotates from W to E every part of it will be brought under
the Sun at some time

EARTH's Revolution
 Varying length of Day and Night
 The axis of Earth is inclined to the plane of ecliptic (the plane of earth's orbit
2

Around the sun) at an angle of 66.5

 It gives rise to different seasons and varying length of day and night
 If axis was perpendicular to this plane ALL parts of Earth would have
equal days And night at all times of the year

Reality
In N hemisphere in Winter
 As we go N, the hours of darkness steadily increases
 At the Arctic the Sun never rises and there is darkness for whole day in dec 22
 Beyond the Arctic the number of Days with Complete darkness
increases till N pole where half the year will have darkness

In Summer
 The daylight increases as we go poleward
 At the Arctic the Sun never sets on June 21 and there is complete 24 hrs daylight
 Beyond this the days of light increases
 Beyond Arctic the region is known as land of midnight Sun

What about Equator?

 Does it always have 12 hr day and 12 night?
 The Altitude of Midday Sun?
 The earth's revolution around the SUN with inclined axis changes
the apparent altitude of Sun
 The Sun is Vertically Overhead over Equator at 2 Days during Equinoxes
 21 march and Sept
 After March Equinox the Sun appears to move North, on 21 june it
reached TO cancer
 The N hemisphere will have it s Longest day and Shortest night

Seasons
 Beyond Tropics the region is marked by distinct seasonal changes - 4 seasons
 Within the tropics as the mid day sun varies very little from its
Vertical Position at noon daily, the four seasons are almost
indistinguishable
 Days and Nights are almost equal all the year round
 Seasonal Changes and their effect on temperature
 In Summer the Sun is Higher in the sky than in Winter
 Days are longer than Nights in Summer and more heat is received over
the longer daylight
 Nights are shorter and less heat is lost
 There is net gain of heat in Summer and temp rises, in Winter it loses
3

DAWN and TWILIGHT

 DAWN - period between sunrise and daylight
 Caused due to diffused rays
 Since the Sun rises and sets in a VERTICAL PATH at
the Equator the period during which refracted light is
received is short
 In Temperate latitude the sun rises and sets in a Oblique path and
the period of refracted light is longer

LATITUDE and LONGITUDE


Latitude is the angular distance of a point on the earth's surface
measured from the centre of the Earth

Longitude is the angular distance measured in degrees along
the Equator East or West of PM

The degree of longitudes decreases towards poles

There is so much difference in length of degrees outside the
tropics that they are not used for calculating distances

They determine local time in relation to Greenwich time, which is world
time

Longitude and time


EGA

WLS

Going east you will gain time

Which Country has Max time Zones?

The International date Line


A traveler Going east from PM will gain time until he reaches 180
E meridian when he will be 12 hours ahead of GMT

In 180W he will be 12 hrs Behind

So going from East and crossing the line will gain a DAY

E.g. - A man crossing from Asiatic side to American side will gain a day

If he crossed on Friday it will be Thursday in USA

Why the Line is curved?


To prevent the Confusion in day and date in some islands groups
4

 Caused due to diffused rays

 Since the Sun rises and sets in a VERTICAL PATH at the
Equator the period during which refracted light is received
is shorth
 In Temperate latitude the sun rises and sets in a Oblique
path and the period of refracted light is longer

LATITUDE and LONGITUDE


Latitude is the angular distance of a point on the earth's surface
measured from the centre of the Earth

Longitude is the angular distance measured in degrees along
the Equator East or West of PM

The degree of longitudes decreases towards poles

There is so much difference in length of degrees outside the
tropics that they are not used for calculating distances

They determine local time in relation to Greenwich time, which is world
time

Longitude and time


EGA

WLS

Going east you will gain time

Which Country has Max time Zones?
The International date Line

A traveler Going east from PM will gain time until he reaches 180
E meridian when he will be 12 hours ahead of GMT

In 180W he will be 12 hrs Behind

So going from East and crossing the line will gain a DAY

Eg - A man crossing from Asiatic side to American side will gain a day

If he crossed on Friday it will be Thursday in USA
Why the Line is curved?

To prevent the Confusion in day and date in some islands groups

Earth Crust
Classification of
Rocks Igneous
Rocks
 Formed by cooling and solidification of Molten rocks from
beneath the earth crust
 Normally crystalline in nature
 No STRATA, NO Fossils
 When high silica then they are ACIDIC - e.g. Granite
 Basic - high iron, magnesium or aluminum Oxide
PLUTONIC
5


Cooled and solidified slowly so that large and easily
recognizable crystals have been formed

They are formed at some depth

Volcanic rocks

On the earth crust

Crystals are small

Basalt is a common volcanic Extrusive rock

E.g. - Antrim in N Ireland

Deccan plateau in India

Colombia-Snake plate in USA

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
 Non crystalline, contain fossils
 Mechanically formed Sedimentary rocks ::
 Accumulation of material from other rocks
 Sandstone - made from grains often Quartz from Granites
 GRIT- a coarse type of sandstone, when the grains are firmly
cemented together
 Conglomerate- when grains are rounded
 Breccias - when fragments are Angular

Organically Formed
 Formed from remains of living organisms such as corals or shellfish
 Most common formed this way are Calcareous type- limestone and Chalk
 Formed from vegetative matter - Carbonaceous rocks
 From Swamps and forests

Chemically formed
 Rock salt
 Gypsum
 Potash
 Nitrates

METAMORPHIC Rocks
 Clay - Slate
 Limestone- marble
 Sandstone - Quartzite
 Granite- Gneiss
 Shale - Schist
 Coal – Graphite
6

Mountains
 Caledonian - Scandinavia, Scotland , some part above
applacians in N America
 HERCYNIAN - URAL, PENINES, WELSH highland of Britain, Harz
mountain in Germany, APPLACHIANS , high plateau of Siberia and
China
FOLD Mountains

Also called mountains of elevation

Rich in Tin, Copper, Gold and Petroleum

Block Mountain

Tension - Vosges and Black forest of Rhine land

East African rift valley

Compression

Volcanic Mountain

Also called Mountain of Accumulation

Mt FUJI - JAPAN

Mt COTOPAXI - Ecuador

MAYON - Philippines

Merapi - Sumatara

Agung – BALI

RESIDUAL Mt

Mountains of Denudation

Mt MANDNOCK in USA

Dissected plateau - Deccan, Scotland, Scandinavia

PLATEAU
 Tectonic

Deccan

Mesta of Central Iberia

Harz of Germany

Intermountain plateau - Tibetan , Bolivian

 Volcanic Plateau

Antrim plateau of N Ireland

NW Deccan

Colombia Snake plateau
7

 Minerals

African plt - Gold, Diamond, Copper, manganese, Chromium

Brazilian Plateau - Iron and Manganese

Deccan - Coal, Iron, Manganese

Australia - Iron and Gold

Plains
 Structural - Great Plains of USA, Russia
 They are structurally depressed areas of the world
 Depositional - Nile Delta, ganges plains, Hwang Ho
 Outwash plains
 Formed by Glaciers and Ice sheets
 Also known as till plain or drift plain
 Outwash plains are usually Barren lands - Holland , Germany
 But Boulder may be valuable for farming - Mid West of USA

Coastal Plains
 Waves and winds drive beach materials landwards and
deposit them to Form
 Marine swaps
 Mud flats
 Tidal and estuarine lowlands
 Belgium, Netherland, Gulf Coast of USA
 LOESS Plain
 Wind blows finer dust particles
 China
 PAMPAS of Argentina
 Erosion Plains
 Pen plains - Humid areas by rivers, ice , winds
 Pedeplains - in dry and arid areas
 Deflation hollows by Wind
8

Volcanism
Volcanic distribution
 Atlantic Coast have comparitively fewer volcanoes
 Iceland and Azores are active
 Many Dormant or Extinct Volcanoes are there
 MADERIA, ASCENSION, St HELENA, Cape VERDE Islands
 CANARY Islands

Med Region
 Vesuvius, Etna, Stromboli
 HIMLAYAS - No Active Volcano
 Africa - East Africa Rift valley
 KILIMANJARO, KENYA
 Only Active Volcano of West Africa is Mt Cameroon

West Indian Islands

 Mt Pele in Martinique and in St Vincent
9

GEYSERS

All the world's GEYSERS are confined to 3 locations:-
1. Iceland, ROTORA District of North Islands
2. New Zealand
3. Yellowstone Park of USA

Oceans
Relief of the Ocean

The Continental Shelf -

Shallow Platform, width varies

Few miles in N America to over 100 Miles in Western Europe

Maximum in Arctic Siberia- 750 miles

Many regard it as part of Continent itself, submerged due to rise in sea level

Some could have benn formed due to Wave Erosion

Deposition of material brought by Rivers

Their shallowness enables sunlight to pass through water which
encourages the growth of Minute plants and microorganisms

They are rich in PLANKTON on which millions of surface and
bottom feeding fishes Thrive

They are therefore the richest Fishing Ground in the world like
Grand Bank off Newfoundland, North Sea and Sunda Shelf
10


Their limited depth and gentle slope keep out the Cold under
Currents and increase the height of the tides

Most of the World's greatest seaports including Southampton, London,
Hamburg, Rotterdam, Hong-Kong and Singapore are located on
Continental Shelf

Abyssal Plain

Undulating Plain lying 2-3 miles below Sea - level and Covering 2/3 of
the Ocean Floor

Ocean Deeps ::

Most of the deepest Trenches are Not located in the Midst of the Oceans

They are most Often Close to the Continents, particularly in Pacific Ocean

Mariana Trench near Guam island

MINDANA Deep, Tonga Trench, Japanese Trench

Ocean Deposits

Generally speaking we can classify the Oceanic Deposits as Either
Muds, Oozes and Clays.
Muds

These are Erogenous Deposits because they are derived from Land and
are mainly deposited on Continental Shelf

They are also referred to as Blue, Green or Red Mud’s; coloring
depends on Chemical Content
OOZES

They are PELAGIC Deposits because they are derived from Oceans

They are derived from Shelly and Skeletal remains of Marine micro-
organisms with Calcareous or Siliceous part

They have a very fine - Floor like texture and either occur as
Accumulated deposits or float about in Suspension
CLAY

They occur mainly as Red Clay in Deeper parts and are particularly
abundant in pacific Ocean

It is believed to be accumulation of Volcanic Dust Blown out from
Volcanos during Volcanic Eruptions

SALINITY of OCEANS

Most Common matter is Sodium Chloride, 77%

Others - Magnesium, Calcium and Potassium

Due to the free movement of water, the proportion of different
salts remain remarkably Constant

Degree of Concentration of Salt Solution in Ocean Does vary
appreciably in different areas- this is Salinity
11


ISOHALINES - lines Joining places having Equal Degree of Salinity

Avg Salinity of Oceans is 35 ppm, In the Baltic Sea it is 7 whereas
in Dead Sea 330.

Red sea- high Salinity, High Surface Evaporation and Low River Water Addition

In Enclosed Seas , which are the areas of Inland Drainage like
Caspian Sea, the Salinity is very high

Factors affecting Salinity

Rate of Evaporation

The Water Fringing the High Pressure belts of the Trade Wind
Deserts between 20 and 30 N and S have High Salinity

High temperature, So High Evaporation

Low Humidity

The temperate Oceans have Lower Salinity due to low Temperature
and Lower Evaporation
Amount of Fresh Water Added

Salinity is lower than the Average in Equatorial Waters because of
heavy daily rainfall and High RH

BALTIC ARCTIC ANTARCTIC have very low Salinity of less than 32 ppm

Low temp

Fresh Water by Rivers and Ice

Degree of Water Mixing by Currents

In Wholly of partially Enclosed seas such as Caspian Sea, Med Sea,
Red Sea and Persian Gulf

The Waters do not mix freely with the Ocean Waters and they are not
penetrated by ocean Currents

Salinity is > 37 ppm

In Open Oceans where Water Could Mix Freely Salinity tend to be Avg or
even little Lower

The range of Salinity is negligible where there is free mixing of water
by Surface and Sub-Surface Currents

TEMPERATURE

The Annual range of temperature in Any part of the Ocean is much Smaller

Mean Annual temperature of Surface Ocean Water Decreases from
EQ to Mid Latitudes and to 0 at Poles

The Highest water Temperature are Found in Enclosed Seas in the
tropics like Red Sea

In the deepest trenches water never Freezes

Over 80% of the Ocean Water has a temperature of 35-40 F.
12

Movement of Ocean Currents


Ocean Currents are large masses of Surface Water that
Circulate in regular patters around the Oceans
Why they Follow such a pattern?

Planetary Winds- Dominant influence, like Monsoons, Gulf Stream

Temperatures - Cold Water Sinks, Warm Rises

Salinity - Waters of High Salinity are denser

Med Region- great difference in Salinity between Atlantic and Med sea,

Less Saline Atlantic water flows on the surface into the Med, Med water Sinks

Earth Rotation

Coriollis Force

Land - Shape - Indian Ocean

Circulation
Gulf Stream

Hugs America as far as Cape Hatteras, where it is deflected
Eastward under the Combined Influence of Westerlies and Rotation
of Earth

An Area in the Mid Atlantic has no perceptible Current, a large
amount of floating sea-weed gathers here and is called
SARGASSO Sea

South Atlantic Follows the similar pattern, except it is Anti-
Clockwise; the Collection of Sea Weed is not so Decisive? Why?
PACIFIC

KUROSHIO- Warm Water Current, North pacific Drift

OYASHIO - Cold Water Current

They meet off HOKKAIDO

GUANO Birds Droppings, Peruvian Coast

WEATHER
The Climate of Temperate latitude is far more variable then the Tropics
The Climate of British Isles is So Changeable that some people call “Britain
has no Climate, only Weather"
Conversely, the Climate of Egypt is so static that it makes a good deal of
sense when people say “Egypt has no Weather Only Climate"
The Importance of Climate and Weather
Death rates are normally high in Tropical areas and Low in deserts as
Germs are not readily transmitted in region of high temperature and Low
Humidity
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The Elements of Weather and

Climate Rainfall

It is always measured by a metal Instrument called a rain Gauge

It consist of Copper Cylinder with a metal Funnel

An inch of rainfall means that 1 inch of rain would cover Ground
provided none evaporated, drained or percolated away

In case of snow it is melted and that measured, in general 10-12
inch of snow is equivalent to 1 inch of Rainfall

Mean Annual rainfall - Avg of annual rainfall for a long term say 35 years

Pressure

Measured by BAROMETER

Invented by GALILEO and TORICELLI

Any liquid can be used But Mercury is preferred because it is the
heaviest Liquid Known

If Water is used the Corresponding Height would be Much like 35
feet, it could Be done in inches in case of Hg

Measured in millibar (unit of Force)

Mercury itself Expands with temperature so adjustment needed

Corrections needed wrt Altitude, Latitude and temperature

A more Portable type of Barometer is ANEROID Barometer

A vacuumed metal Container

In Airplanes a Modified type of Aneroid Barometer is Used called as
ALTIMETER

It gives the reading in Feet for height attained

So Pilot can tell the Altitude

For a Continuous record of pressre Barogram is used

Humidity

It is a measure of Dampness of Atmosphere

Absolute Humidity - Measured in Grams per Cubic meter

RH - Actual amount / Total it CAN hold

Warm air can hold more
14

Temperature

Thermometer - fitted with Mercury of Alcohol

It works on the Principle that Mercury Expands when heated and
Contracts when Cooled

The Bulb in Embedded in Paraffin Wax so that it is less sensitive to
temperature changes

In Climate Graphs the temperature is of Air!

This is done by Placing Thermometer in a Shelter called
STEVENSON Screen

It carries max and Min thermometers

Max- Mercury

Min - Alcohol

Mean Daily temp - Avg of the Max and Min

Diurnal range - Difference Between Max and Min

If RH is 100% the Air temperature is said to be at Dew Point

HYGROMETER - used to measure RH

It consist of Wet and Dry Thermometer

Dry bulb is the Ordinary thermometer

Wet Bulb is kept wet by a wick that dips in a reservoir, it produces a Cooling
Effect

Wet Bulb therefore always shoes a less reading than Dry Bulb

If both same then RH is 100%

Winds
 Wind Direction - Wind Vane or weather Cock
 Wind Speed - Anemometer
 It can also give direction
 Wind Speed - BEAUFORT Scale

Sunshine
 Sunshine Duration by Sun-Dial
 Places with Equal Sunshine - ISOHELS

Clouds
 The Cloud Cover is Expressed in Eights or OKTAS
 Equal Degree of Cloudiness are joined by ISONEPS
15

Classification of Clouds
 High Clouds

Cirrus - Often Called MARES Tails, Fair Weather

Cirrocumulus - Mackeral Sky

Cirrostratus - HALO, milky Sky
 Medium Clouds

Altocumulus - Wooly, Bumpy Clouds

Altostratus - Watery look, Fibrous structure
 Low Clouds

Stratocumulus - Rough Bumpy Clouds, Great Contrast
between bright and Shaded parts

Stratus - very Low Cloud, Uniformly grey and Thick,
light Drizzle, reduces Visibility

Nimbostratus - Dark, Dull Cloud , Layered, rain Cloud, Rain ,
Snow, Sleet
 With Great Vertical Extent

Cumulus - Rounded Top and Horizontal base

Typical of Humid tropical Areas

FAIR Weather Cloud

CUMULONIMBUS - Overgrown Cumulus Cloud

Cauliflower Top, Spreads like Anvil

Frequently seen in tropical Afternoon

Also referred to as thunder Cloud

Other Elements
 Haze - Smoke and Dust particles in industrial Areas, Refraction of
Light

Reduction of Visibility on regions of Low Humidity < 75%
 Mist - Suspension of Droplets

Unlike haze it occurs in wet Air, when RH > 75%
 Fog - water Condensing on Dust and other Particles

It ONLY occurs in Lower strata of Atmosphere
 In Industrial Area , a thick Smoky Cloud called SMOG
 More Common over Seas than land.
16

Climate

It is because of the Variable Water Content of the Atmosphere that we
have such great Contrast in weather and Climate

If we were to live in a dry atmosphere, absolutely without water, there
would be no weather and not even much Climate

Stratosphere
 Very Cold, Cloudless
 Thin Air
 Without Dust, Smoke or Water Vapor
 Earth Warms the Atmosphere by Conduction, Convection and
Radiation

Land and Water


Land and Water gets heated up more Quickly than Water

Water is Transparent, heat is Absorbed more Slowly, it is always
in Motion , Absorbed heat is Distributed over greater depth and
Area

Opaque land allows greater Absorption but all the heat is
Concentrated in Surface, So land heats and Cools more rapidly

Factors Affecting Climate

1.
Latitude
2.
Altitude
Continental
ity

Warmer Summers, Colder Winters, Greater range of Temperature

Slope , Shelter and Aspect

Natural vegetation and Soil

In Many places due to Canopy light never Reaches ground

During the day, trees lose water through evapotranspiration.

This increases relative humidity, leading to the possible formation of mist
or fog.

Light Soils reflect more heat than darker Soils, may give rise to Temp
Difference

Dry Soils like Sands are very Sensitive to temp changes, whereas
Wet Soils like Clay retain Much Moisture and Warm up and Cool
Down more Slowly
17

Types of PPT

If air is Cooled below Dew point, then PPT

Torrential Downpours may not be useful because the water in so
Intense that it flows away and Not Sink

Orographic rain - New Zealand, India, Assam, Scotland, Wales, Malaysia

On Descending Air Warms up and Compresses

Pressure belts

Doldrums

Low pressure Area, Ascending Air, Intense Heating

Sailors becalmed here

Convergence Zone

STHP :: 30 N & S

Dry and Calm Winds

Horse Latitudes

SPLP

Best developed over Oceans, where temp Difference between
Summer and Winter is negligible

Trade Winds - they Blow from Cooler High Pressure Regions so
have high capacity for Moisture, Picks up and rains in Way

Westerlies

40-60 N & S

Roaring 40s, Freaking 50s

Not all the Western Coast of temperate Regions receives
Westerlies throughout the year

California, Chile, Iberia, S Africa, SW Australia- Only in Winters

Caused by Shifting of Wind Belts between 30-40 N and S

Due to Earth inclination
o
FOHN - N Alps
o
Chinook - N America

Causes, Avalanches, Snow Eater
Cyclones

Typhoons - China Sea

Tropical Cyclone - India

Hurricanes - America

Tornadoes- Guinea lands of West Africa and S USA,
allso called Whirl-Wind

Willy Willy - Australia

Typhoons
18


They occur mainly in the region 6-20 N and S

Most frequent from July to Oct

In Extent Smaller than temperate Cyclone, but much steeper gradient

Hurricanes have Calm rainless Centers

o
Tornadoes: Very Violent tropical and Sub-tropical Cyclones

Most frequent in Spring but can occur at any time

USA - Mississippi valley

Equatorial
 Tropical rainforest do not have Seasons like Spring Summer Autumn
and Winter, seasons are Divided into Wet and Dry Seasons each
lasting about 6 Months

 In Amazon wettest part is between December and May.

19

Countries
Central America

PANAMA

NICARAGUA
20


COSTA RICA

HONDURAS

GUATEMALA

BELIZE

TRICK - GHNCP

DOMINICAN Republic

JAMAICA

USA

SOUTH AMERICA
 BRAZIL
 BOLIVIA
 COLUMBIA
 ECUADOR
 GUINEA
 PERU
 VENEZUELA
 French GUYANA
 SURINAME
21

FEATURES
 The most Outstanding feature is the great Uniformity of
temperature Throughout the year
 There is No Winter
 The Diurnal range and Annual Range of Temperature are Small
 Precipitation is heavy and Well distributed throughout the year
 There is NO Month Without Rain, Distinct Dry season like Savanna
or Tropical Monsoon is absent
 There are 2 period of Maximum Rainfall in Equinox, Minima at Solstices
 As one goes N and S along the Coast the tendency is Towards
Monsoonal Climate with heaviest rain in summer Months (June July
in N and Dec, Jan in S)
 Mornings are Bright and Sunny
 Convectional rain in afternoon
22

 Besides the Convectional rain, Orographic and Cyclonic rain is also

there, caused by Convergence at Doldrums
 Trees :: MAHOGANY, EBONY, CABINET WOODS, DYEWOODS, GREENHEART
 Under the trees grows a wide variety of Ferns, Orchids and lalangs,
Herbaceous Plants which can tolerate Shade
 Tribes ::
 PYGMIES - CONGO
 ORANG ASLI- MALAYSIA
 Tse Tse Fly causes NGANA Disease

Monsoon,
Marine
Distribution

o Between 5-30 N/S

o East Africa , MADAGASCAR, GUINEA COAST,
o East Brazil Central America, West Indies,
Phillipines, NE Auz
FEATURES
 3 Distinct Seasons are Distinguishable
 Cool Dry
 Hot Dry
 Rainy
 Concentrated Rain
 Mean Monthly temp above 18 C

MARINE
23


Along the eastern Coast of the Tropical land

Receives steady rain from Trade Winds

Rainfall is Orographic as well as Convectional

Tendency towards Summer Maximum , but without any Distinct Dry
period

70% is Concentrated in 4 Months, But rain all the year round

It is more favourable to habitation, but it is prone to severe
tropical Cyclone, Hurricane etc

Forest

More open and less Luxirant than Eq

BAMBOO thickets, Teaks etc

Broadleaved Hardwood Trees

MONSOON vegetation is thus the Most Varied- ranging from thick
Forest to Scrublands

Rice is the Most staple Crop

MANILA Hemp, Cotton, Indigo, Sugarcane

Tea and Coffee


Coffee originated in ETHIOPIA and ARABIA, ut Brazil is highest producer

Tea requires Moderate temp, heavy rain , well drained
Highland Slope, thrives well in Highlands

LATOSOLIC Soils, rapidly leached , after one harvest fertility Decreases

Shifting Cultivation names


Ladang- malaysia

Taungaya - Burma

Tamrai- Thailand

Caingin- Phillipines

Humah- Java

Chena- Sri Lanka

Milpa - Africa and Central America
24

SAVANNA
 Distribution
 Features
o
It is a transitional type of Climate Between Equitorial Forest and Deserts
o
It is Confined within the Tropics
o
In S America there are 2 distinct regions of SAVANNA LLANOS of
the Orinico basin and Campos of the Brazilian Highlands
o
It is Characterized by alternate hot rainy and Cool Dry Seasons
o
Annual ppt is less than that of tropical Monsoon
o
Temp- 21-32 C, the range of Temp Increases as One Moves away from EQ
o
Highest Temp do not Coincide with that of the Highest Sun (June) But
Occur Just b4 rain which is April
o
The Clear Sky promotes intense heating During day and radiation loss During
Night
o
This Extreme Diurnal Range of Temp is another characteristick
Feature of SUDAn Climate
o
Trade Winds bring rain to Coastal District, HARMATTEN

VEGETATION

Tall Grass, Short Trees

It is misleading to call it tropical Grassland as Trees are always
present with Luxuriant Grass

The Term parkland or Bushveld describes it best

The trees decrease in Height and Density away from EQ

Trees have Broad Trunks to Survive

Trees are hard , thorny, release Gum Like material

Many trees are Umbrella Shaped, Exposing Only a narrow Part to Winds

In true Savanna Elephant Grass is found, it has Long Roots

HUMANS
 MASAI TRIBES - KENYA, TANZANIA, UGANDA
 HAUSA - Nigerai, Settled Cultivators

Soil- LATERITIC
 Poor soil incapable of Supporting any good Crop
 Leaching problem
25

DESERT
Features

They may be Hot desert as SAHARN Type or temperate as the mid-
latitudes desert like the GOBI

The aridity is mainly due to the Offshore Trade Winds , hence they are
also called as Trade Wind Deserts

The temperate Deserts are called as Rainless Because of their
Interior Location, well away from rain bearing winds

The major hot deserts are located along western Coast between 15-30 N and S

Sahara Biggest , Next is Great Australian Desert

Other Hot deserts are - KALAHARI, ARABIAN THAR etc

in N America the desert extends from Mexico Into USA and is called
by different names like MOHAVE, SONORAN, CALIFORNIAN, MEXICO

In S America Atacama or Peruvian Desert is the Driest of all the desert

The Mid latitude desert are at Considerable distance from the
sea, GOBI, TURKESTAN, PATAGONIA
o PATAGONIA is more due to its Rain Shadow

On the western Coast the presence of Cold Currents gives rise to mists
and fogs by Chilling the on-Coming air

Rainfall Normally occurs as Violent thunderstorms Type, it Bursts Suddenly

There is NO Cold season and avg summer temp is above 50

Why high temp - clear Sky, Intense insolation, Dry Air, Rapid rate of Evaporation

The DIURNAL range of Temperature is very great

Mid Latitude deserts


Aridity is the key Note

The Annual range of Temperature is Much great than Hot desert

Winters are often severe, freezing Lakes and Snow on Highlands

VEGETATION

Dominant vegetation is Xerophytic for Both Type

Intense Evaporation increase the salinity of the Soil

Absence of moisture retards the rate of Decomposition and desert
Soils are very Deficient In HUMUS

The seeds of many species have thick, tough Skins to protect them
While they lie Dormant
26

LIFE in DESERTS

BEDOIUN ARABS- Nomads

BUSHMEN of KALAHARI- Hunters and gatherers

BINDIBU of AUSTRALIA- Hunters and gatherers
o They use Boomerangs and Spears
o They live in WURLIS, simple Shelters made of Branches, Grass

TUAREGS of SAHARA- Nomads

Mining Areas

Gold in Great Aus Desert, KALGOORDIE and COOLGARDIE

Diamonds and Copper in KALAHARI

Sodium Nitrate in Chile

Copper also

CHIQUICAMATA- largest Copper town of the World

Silver in N Mexico

Uranium in UTAH

Copper in NEVADA
27

MEDITERRANEAN
Distribution
o 30-45 N and S
o Basic Cause is Shifting of the Wind belt
o Entirely Confined to Western Part
o BEST developed in CENTRAl CHILE
o CALIFORNIA, S Australia, SW Australia

Climate
o Dry Warm Summer with offshore Trades
 In Summer the prevailing Trade Winds are offshore, Hence NO RAIN
 Prolonged Drought are Common
 At Night there are rapid radiation, but Frost are rare
o Winter Rainfall
 When Westerlies are on Shore
 They Bring Cyclonic rain from Atlantic to Countries Bordering MED
 In Almost all other Climate MAX rain Comes in Summer
 Mean Annual Rain - 25 Inch
 The rain comes in heavy showers and Only a few days with
bright Sunny Periods Between them- another feature
 They are often backed by Mountains ::
 In IBERIA MESSETA and SIERRAS of the Peninsulas are an
Effective Barrier and bring ORO rain, So Portugese is
Much wet than Spain
 The Downpours are often very Torrential, Floods Occur
 Snow rarely occurs in Lowlands and Coast, it is mainly in Highlands
o Bright Sunny Weather with Hot Dry Summer and Mild Winters
 Favourable Climate, transition between Trade Wind Hot deserts
and Cool temperate Maritime Climate in N
 Summers are Warm and Bright and Winters are Mild and
Cool, many tourist come all theyear Round
 Sky is almost Cloudless and Sunshine is always Abundant
 The Combined effect of Onshore Winds and maritime Breezes
keep the T Down
 They are famous for their Health and pleasure resorts

LOCAL WINDS
 SIROCCO
 Hot, Dry, Dusty Wind, originates from SAHARA
 Most frequent in Spring
28

 It Blows to N
 Harms Vines
 Local names :: CHIHLI- Tunisia, GHIBLI- Libya,
Leveche – Spain, Khamsin - Egypt and Malta, GHARBI
- Adriatic and Aegean.
 Causes Blood rain

MISTRAL
 It is a Cold Wind From N, rushing Down RHONE Valley
 Velocity intensified by Funneling effect in the Valley between
ALPS and Central MASSIF
 Most Frequent in Winters
 A similar Wind along then ADRIATIC Coast is called BORA
 TRAMINTANA and GREGALE are Other Winds

VEGETATION

Trees with small Broad leaves are Widely spaced and never tall

There are many Branches, they are Short and Carry few leaves

The ABSENCE of SHADE is a Distinct feature of MED

Growth is Slow in the Cooller and Wetter Season, Even though
More Rain Comes in Winter

Growth is thus almost restricted to Autumn and Spring when the T is
Higher and Moisture is Just Sufficient

In many ways the vegetation is similar to the adjacent
deserts and SAVANNAS

It is XEROPHYTIC

Types

MED EVERGREEN
1.
They are Open Woodlands with Evergreen OAKS of
which Cork OAKS of Spain and Portugal are Well
Known
2.
The trees are normally low, even Stunted, massive Trunks,
Deeply Fissured Barks, Small Leathery leaves and a wide
spreading Root System
3.
In AUS the EUCAPLYPTUS Forest replaces the Evergreen OAKS
4.
JARRAH and KARRI trees are Most imp
5.
The GIANT SEQUIA or REDWOOD is typical of California

Evergreen CONIFEROUS TREES
1.
They include avrious Kind of PINES, FIRS, CEDARS, CYPRESSES
which have Evevrgreen Needle Shaped Leaves and Tall Straight
trunks

MED Bushes and Shrubs
29

1.
Most Prominent Type Of med Veg
2.
Summers are So dry that Forest gives way to Short
Evergreen Bushes
3.
Species - LAUREL, MYRTEL, LAVENDER, ROSEMARY, ARBUTUS
Local Names:-
4.

1.
MAQUIS- S France
2.
MACCHIA - Italy
3.
CHAPARRAL - California
4.
MALLEE SCRUB - AUS
5.
GARRIGUE - Limestone uplands
GRASS
5.
Conditions do Not Suit Grass, as the Rain Comes in Winters
when the Growth is slow
6.
They are Not Suitable For Animals, it causes Soil Erosion too
7.
So these areas are Net Animal products Importers

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

ORCHARDS ::

They are also known as World's Orchards lands

A Wide range of Citrus Fruits like Orange, Lemons are Grown

The fruit trees have long Roots

Oranges names ::
1.
SUNKIST- California
2.
Seville - Spain
3.
JAFFA - Israel
4.
Tangerine- Tangiers
5.
Mandarian - China, Japan

MED lands account for 70% fo World Export of Citrus Fruits

The OLIVE TREE is probably the most typical of all
the MED Cultivated vegetation
1.
It is so hardy that it can survive in Limestone Soils too

Many Nut Trees like WALNUT, ALMONDS etc are also grown

CROPS ::

CEREALS are Most imp

Wheat is imp, Winter Wheat

BARLEY is Next

Summer Crops are raised ONLY when irrigation is available

Water comes mainlky from Snow Melting of highlands

Lowlands are Intensively Cultivated and Hill Slopes are terraced

In Some Areas like Italy, Ebro basin Rice is also Grown

In more fertile Areas VEG are grown
30


A Little Cotton and Tobacco are also grown

TRANSHUMANCE is also Widely Practised

WINE

The Long Sunny Summers allow the Grapes to Ripen

It account for 75% of the World Wine

Spain, Portugal, france, Italy, Wine is the National Drink

Wine Quality is decided by aNumber of factors like Soil,
Climate, Method, Extent of Fermentation

Names:-
1.
SHERRY - Spain
2.
Port Wine - Portugal
3.
CHIANTI ASTI and MARSALA - Italy
4.
CHAMPAGNE- France
5.
BORDEAUX- GARONNE Basin
6.
BURGUINDY - Rhone- Saone valley

Grapes name:-
1.
CURRANTS - Levantine Grapes
2.
Raisins - California
3.
Sultanas - Asia Minor

STEPPE
 Also called as Temperate Continental
 Distribution
 They are Practically Treeless
 In Asia they Extends from Shore of Black sea to Foothills of ALTAI
Mountains
 Isolated section are PUSTAZ in HUNGARY and MANCHURIA in China
Names:-
 Manchuria
 Steppe
 Pustaz
 Prairies
 Pampas
 Veld
 Downs
 Caterbury Grasslands
31

Climate
 Continental Climate With Extremes of T, Winters are very Cold
 In S hemisphere the Climate is never Severe
 The annual range of T is great
 It is really hot for its latitude
 Avg rain is about 20 inches
 Max rain from Convection when Interiors are heated
 Mostly Summer Rain
 In S the avg rain is > 20 inches
 There are 3 months , June, July August without rain in Ptoria
 Like Fohn in Swiz Chinook also Blows and Melts

 VEGETATION
 They are practically treeless and the grasses are Much shorter
 In Asia the Short Steppe Grass prevails, they are not only Short But Sparse
 They are less suitable for arable farming and are used for Some form
of ranching as in USA
 The steppe grass lie Dormant throughout Drought and then Sprung
back to life again
 It dries in Summers, dies in Autumn with Only roots surviving, back to
life in rain, full form in Spring
 Trees are Scanty because of Scanty rainfall, long droughts , Severe
Winters
 Polewards an Increase in ppt give rise to Transitional Zone of
wooded Steppes where some Conifers are Found
32

 ECONOMIC Development
o
They were once home to Horses, Bison of the Semi Nomadic
people like KIRGHIZ
o
Red Indians of N America are Mostly Hunters
o
The Tufted grass has been Replaced by more Nutritious
Lucrene or Alfa-alfa grass for cattle and Sheep rearing
o
Nomadic Herding - KIRGHIZ ( TARTARS) , KAZAKHS, KALMUK

WHEAT Cultivation

Cool moist Spring Stimulates early growth,
lightening Showers in the ripening period help
to SWELL

The levelness help the Ploughing and Harvesting an Easy job

LOW YIELD, due to less attention to small field, Yield
Per man is High
o
3 quarter of the World Wheat is Winter Wheat, It is hard wheat with
Low Moisture Content, best for Bread and trade

Pole ward where the T are too low for the Wheat to Survive, Spring
Wheat is grown; it is Soft Wheat more suitable for Making cake,
Biscuits etc

In warmer Wetter region MAIZE is Grown

Pastoral Farming

With the development of Refrigerated ships they
became an Imp pastoral regions

The semi wild cattle of PAMPAS were either crossed with or
replaced by the imported Pedigree Stock from Europe
33

Warm Temperate Eastern Margin

Distribution
 In the eastern Margins of the Continents just outside the Tropics
 It has Comparatively MORE rainfall than the Med Climate in
the same Latitude, Coming mainly in Summer
 It is in fact Climate of most part of China, a Modified form of
Monsoon Climate (China Type)
 In Gulf it is Gulf Climate and in S it is Natal Type
South

New South Wales with Eucalyptus Forest In Natal where cane Sugar
Thrives

In the Maize belt of the Parana-Paraguay-Uruguay Basin

Region is influenced by Trade Winds all the year round,
without any Monsoon Variation

CLIMATE
 It is Typified by Warm MOIST Summer and Cool DRY Winter
 Mean monthly Temp between 40F and 78F and has strong Maritime
Influence
 Occasionally the Cold Wind from Interiors may bring down the T to freezing
point
 Though Frost are rare they Occur Occasionally in Colder Interior, for
most of the time it is pleasantly Warm
 The RH can be very high in Summers and tiring too Rainfall is more than
Moderate, 25-60 inches
 A wide range of Crops can be Grown, Densely populated Regions
 Rainfall is UNIFORMLY Distributed throughout the Year, Except in
the interior of China where there is a Distinct Dry Season
 Rainfall is Either Orographic, Convectional or From Depressions in
prolonged Showers in Winters

CHINA TYPE

Central and N China Including S Japan

The great mountaneous region induces great Pressure
changes between Summer and Winter

Intense heating sets up Low Pressure region in Summers
and Tropical Pacific Air Stream is drawn in as SE Monsoon

Wettest months are Summers, there is no Burst like India,
India mein more Rain

In Winters the Continental Polar air Stream Flows Outward as
the NW Monsoon, there is little rain but considerable Snow
on windward Slope
34


There is a Great Annual T range

Another Feature is the Occurrence of TYPHOONS, most
Frequent in late Summers from July to Sept
GULF TYPE

It is similar to China Type Except that Monsoonal
Character is less developed

There is NO COMPLETE seasonal reversal, for the pressure
Gradient between mainland America and Atlantic Ocean
is less

Narrow range of annual T Variation

Summers are warm and it rarely rains in Winters, good Holiday
resorts

Annual rainfall is Heavy, SUMMER maximum, amount of rain
increased by Hurricanes

There is NO DISTINCT Dry period as in Monsoon lands

Abundant Moisture has stimulated Extensive cultivation of
Cotton and Maize

TORNADOES, HURRICANES
NATAL
 There are 3 distinct type located just outsie the TOC
 The narrow continents and the dominance of Maritime influence
Eliminate the Monsoonal Elements which characterize the
Corresponding elements of N
 More evenly distributed RAINFALL
 Annual Ppt of 48 inches
 Passage of Depression across the S edges of the Warm Temperate
Eastern Margins results in a slight Winter or Autumn Maximum
 Rain comes in Prolonged Showers, much of the water seaps in the ground
and there is lilltle Run-off
 They are some of the best settled parts of S
 Small Annual T range
 They also have local Violent Storms which though not as Severe as N
but are Quite Significant
 The S Burster a Violent Cold Wind Blowing along the coast of New South
Wales, most frequent in Summer and Spring
 The corresponding Cold Wind in Argentina and Uruguay is the Pampero
which is often accompanied by Thunder and Lightning and rain
 In SE Africa, a hot Dry wind called BERG from interiors, like Chinook or
FOHN, cause High T and Oppressive Weather

VEGETATION
o
Due to good rain it has LUXURIANT Vegetation, rainfall heavy
than Western Margins
35

o
On the Highlands Conifers are Found like Pines Cypresses
o
A rich variety like Bamboo, Grass, Ferns, Lianas, Palms are found
o
Rainfall all the year makes it look green all the year
o
It is home to a number of Valuable Timber Species ::
o
In E Australia - EUCALYPTUS
o
The Australian Alps of Victoria and Blue Mountains of New S Wales
have a great reserve of Temperate Euca Forest
o
In SE Brazil and NE Argentina valuable warm temperate Timbers
such as PARANA Pine, QUEBRACHO ( Axe-breaker tree, hardwood)
and Wild YERBATA Mate Trees (Tea)
o
In NATAL warm Mozambique Currents increases ppt and many
species of Palm trees Thrives
o
The highlands yield Extensive Chestnut, Ironwood, Blackwood
o
Commercial Cultivation of Wattle Trees for tanning Extracts
o
Forest of China and S Japan- Oak, Camphor, Camelia, Magnolia
o
Destroyed by Deforestation and Population pressure
o
Gulf - lowland Deciduous Forest
o
Walnut, Oak, Hickory and Maple
o
Pines in more sandy regions

ECONOMY
 They are the most Productive parts of the Middle latitudes
 Adequate rain, no Prolonged Drought and Cold season is Warm
enough for most Species to Survive
 Hills are terraced , fields are irrigated and agri is extended to its
limits, most intensively Tilled
 Rice, tea, Mulberry in China, Cane Sugar in Natal and Coffee in S
America and Dairying in New South Wales and Victoria

CHINA

Rice Dominant, Wet padi

Fertile moisture retentive Alluvial Soils

Land has been tilled for generations , yet there is little Loss of Fertility

Muddy water constantly brings new Soils

Organic waste is used to Enrich Soils

Sericulture is Declining
GULF

Lack of population pressure and Urge to Export make Rice less
favourable and maize and Cotton Dominates

Rice is Grown only in few Areas of MISSISSIP Delta
36

CORN

The Humid air, Sunny Summer and Heavy Showers suit the Crop
Well

From Gulf Coast to Great Lakes

Most of the Corn is used for fattening animals

Very little Corn is consumed as staple food in America,
though it Originated in America

It has high Yield than Wheat or Other Cereals

Cotton

Black are Brought to Work in Cotton Fields

Gulf's long Hot Growing season with 200 frost free days and
moderately High T

Like most Fibres Cotton needs AMPLE rain and an
annual ppt of 40 inches is Needed

An adequate moisture supply coming from frequent light
showers with bright Sunshine in between gives higher
Yield

The best cotton comes from maritime districts where
Sea Breeze and Warming Effect of the Oceans is most
strongly felt

BOLL WORM Problem, it Shifted Cotton belts Westward

TOBACCO

It is a native Crop of America,

Most famous is VIRGINIA Tobacco

Humid Atmosphere, warm climate, well drained soils
37

NATAL TYPE

Warm moist summers and frost free Winters not only supports
many crops but also animals

In NATAL Cane Sugar is Dominant , followed by Cotton and
Tobacco in Interior

MAIZE is Extensively cultivated, used as both food and Fodder,
Yield is low than America

In S America there is Much grasslands on which Sheep and Cattle
can thrive, the mild Winters mean that they can be Kept out all
year

In N Brazil where Rain increases slightly, YERBA MATE and
Lumbering of Parana Pine is done

In E Australia Moist trade winds bring heavy rainfall and these
are Thickly Wooded

Giant EUCALYPTUS Trees

New S Wales was infact the earliest part to be Colonised

Milk Butter Cotton Can Sugar Cheese etc

Cool Temperate Western Margin or British

DISTRIBUTION

They are under the permanent influence of Westerlies All the year Round

They are also the region of Much Cyclonic Activity typical of Britain
and are thus said to Experience British Type of Climate

NW France + Belgium + Netherlands + Denmark + Western
Norway + NW Iberia

There is so much Oceanic Influence that it is sometime referred to
as the NW European Maritime Climate

In N America it is confined to Coastal areas of British Colombia
due to High Rockies

In S it is Experienced by S Chile, Tasmania, New Zealand particularly in S
Island
38

Climate

The mean annual T are between 40 and 60F

Low annual T Range

Heat Waves are a Welcome Feature

The climate is ideal for Max Comfort and Mental Alertness

Winters are abnormally Mild and no station receives T below Freezing
Point due to N Atlantic Drift

Night FROST do Occur and Snow in Winters too

Sometimes cold spells due to Polar Continental air may hit it

The climate of maritime as a whole may be described as EQUABLE

In S it is even more EQUABLE like in Hobart , Tasmania, S Chile,
New Zealand, narrow T Range
 These are the FAVORED ISLES
PPT

Adequate Rain throughout the year with a tendency towards Winter
or Autumn Max from Cyclonic Sources

Since the rain bearing winds come from West Western Margins
have highest Rainfall

Relief also plays a Major Role like Caterbury Plains are in Rain Shadow Area

SEASONS

As in other Temperate Regions it has 4 Distinct Seasons

Light Snowfalls in Winter months for short duration in lowlands
and heavy in highlands like Scandinavian , Rockies

SPRING is the driest and most refreshing season when people
emerge from Depressing Winter

This 4 distinct seasons is CONSPICOUSLY Absent in Tropics

NATURAL VEGETATION

The natural vegetation is deciduous Forest, trees shed their
leaves in Cold Season for protecting themselves against
Winters and Snow

Shedding Begins in AUTUMN, the FALL Season

The trees have typical rounded outlines with thick trunks and out-
spreading Branches that yield Valuable temperate Hardwood
39


Species - OAK, Elm, Ash, Birch, Beech, Poplar, Horn bean,
Willows, Alder, Aspean, Chestnut, Maple, Lime

Trees occur in pure strands and have Greater Lumbering Value

Open nature Sparse Undergrowth

In TASMANIA Temperate EUCLAPYTUS are also Extensively Felled

In highlands like SCANDINIVIA, ROCKIES, ANDES and S Alps of New
Zealand, the deciduous trees are replaced by Conifers

ECONOMICS

Net Importer of Wheat, Industrially advanced

Fishing is Imp in Britain, Norway and British Colombia

Market Gardening ::
 All NE European Countries are Highly Industrialized, densely
populated, so Market Gardening
 INTENSIVE Farming
 TRUCK farming as the Crops are perishable
 HORTICULTURE

Mixed farming
 Farmers practice both arable and pastoral farming
 The proportion of crops and animals depends on soil, price of
cereals and Demand
 Term most aptly applied
 Amongst cereals Wheat is the most Extensively Grown, once they used to
be Exporters but due to Competition from New World they Shifted to
others
 The next imp Crop is Barley
 It is used for Beer making or Whisky
 It is also used as Fodder
 Oats and Barley are Grown in Crop Rotation with a leguminous
Crops and a root Crop (Turnip or beet Sugar)
 Most imp animal is Cattle, they are used for Dairying as well as Beef
 Sheeps are kept for both Wool and Mutton
 It is well developed in some Parts of British type of Climate
 Britain is home to some of the best known Breeds like
Lincons, South Downs
 In Britain major Sheep areas are Pennines, Scottish
Highland, Welsh Mountains and Scarplands of SE England
 In S newzealnd is the main Country, it has only 4% of
the World's Sheep Population and account for 2/3 of
World's Mutton Export
 In Tasmania and S Chile Sheep rearing has always
been a Chief Occupation
40

Other Activities

Potatoes Dominate the scene, it is a Staple food
supplementing wheat and Bread

It is also used as Fodder and Industrial Alcohol

Normally a Cooler and N Latitude is preferred, as in
South Blight Virus Attacks

It was introduced by Spanish Conquerors from Chile and Peru

BEET Sugar

The need for it was felt during NAPOLEANIC Wars

The first BEET Sugar Factory was Established in
Europe in 1801

The higher Yield is Obtained when Autumn is both
Dry and Sunny

Beet is crushed for Sugar and Green tops are used as Fodder
41

Cool Temperate Continental Siberian

Distribution
 It is Experienced Only in N Hemisphere where the Continents
have a high East- West Spread, on the poleward side it merges
into Arctic Tundra,
S in Steppes
 The predominant vegetation is Siberian or Sub-Arctic is Evergreen
Coniferous Forest
 The greatest Single Stretch is TAIGA in Siberia
 There are small amount of Conifers due to high altitude in
Germany, Poland, Swiz, Austria and other Europe
 In America it stretches from Alaska across Canada into Labrador
and is found on the High Rocky Mountains Further South
 It is absent in S due to Narrowness of the Continent

Climate
 It is characterized by Bitterly Cold Winter of Long Duration and a
Cool Brief Summer
 Spring and Autumn are merely Brief transitional periods
 Large Annual range of T, especially in interiors
 The Extremes of T in Siberia are so great that it is Often referred to
as the Cold Pole of the Earth
 In N America the extremes are less Severe because of the lesser
Extent of the Continent
 Frost Occur as Early as August and by Sept lakes and ponds are
already Ice- bound
 All Over Russia nearly all the rivers are Frozen
 Occasionally Cold N polar Winds like Blizzard of Canada and
Buran of Eurasia blow Violently, Powderly Snowflakes are
Blown around and Visibility is greately Reduced.

PPT
 Annual ppt is not high, 15-20 inch
 It is well distributed throughout the year and with a Summer
Maximum from Convectional Rain when the Continental Interiors
are heated
T
 is low RH is High, so small amount of ppt is adequate for Conifers to grow
 The total amount of ppt is determined by factors such as
Altitude, latitude, Proximity to Poles, amount of Exposure to
Westerly’s (West), temperate Monsoon (East) and the Cyclones
42

Permanent Snowfields like those of Himalayas or Alps are absent,

because it is melted with the coming of Summer
 Frozen Rivers are Thawed with the rise in Water level and
Extensive Floods Occur
 Thick Mantle of Snow in winters is actually a Blessing, as
being a poor Conductor of Heat, it saves Soil!
 When the ground is Ploughed and leached, the acidic
PODZOLS Soil is improved and the Continental interiors
may support some Agri.

NATURAL VEG
 The Conifers of N America and Eurasia are the richest Sources of
Softwood for use
 The world's greatest Softwood Producers are USSR , USA,
Canada and Fenoscandian countries ( Finland, Norway,
Sweden)
 In Wood Pulp USA is the leader, in Newsprint Canada
 There are 4 major Species of Conifers
 Pine
 Fir
 Spruce
 Larch
 They Exist in Pure Strands

CONIFERS
 They are more uniform and grow Straight and tall
 Almost ALL conifers are Evergreen
 There is No annual replacement of new leaves as in
Deciduous Trees, the same leaf remains on the tree for 5
years
 Food is stored in the trunk and the Bark is thick to Protect the Trunk
 They are Conical and Branches are Sloped Down
 Leaves are Small , thick, Leathery and needle Shaped
to reduce Surface Area
 There is Little Undergrowth -
 Podzolic Soils are Excessively leached and very Acidic
 Little Humus
 Rate of decompositions low
 Absence of Direct Sunlight and low Duration of Summers
43

 But where the trees are widely Spaced near the tree line, Heath
and Tundra Plants Cover the intervening ground
 They are also found in other Climatic regions where Altitude Reduces T
 They are the Dominant Trees of Mountains in temperate and Tropical
areas

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
 BARLEY, Oat, Rye
 Potato
 Many of the SAMOYEDS and YAKUTS of Siberia and Some
Canadians Are Engaged in hunting, trapping and Fishing

Trapping
 Fur Bearing Animals
 Silver Fox, Muskat, Minks
 Fur Farms are Developed

LUMBERING
 Most imp Occupation of Siberian Type of Climate
 Saw milling
 Paper and Pulp Industry
 It is used as a Fuel too ( very small amount unlike
Hardwood which is 2/3 ), more value for other purposes
 As an industrial raw Material, Matches in Sweden, Furniture, Rayon,
Turpentine, Varnishes, paints, Dyes, Wood-Alcohols,
Cosmetics, Disinfectants

ARCTIC
DISTRIBUTION

It is found mainly N of Arctic Circle

The ice caps are confined to Greenland and to the
Highlands of tehse regions

The Lowlands with a Few months ice-free have Tundra vegetation

In the S ANTARTICA is the single greatest Stretch of
Ice , 10000 Feet deep too

Climate
 Very Low mean Annual T, Not more than 4 Months have a T
above Freezing Point.
 The T remain low because the Sun remains Low in the sky and much
Of the Warmth of its faint rays is either reflected by the ground Snow or
used up
44

in Melting of Ice, it has little power to raise the T

 Water in the Soil is Frozen to great Depth and the Summer
heat can Only thaw upper 6 inches
 The Ground remains Frozen for all but 4 months
 Frost occur Any time and Blizzards are frequent

PPT
 It is mainly Snow
 Light Ppt as 10-12 inch of Sniw makes 1 inch of rain
 Convectional rain is generally absent
 There is Normally a Summer Maximum and the ppt is then in the
form of rain or Sleet
 In regions where Winds blow out of large Anti-cyclones developed over
ice- caps, rain comes in Summer
 But in Coastal areas where the Cyclones are frequent there is
a Tendency Towards Winter Max When Cyclones are best
developed

VEG
 Mosses Lichens Sedges
 Drainage is poor and Sub-soil permanently Frozen
 Ponds , Marshes and Waterlogged areas are Found
 In the more Sheltered spots, Stunted Birches, Dwarf Willows and
Undersized Alders are found
 In coastal areas Some Hardy Grasses and REINDEER moss are
found, in Brief Summers Berry-bearing Bushes are found
 In Summers Birds and Animals Migrate to it like Wolves, Foxes etc

HUMANS
 In Greenland Alaska and Canada live Eskimos, They hunt
CARIBOU (reindeer)
 Slowly modernization taking place
 In the Eurasian Tundra -
 Lapps of Finland and Scandinivia
 Samyoeds of Siberia
 Yakuts from lena
 Koryaks and Chukchi from NE Asia

Importance
 Gold in Alaska, Nickel in USSR, Petroleum in Alaska
 Copper in Canada, Coal in Spitsberg
 Iron Ore in Sweden
45

Cool temperate Eastern, Laurential

DISTRIBUTION
 It is an Intermediate type between British and Siberian type
 It has features of Both maritime and Continental
 It is found Only in 2 regions
 New Found land Region - America
 ASIA
 N China
 Eastern Siberia
 Manchuria
 Korea
 N japan
 In S it is Absent

Climate

It has Cold Dry Winters and Warm Wet Summers

Winter T can be below Freezing Point, Summers are Warm as the
Tropics

Though rain falls throughout the year there is a Distinct
Summer maximum from Easterly Winds from the Oceans
Annual ppt 30-60 inches

N AMERICA
 The most remarkable feature is its Uniformity in ppt
with a late Summer Max, No month is really dry
 The Uniformity is largely due to Atlantic Influence and
that of great Lakes
 The Warm Gulf Stream increases the Moisture Content
of Easterly Winds from open Atlantic
 The prevailing Westerlies carry Depression from Great
lakes to New Found land
 Meeting of Gulf Stream and Labrador causes dense Mist and
Fog, New Found land Experiences more Drizzle than any
other part of the World
 T are high in Summers for its latitude
 Prolonged heat waves causes Discomfort and frustation in
Cities like New York
 In Winter Snow Falls
 ASIA
 The rain distribution is far less Uniform
 Winters are very Cold and Dry while Summers are
Warm and Exceptionally warm and Wet
 The rainfall regime is similar to Tropical Monsoons, wher
the whole Year rain is concentrated in just 4 months
 Due to interior Heating of China , Moisture laden Winds
from Sea of Japan Blows in as SE monsoon
 The dry wind that blows out in Winters deposit LOESS in HWANG HO
 Much of the Winter ppt in N China, Japan, Hokkaido
is in the Form of Snow

JAPAN
 It is modified by its Insularity and also by meeting of Warm
and Cold Currents
 It receives rain from both SE Monsoon and NE Monsoon
 The rainfall is more evenly distributed , one Maxima in June
known as Plume Rain, and the other in Sept known as
Typhoon rain
 Japan is Known as the second new Found land
 Fishing replaces Agri as Main Occupation, 80% land is Non-agri
 The Climate has very long Cold Winter and a Big Annual range
of T, more than 55F.

VEGETATION
 It is known as Cool Temperate Forest
 Generally Forest tend to be Conifers N of 50 latitude
 The increase in L and severity of Winter Excludes forest
that are not Suitable for Cold Conditions
 In Asiatic Regions Conifers are a Continuation of Siberian Taiga
 South of 50N latitude gives way to Deciduous Forest-
Oak, Beech, Maple, Birch
 These are fairly Open
 Rapid growth of Ferns and other temperate Undergrowth
 Pure Stands trees
 Both Food and Cash Crops

ECONOMY
 Lumbering more imp
 Agri Less Imp due to Severe Weather
 Potatoes Thrive over Large areas of PODZOLS
 Oats , Barley can be Sown
 In the Asiatic Regions, SOYABEANS, GROUNDNUT, Rape Seeds,
Mulberry
  In N American Region farmers are Engaged in Dairy
farming, Hay Cultivation, Fruits
 NOVA Scotia is World Renowed for Apples

Fishing
Newfoundland
 World's greatest Fishing ground
 Shallow waters led to proper Sunlight penetration and rich
growth of Planktons on which Fishes thrive
 The gentle Continental Shelves stretches for over 200 NM
 Both PELAGIC Fish (near the coast) and Demersal Fish ( near the
Bottom ) are found
 The Chief fish caught is COD
 Other fishes - MACKERAL, HERRING, HAKE, HADDOCK
 Crabs, Lobsters , Shrimps
 Fresh water Fishes in St Lawrence river and Great lakes like
 SALMON, Trout, EEL, Sturgeons
 Overfishing

ASIA

Scarcity of meat and Religious reasons Popularized Fishes

Seaweed Cultivation by Japan, used as Food,
fertilizer and Chemical

Pearl Culture of Japan

Continental Shelves around Japan are rich in Palnktons

Indented Coastline Provides sheltered Fishing Ports

Tech use

SELVAS, CAMPOS, LLANOS, PAMPAS

 Selvas - Equatorial Rain forest, Amazon
 Campos- North of Amazon, SAVANNA Type
 LLANOS - South of Amazon, SAVANNA Type
 PAMPAS - South of LLANOS, warm climate with rain throughout the
year,
 Central Argentina
 GRAN CHACO - northern Argentina and Western Paraguay
 Dry Winters, Heavy Summer Rain
 Thick forest

a. CHAGOS or Diego Garcia - British
b. MANNAR ISLANDS - Sri Lanka
c. COCOS ISLANDS - Myanmar
d. RE-UNION- French