CONDUITS

INTRODUCTION
The design of conduits or channel is one of the three great categories of
problems encountered in hydraulic engineering practice. This consists in
determining the linear dimensions of the conduit for given parameters such
as discharge Q, energy slope J, absolute roughness which characterizes the
state of the inner wall of the conduit and kinematic viscosity. Taking for
example the case of circular pipe, the diameter D is related to these
parameters by the following functional relationship (Q J, , , ) . The
absolute roughness and the kinematic viscosity are measured in practice
and rarely cause any particular problem. It is particularly important to
consider the kinematic viscosity to make the solution of the problem of
design covering the entire domain of turbulent flow. When the conduit is
characterized by more than one linear dimension, one of them must be
among the given data of the problem, such is the case of the pressurized
vaulted rectangular conduit which is characterized by two linear
dimensions, namely the height of the conduit and the diameter of the vault.
Design of conduits problem is often solved using the three basic
relationships of turbulent flow, namely Darcy-Weisbach, Colebrook-White
and Reynolds number
The difficulty lies in assessing the friction factor since the Colebrook-
White relationship is implicit. Moreover, the three basic equations of
turbulent flow do not allow expressing the geometric element of the
conduit in an explicit form. The solution involves many trials and tedious
computations or laborious graphical solutions. The implicitness of the
solution is found in the entirety of the geometric profiles known in
practice. For pipe-flow problem, some authors have proposed approximate
relation or graphical solution for the diameter of the pipe. Referring to the
literature, one can find studies on the circular pipe but no study is
published on pressurized rectangular shaped conduit with triangular bottom
despite its extensive use in practice as water supply lines, sanitary sewers,
culverts and storm drains or penstocks as well. In addition to its practical
relevance, it is one of the rare geometric profiles whose design problem
does not require the knowledge of one of the three linear dimensions that
characterize it. Moreover, the study will show that this type of geometric
profile induced interesting mathematical equations and remarkable
hydraulic conclusions. This study was initiated to enrich the literature by
studying this type of conduit under pressurized condition of the flow. The
design problem is tackled with a new theoretical approach known as the
referential Rough Model Method (RMM) which has been proven in the
recent past. Our attention is focussed on the computation of the three linear
dimensions of the conduit using the strict minimum of data. The three
basic equations of turbulent flow are applied to a rough conduit model
characterized by an arbitrarily assigned relative roughness value. Firstly,
the method is applied to a rough model of the same shape in order to
establish the equations governing its geometric and hydraulic
characteristics. These equations are then secondly used to easily deduce the
required linear dimensions of the current conduit by introducing a non-
dimensional correction factor. Resulting RMM equations are not only
explicit but also cover the entire domain of Moody diagram, corresponding
to Reynolds number R2300 and relative roughness varying in the wide
range.
Unlike to current methods, the application of the MMR for designing
conduits or channels does not require the introduction of the friction
coefficient as defined by Colebrook-White neither Chezy’s coefficient nor
Manning’s roughness coefficient which are determined with great
difficulty. This is the major advantage of the method. The three basic
equations of turbulent flow are then very easy to handle.

A pressure conduit (such as a penstock) is a pipe which runs under

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 flowing through them is not exposed anywhere and hence, there are no
chances or very less chances of its getting polluted. Hence, these pressure
conduits are preferably used for city water supplies. Since the water wasted
in percolation, evaporation, etc.-is also saved, when water is carried
through these conduits, they are preferably used when water is scarce. The
flow of water through conduit pipes is generally turbulent, and hence, it
will be considered so, while dealing with the hydraulics of flow through
such pipes.
Hydraulics of Flow and Discharging Capacities of Pressure Conduits
The pressure conduits are designed in such a way that the available pressure
head is just lost in overcoming the frictional resistance offered to the flow of
water by the pipe. The velocities generated in these pipes should neither be
too small to require a large size diameter pipe, nor should be so large as to
cause excessive loss of pressure head.
The head loss by pipe friction may be found by using either of the
following formulas
(i) Darcy-Weisbach Equation. It states that f' L V2
2gd
where I-IL = Head loss in metres.
L = Length of the pipe in metres.
d = Diameter of the pipe in metres.
V = Velocity of flow through the pipe in m/sec.
f' = The friction factor,. which depends upon VdV
Reynold number i.e. Re = — and relative roughness of t e pipe.
The relative roughness of a pipe depends on the absolute roughness (e) of
the inside surface and the diameter of the pipe d. The approximate values
off' are given by the following empirical relation

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 f' =0.04 1 + 1 for old pipes ...(23.2)

35d 1 and 0.02 1 + fór new pipes ...(23.3) 35 d

The accurate value off' depends on Re and 6, and may be given by formula, such as b
...(23.4)
where a, b and m are constants depending upon & For Re, varying between 20,000 to
Schiller has given
0.396
f' = 0.005 + ...(23.5)

and Nikuradse has given for values of Re varying between 20,000 to 32,40,000 as
0.221
f' = 0.0032 + 0.237 ...(23.6)
Manning's formula. Manning's formula is also applicable to turbulent flow in pressure.
conduits and yields good results, provided the roughness coefficient n is ac-• curately
estimated. Head loss according to Manning's equation is given as : n2 . V2 . L

...(23.7)
R4/3

where Manning's rugosity coefficient.

R = Hydraulic mean depth of pipe

(ii)Hazen-William's formula. This formula is widely used for pipe flows and
states
(23.8) Coefficient given by Table 23.1.
R = Hydraulic mean depth of pipe, = (d/4) in metres.

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S = Slope of the energy line.
V = Flow velocity through the pipe in m/sec.
Table 23.1. Values of CH for Hazen William's Formula

Pi e material Value of CH
Concrete (regardless of age) 130
Cast Iron
New 130
5 years old 120
20 years old 100
Welded steel (New) 120
Riveted steel (New) 110
Vitrified clay 110
Brick Sewers 100
Asbestos-cement 140
The carrying capacities of pipes decrease with time, because with the passage of time,
their interior surfaces go on becoming more and more rough. Hence, it is customary to select
higher values of e and n and lower values of CH for old pipes than are generally taken for
new pipes.
23.3. Forces Acting on Pressure Conduits
Pressure pipes must be designed to withstand the following forces :
(l) Internal pressure of water
(2) Water hammer pressures.
(3) Pressure due to external loads (when buried under the ground).
(4) Temperatures stresses (when laid above the ground).
(5) Longitudinal stresses due to flow arqund bend§ or change in cross-section.
(6) Flexural stresses (when laid over supports at intervals or on bridges).
These forces are discussed below :
(1) Internal Pressure of Water. The pressure exerted on the walls of the pipe by the flowing
water, in the form of Hoope's tension, is the internal presSure. The circumferential tensile
stress produced is given as .
Pid 2
...(23.9)
— in kN/m
where PI = Internal static pressure in kN/m2
d =Diameter of the pipe in metres.
t = Thickness of the pipe shell in metres.
01 = Circumferential tensile stress to be counteracted by providing Hoope's rein forêement.
(2) Water Hammer Pressure. When a liquid fiowing in a pipe line is abruptly stopped by the
closing of a valve, the velocity of the water column behind, is retarded, and its momentum is
destroyed. This exerts a thiust on the valve and additional pressure on the pipe shell behind.
The more rapid the closure of the valve, the more rapid is the change in momentum, and

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 hence, greater is the additional pressure developed. The pressures so developed are known as
water-hammer pressures*and may be so high as to cause bursting of the pipe shell (due to
increased circumferential tension) if not' accounted for in the designs.

-where V = Velocity of water just before the closing of the valve in m/sec
d = Diameter of pipe in •metres
t = Thickness of pipe shell in a metres.
K = Constant
Modulus of elasticity of pipe material
Bulk modulus of elasticity of water
The value of K for steel comes out to be 0.01, for cast iron = 0.02, and for cement
concrete = 0.1.
The water hammer pressure can be calculated by using the above equation. But for
design purposes, its value is generally taken as 840 kN/m 2 for small size.pipes of 7.5 to 25
cm diameter, and is gradually reduced to 490 kN/m2 for pipes above 1.2 m diameter, as given
in Table 23.2.
Table 23.2. Water Hammer Pressures
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Pipe diameter.in cm Water hammer Pressure in kN/m
7.5 to 25 840
30 to 40 770
50 630
60 600
75
90
560
105 to 135
490

490
The circumferential tensile stress caused by water hammer pressure may then be
calculated easily by using

02 =

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 (3) Stress
due to External Loads. When large pipes are buried deep under the ground, the
weight of the earth-fill may produce large stresses in- the pipe material. The stress due to the
external earth fill load is given by h • d2
f= 22.7 ...(23.11)
Where h = depth of the earth-fill above the crown in metres
d = diameter of pipe in metres. stress produced in R'Vm2 .
Note. In the above formula, it is assumed that the earth to the sides does not give any lateral
support and weighs about 18.4 kN/m3 .
(4) Temperatures Stresses. When pipes are laid above the ground, they are exposed to the
atmosphere and are, therefore, subjected to temperature changes. They expand during day
time and contract at night. If this expansion or contraction is prevented due to fixation or
friction over the supports, longitudinal stresses are produced in the pipe material. The
amount of these stresses may be calculated by the formula :

ʄ = E.α.T …(23.12)
where E = Modulus of elasticity of the pipe material.
α= Co-efficient of expansion of the pipe material.
T = Change in temperature in o c.
Expansion joints at suitable intervals (say 20 m to 30 m or so) must be provided to counteract
these stresses.
(5) Stresses due to Flow Around Bends and Change in Cross-Section. Whenever the
velocity of a flow (eithçr magnitude or direction) changes, there is a change in the
momentum, and therefore, by Newton 's Second Law, a force is exerted, which is tional
to the' rate of change of momentum.. The force required to bring this change in
momentum comes fromžthe pressure variation -within the fluid and from forces
transmitted to the fluid from the pipe walls.
Applyiñg momehtum equation, and resolving the forces in x and•y direction, we get

PIAI — cos e =

and Fy — P2A2 sin 6 —

where PI andP2 are the pressures, VI and V2 are the. Velocities at sections 1-1 and 2-2
respectively. The forces Fx and F are the forces which are transmitted from the pipe to the water.
An equal and opposite force must, therefore, be developed in the form.of stresses in the pipe
wall. Similar forces will be developed when the cross- sectional •area of the pipe is. suddenly
changed
Due to these•impressed external forces or stresses, the pipe line may be thrown out of alignment
as and when such situations arise, unless held firmly by anchoring it in massive blocks of
concrete or stone masonry.
-(-6-)-Flexural -Stresses;Many-a-times;-steel pipes-are- laid zover concrete supports, built
above the ground ; and sometimes the rain water,' etc. may wash off the ground from below
the pipes at intervals.- Under all such circumstances, bending stresses get produced in the
pipe, since the pipe then •like a beam with loads resulting from the weight of the pipe, weight

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of water in the pipe-and any other superimposed loads: •The stresses caused by this beam
action may be detemined by usual methods of •analysis applied to the beams. However, these
stresses are generally. negligible except for long spans or where there are huge superimposed
loads. Various Types of Pressure Conduits
Depending upon the construction material, the various types of pressure conduits are :
(l) Cast iron conduits.
(2) Steel conduits.
(3) Reinforced cement concrete conduits.
(4) Hume steel conduits.
(5) Vitrified clay conduits.
(6) Asbestos cement conduits.
(7) Miscellaneous types of conduits.
The selection of a particular type of material for the conduit depends mainly upon their
relative economy and also upon the availability of 'material, labour, etc. for construction in
the vicinity of site.

(1) Cast Iron Conduits. Cast iron pipes are _widely used for city water supplies. They are
sufficiently resistant to corrosion and may last as long as 100/years or so. They are generally
manufactured in lengths of about 3.6 metres but may be manufactured in lengths up to 6 m or
so. on special orders. Cast iron pipes. in different thicknesses, are generally available for
withstanding different pressures upto a maximum of 2400 kN/m2 (24.5 kg/cm2).
In order to protect the pipes from corrosion, almost all the metal pipes are given some
kind of protective coatings. Larger pipes are generally protected by bituminous linings or by
cement mortar (1 : • 2) linings. Smaller size pipes, such as those required for small service
lanes in a water supply distribu tion system,_ are_generally coated. with and are known as
galvanised iron pipes.
Bell and spigot joint is used for connecting cast iron pipes.
A few strands of jute are wrapped around the spigot before inserting it into the bell, and then,
more jute is packed into the joint. The remaining space between the bell and the Bell and spigot
joint spigot is finally filled with molten lead, which for cast iron pipes. gets solidified and tightly
chalked into the joint after cooling, and thus making a. water-tight joint. The quantity of lead
required varies from 3.5 to 4 kg for 15 cm dia pipe to about 45 to 50 kg for 1.2 metres dia
pipe. (2) Steel conduits. Steel pipes can be used for large diameters, say upto or above
6 metres or so. Steel plates of varying thicknesses for withstanding different pressures, are
generally bent and welded or sometimes riveted. Welded pipes are smoother and stronger
than riveted pipes, and are, therefore; generally used these days. Since steel is strong in
tension, even large size diameter pipes can be made of thin shells. They are, therefore, lighter
than cast iron pipes.
Galvanised steel pipes with circumferential corrugations are much more stronger than
ordinary steel pipes. They are, therefore, used where large dia pipes of smaller wall
thicknesses are required. Such pipes are usually manufactured in various sizes varying from
20 cm to 2 metres in diameter, and are lighter and can be more easily transported at
distances.

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 Expansion joints are generally not required in steel pipes which are buried under the
ground, because they are not subjected to large temperature changes. However, pipes
which are exposed to the atmosphere may require expansion joints so as to minimise
temperature changes.
Steel pipes get rusted quickly, which, reduces their life as well as carrying capacities. They
are, therefore, protected on the inside as well as outside by protective coatings. Under
ordinary conditions, steel pipes may last as long as 40 years -or. so. The various pipe
lengths in case of steel pipes are connected by welded or riveted joints.
(3) Reinforced Cement Concrete Conduits. Ordinary cement concrete pipes are
manufactured in small sizes (i.e. up to say 0.6 m diameter) ; while they are reinforced with steel
for large dia pipes. They are easily available in sizes up to diameters say about 1.8 metres and
may be got manufactured for larger diameters say up to about 4.5 metres, on special orders.
These pipes may either be prepared at site by transporting various ingradients (i.e. cement, steel
aggregates, water, etc.) or can be manufactured in factories and then transported to site. They
are known as 'cast in situ' pipes in the former case, and 'precast pipes' in the latter case. Cast in
situ pipes are useful when the site conditions are difficult, and where it may be difficult to carry
the pipes. But since such pipes are cast at site, lesser supervision and check is possible, as
compared to the case of precast pipes which are cast in the factories, and thus subjected to greater
quality control and supervision.
R.C.C. pipes can be manufactured in three different ways, viz.
(a) Pipes having bar and mesh reinforcement, and concrete poured by usual
ordinary methods of concrete pouring, and tamped
(b) Pipes made by rotating the mould or the form rapidly about the pipe axis. The
mould contains- concrete & fabricated reinforcement. The Centrifugal forces -thrusses
Off the concrete which then spreads in a uniform layer over the internal surface of the
mould and embed the reinforcement ; thus providing a high density watertight concrete
surface. This type is known as centrifugal type ,
(c) The third type of pipes are made by lining thin cylindrical steel shells both
internally and externally with rich cement concrete. These are stronger and more watertight
than the first two. They are known as cylinder type.
R.C.C. pipes are generally made from 1 : 2 : 4 cement concrete with maximum size of
aggregates as 6 mm. They are provided with circumferential reinforcement to carry hoop
tension and a nominal longitudinal reinforcement equal •to 0.25% of cross-sectional area
of concrete. The thickness of R.C.C. pipes generally varies from 7.5 cm to 0.6 m for pipes
of diameters. varying from 0.2 m to 2.75 m.
Hume Steel Conduits. Hume steel pipes are R.C.C. pipes patented under this name. They
consist of thin steel shells coated from inside with cement mortar by centrifugal process. The
thickness of the inside coating "varies from 1.2 cm to 3 cm depending upon the
(4) Size of the pipe. They are also coated from outside so as to protect the steel shell
from external Weather or soil action. The thickness of external coating is
2.5 cm for pipes upto 1 metre in diameter and is 3.75 cm for pipes of larger diameters.

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 The thickness of steel shell depends upon the size of the pipe and also upon the pressure to
be borne by the pipe. Like all R.C.C. pipes, they are heavy and difficult to handle.
(5) Vitrified Clay Conduits. They are generally not used as pressure conduits, but
are extensively used for carrying sewage and drainage at partial depths. These pipes are free
from corrosion and provide a smooth hydraulically efficient surface. They are not used as
pressure pipes, because clay is weak in tension, and formation of water-tight joints becomes
difficult in them. Clay pipes are commonly made in lengths of about 0.6 m to 1.2 m or so.
(6) Asbestos Conduits. Asbestos, silica and cement are converted under pressure
to a dense, homogeneous material possessing high strength, called asbestos cement. This
material is used for casting these pipes. The asbestos fibre which is thoroughly mixed with
cement serves as reinforcement. These pipes are generally available in different sizes, say
from 10 cm to 90 cm in diameters and in about 4 metres lengths. These pipes are generally
made in 4 different grades to withstand pressures of 350 kN/m 2 to 140 kN/m2. These pipes
are joined by means of special type of flexible joint called 'simplex joint'. The assembly
consists of a pipe sleeve and two rubber rings which are compressed between the pipe and the
interior of the sleeve.
Advantages. The advantages of asbestos cement pipes are :
(i) They are light and hence easy to transport.
(ii) They can be easily assembled without skilled labour.
(iii) They are highly resistant to corrosion,
(iv) They are highly flexible and may permit as much as 12 0 deflection in laying
them around curves.
(v) Expansion joints are not required as the coefficient of expansion is low and
the joints are also flexible.
(vi) They are very smooth and thus provide a hydraulically efficient pipe. Their
carrying capacities do not reduce with time.
(vii) They are very suitable to be used as small size distribution pipes.
Disadvantages and limitations.
Their disadvantages are
(i) They are costly.
(ii) These pipes do not have much strefigth and are brittle and
soft. They are liable to get dåmaged by excavating tools or
during transportation transits.
(iii) The rubber joint seals may deteriorate if exposed to
gasoline or other petroleum products, and hence cannot be
used for transporting petroleum products.
(7) Miscellaneous Types of Conduits,Various other materials which may be used for
manufacturing pipe conduits are : copper, wrought iron, plastics, etc. Copper pipes are very
costly although they are highly resistant to acidic as well as alkaline waters, they can be bent
easily and do not sag due to heat. They are, therefore, very useful for carrying hot water in the
interior of the buildings. Wrought iron pipes are lightel than cast iron pipes and can be more

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easily cut, threaded and worked. They are more costly but neat in appearance, They are
generally manufactured in small sizes and are very useful for indoor works. However, they
corrode quickly and are less durable. they are,

Therefore, generally protected by galvanising them with zinc coatings and they are then
known as galvanised iron pipes. Plastic pipes are lighter and free from cörrosion. But they
are of low strengths and less durable. Moreover, they can not withstand high temperatures
exceeding 600 C or so. They may, however, be used for very minor Ävorks in house
connections, etc. HDPE pipes are however, being increasingly used these days for various
uses, such as in tubewell boarings, sewage mains, etc. They are however, still not being
made in large sizes suitable as penstock pipes.

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197-200, 2006.
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