PIPE FLOW

3.1 Pipe Flow Basics

Fluid flow is classified as external and internal, depending on whether the fluid is forced to
flow over a surface or in a conduit. Internal and external flows exhibit very different
characteristics. In this chapter we consider internal flow where the conduit is completely filled
with the fluid, and flow is driven primarily by a pressure difference.

• A pipe is a flow sections of circular cross section. Small diameter pipes are usually
referred to as tubes.
• A Duct is flow sections of non-circular cross section.
Most fluids, especially liquids, are transported in circular pipes. This is because pipes with a
circular cross section can withstand large pressure differences between the inside and the
outside without undergoing significant distortion. Non-circular pipes are usually used in
applications such as the heating and cooling systems of buildings where the pressure difference
is relatively small, the manufacturing and installation costs are lower, and the available space
is limited for ductwork.

Liquid or gas flow through pipes or ducts is commonly used in heating and cooling applications
and fluid distribution networks. The fluid in such applications is usually forced to flow by a
fan or pump through a flow section. We pay particular attention to friction, which is directly
related to the pressure drop and head loss during flow through pipes and ducts. The pressure
drop is then used to determine the pumping power requirement. A typical piping system as
shown in figure 3.1 below, involves pipes of different diameters connected to each other by
various fittings or elbows to route the fluid, valves to control the flow rate, and pumps to
pressurize the fluid.
 Figure 0.1 Example of a pipe system

3.2 Comparison between Pipe Flow and Open Channel Flow

In Pipe flow the fluid flows completely filling the pipe and the pressure gradient along the pipe
is the main driving force. while in open channel flows fluid flows without completely filling
the pipe and gravity alone is the driving force.

Figure 0.2 Pipe flow

 Figure 0.3 Open Channel flow
3.3 Steady flow in pipes and ducts
A closed conduit is a pipe or duct through which the fluid flows while completely filling the
cross-section. Since the fluid has no free surface, it can be either a liquid or a gas, its pressure
may be above or below atmospheric pressure, and this pressure may vary from cross-section to
cross-section along its length.

An open conduit is a duct or open channel along which a liquid flows with a free surface. At
all points along its length the pressure at the free surface will be the same, usually atmospheric.
An open conduit may be covered providing that it is not running full and the liquid retains a
free surface; a partly filled pipe would, for example, be treated as an open channel.

In both cases, as the fluid flows over the solid boundary a shear stress will be developed at the
surface of contact which will oppose fluid motion. This frictional resistance results in an energy
loss within the system, measurable in a fluid flow by changes in fluid pressure or head. In
addition to the losses attributed to friction, separation losses due to the flow disruption at
changes in section, direction or around valves and other flow obstructions also contribute to
the overall energy losses to be accounted for.

The first approach to the analysis of bounded systems is therefore to consider the energy
balance between two chosen locations along the flow. From Bernoulli’s principle we know
that; for a streamline fluid flow, the sum of the pressure (P), the kinetic energy per unit volume
1
𝜌𝑉 2 and the potential energy per unit volume 𝜌𝑔𝑧 remain constant.
2

In Fig. 3.4 below, for flow across the control volume boundaries represented by the conditions
at A and B, the energy audit may be expressed, in terms of energy per unit volume, as;
 Figure 0.4 Energy change calculation
1 1
𝑃𝐴 + 𝜌𝑉𝐴2 + 𝜌𝑔𝑧𝐴 + Δ𝑃𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 = 𝑃𝐵 + 𝜌𝑉𝐵2 + 𝜌𝑔𝑧𝐵 + ∑ 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠(steady flow energy
2 2

equation)

Where;

𝑃 is the Pressure

𝑉 is the Volume of fluid

𝜌 is the density of fluid

The pressure loss experienced as a result of friction and separation of the flow from the walls
of the conduit has been shown to be defined by a term of the form ∑ 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠

If the fluid flowing through the pipe is water the steady flow energy equation becomes;

ℎ𝐴 + 𝑣𝐴2 ⁄2𝑔 + 𝑧𝐴 + Δℎ𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 = ℎ𝐵 + 𝜐𝐵2 ⁄2𝑔 + 𝑧𝐵 + ∑ 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠

3.4 Incompressible flow through ducts and Pipes

For incompressible flow, since there is no change of density with pressure, the steady flow
energy equation reduces to a form of Bernoulli’s equation with the addition of terms for the
energy losses due to friction and separation. All these terms represent energy per unit volume,
measured in pressure units, or energy per unit weight, measured in terms of the head of the
fluid concerned.

3.4.1 Calculation of Frictional Losses

The pressure loss, Δ𝑃, or energy lost per unit volume due to friction, may be conveniently
expressed via the Darcy equation;

Δ𝑝 = 4𝑓𝐿𝜌𝜐 2 ⁄2𝐷
for a circular cross-section conduit flowing full. In terms of head this expression becomes,

Δℎ = 4𝑓𝐿𝜐 2 ⁄2𝑔𝐷

An alternative form of the Darcy equation may be obtained by writing;

𝑄 𝑄
𝜐= =
𝑃𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝜋𝐷2 ⁄4

Substituting in the Darcy equation yields;

Δ𝑝 = 64𝑓𝐿𝜌𝑄2 ⁄2𝐷 (𝜋𝐷2 )2 = 32𝑓𝐿𝜌𝑄2 ⁄𝜋 2 𝐷5

Δℎ = 64𝑓𝐿𝑄 2 ⁄2𝑔𝐷 (𝜋𝐷2 )2 = 32𝑓𝐿𝑄2 ⁄𝜋 2 𝑔𝐷5

3.4.2 Calculation of Separation Losses

Consider the pipe network in figure 3.5 below;

Figure 0.5 Pipes in series, showing head losses and the total energy line and hydraulic
gradient

• Loss at entrance to pipe AC. This is a separation loss and, if the entrance is described
as sharp and is below the free surface of the reservoir, the value of 𝑘 will be 0.5:
Loss of head at entry, 𝒉𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝝊𝟐𝟏 ⁄𝟐𝒈

• Loss at change of section at C. There will be a separation loss at the sudden change of
section.
Loss of head at sudden enlargement, 𝒉 𝟐 = (𝒗𝟏 − 𝒗𝟐 )𝟐 ⁄𝟐𝒈.

• Loss of head at exit. Since the exit is described as sharp and is beneath the surface of
the reservoir B, there will be a separation loss.
 Loss of head at exit, 𝒉𝟑 = 𝝊𝟐𝟐 ⁄𝟐𝒈
Questions

Figure 0.6 Flow through a Siphon

Water discharges from a reservoir A (Fig 3.6) through a 100 mm pipe 15 m long which rises
to its highest point at B, 1.5 m above the free surface of the reservoir, and discharges direct to
the atmosphere at C, 4 m below the free surface at A. The length of pipe l1 from A to B is 5 m
and the length of pipe l2 from B to C is 10 m. Both the entrance and exit of the pipe are sharp
and the value of f is 0.08. Calculate

(a) the mean velocity of the water leaving the pipe at C and

(b) the pressure in the pipe at B.

3.4.3 Analysis of flow through Pipes in Series

When pipes of different diameters are connected end-to-end to form a pipeline, so that the fluid
flows through each in turn, the pipes are said to be in series. The total loss of energy, or pressure
loss, over the whole pipeline will be the sum of the losses for each pipe together with any
separation losses such as might occur at the junctions, entrance or exit.

Consider pipes in series discharging water from a tank with higher water level to another with
lower water level, as shown in the figure 3.7 below. Neglecting secondary/separation losses,
then the total head loss 𝒉𝒍 between the two tanks is the sum of the friction losses through
the pipe line
 Figure 0.7 Pipes connected in series
𝒉𝒍 = 𝒉𝒇𝟏 + 𝒉𝒇𝟐 + 𝒉𝒇𝟑

4𝑓𝜐12 𝑙1 4𝑓𝜐22 𝑙2 4𝑓𝜐32 𝑙3

ℎ𝑙 = + +
2𝑔𝑑1 2𝑔𝑑2 2𝑔𝑑3

32𝑓𝑙1 𝑄2 32𝑓𝑙2 𝑄2 32𝑓𝑙3 𝑄2

ℎ𝑙 = + 2 5 + 2 5
𝜋 2 𝑔𝑑15 𝜋 𝑔𝑑2 𝜋 𝑔𝑑3

3.4.4 Analysis of flow through Pipes in Parallel

When two reservoirs are connected by two or more pipes in parallel, as shown in Fig. 3.9, the
fluid can flow from one reservoir to the other by a number of alternative routes. The difference
of head ℎ available to produce flow will be the same for each pipe. Thus, each pipe can be
considered separately, entirely independently of any other pipes running in parallel. For
incompressible flow, the steady flow energy equation can be applied for flow by each route
and the total volume rate of flow will be the sum of the volume rates of flow in each pipe.

Pipes in parallel are pipes with different diameters and same lengths, where each pipe is
connected separately to increase the discharge. Consider pipes in parallel discharging water
from a tank with higher water level to another with lower water level, as shown in the figure
3.9.

Figure 0.8 Pipes in Parallel

Neglecting minor losses, then the total head loss 𝒉𝒍 between the two tanks is the same as
the friction losses through each pipe. The friction losses through all pipes are the same,
and all pipes discharge water independently.

4𝑓𝜐12 𝑙1 4𝑓𝜐22 𝑙2
ℎ𝑙 = =
2𝑔𝑑1 2𝑔𝑑2

3.4.4 Incompressible Flow through Branching Pipes

Two reservoirs have 6 m difference in water levels, and are connected by a pipe 60 cm diameter
and 3000 m long. Then, the pipe branches into two pipes each 30 cm diameter and 1500 m
long. The friction coefficient is 0.01. Neglecting minor losses, determine the flow rates in the
pipe system?

Figure 0.9 Flow through branching Pipe network

𝒉𝒍 = 𝒉𝒇𝟏 + 𝒉𝒇𝟐

32𝑓𝑙1 𝑄2 32𝑓𝑙2 𝑄2
ℎ𝑙 = + 2 5
𝜋 2 𝑔𝑑15 𝜋 𝑔𝑑2

Let

32𝑓𝑙1 32𝑓𝑙2
𝐾1 = 5 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐾2 = 2
2
𝜋 𝑔𝑑1 𝜋 𝑔𝑑25

𝟔 = 𝐾1 𝑄12 + 𝐾2 𝑄22
32𝑓𝑙1 32 × 0.01 × 3000
𝐾1 = = = 127.5106
𝜋 2 𝑔𝑑15 𝜋 2 × 9.81 × 0.65

32𝑓𝑙2 32 × 0.01 × 1500

𝐾2 = 2 5 = 𝜋 2 × 9.81 × 0.35 = 2040.1693
𝜋 𝑔𝑑2
 𝐾2 = 16𝐾1

6 = K1 Q21 + 16K1 Q22

ℎ2 = ℎ3 , K 2 = K 3 , 𝑄2 = 𝑄3

𝑄1 = 𝑄2 + 𝑄3 = 2𝑄2

Therefore,

6 = K1 Q21 + 4K1 Q21 = 5K1 Q21 = (5 × 127.5106)Q21 = 637.553Q21

3
𝑄1 = 0.097 𝑚 ⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐

3
𝑄2 = 0.0485 𝑚 ⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐
TYPES OF FLUID FLOW

4.1 Definitions
Conditions in a body of fluid can vary from point to point and, at any given point, can vary
from one moment of time to the next.

4.1.1 Uniform flow and Non-Uniform flow

Flow is described as uniform if the velocity at a given instant is the same in magnitude and
direction at every point in the fluid. If, at the given instant, the velocity changes from point to
point, the flow is described as non-uniform.

(In practice, by this definition, every fluid that flows near a solid boundary will be non-
uniform - as the fluid at the boundary must take the speed of the boundary, usually zero.
However, if the size and shape of the of the cross-section of the stream of fluid is constant the
flow is considered uniform.)

4.1.2 Steady and Unsteady flow

A steady flow is one in which the velocity, pressure and cross-section of the stream may vary
from point to point but do not change with time. If, at a given point, conditions do change
with time, the flow is described as unsteady.

There are, therefore, four possible types of flow:

Steady uniform flow

Conditions do not change with position or time. The velocity and cross-sectional area of the
stream of fluid are the same at each cross section: for example, flow of a liquid through a pipe
of uniform diameter running completely full at constant velocity.

Steady non-uniform flow

Conditions change from point to point but not with time. The velocity and cross-sectional area
of the stream may vary from cross-section to cross-section, but, for each cross-section, they
will not vary with time: for example, flow of a liquid at a constant rate through a tapering pipe
running completely full.

Unsteady uniform flow

At a given instant of time the velocity at every point is the same, but this velocity will change
with time: for example, accelerating flow of a liquid through a pipe of uniform bore running
full, such as would occur when a pump is started up.
 Unsteady non-uniform flow
The cross-sectional area and velocity vary from point to point and also change with time: for
example, a wave travelling along a channel.

4.2 Laminar and Turbulent Flow

Fluid flow in a pipe is streamlined at low velocities this is referred to a laminar flow and is
characterized by smooth streamlines and highly ordered motion as shown in figure 1.1 below.
Fluid flow in a pipe turns chaotic as the velocity is increased above a critical value, this is
referred to as turbulent flow and is characterized by velocity fluctuations and highly
disordered motion as shown in figure 1.2 below.

The transition from laminar to turbulent flow does not occur suddenly; rather, it occurs over
some region in which the flow fluctuates between laminar and turbulent flows before it
becomes fully turbulent. This is referred to as transitional flow. Most flows encountered in
practice are turbulent. Laminar flow is encountered when highly viscous fluids such as oils
flow in small pipes or narrow passages.

Figure 4.1 laminar Flow

Figure 4.2 Turbulent Flow

4.3 Reynolds Number
The transition from laminar to turbulent flow depends on the geometry, surface roughness,
flow velocity, surface temperature, and type of fluid. Reynolds discovered that the flow regime
depends mainly on the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces in the fluid. The Reynolds
number (Re) is defined as the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces acting on a fluid element.
Reynolds number is expressed for internal flow in a circular pipe as;

𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝐷

𝑅𝑒 = =
𝑉𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝜈

But

𝜇
𝜈=
𝜌

Therefore

𝜌𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝐷
𝑅𝑒 =
𝜇

Where;

𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 is the average flow velocity (m/s),

D is the characteristic length of the geometry (diameter in this case, in m)

𝜈 is the kinematic Viscosity of the fluid (m2/s)

𝜇 is the dynamic Viscosity in kg/m.s

𝜌 is the density of the fluid in Kg/m3

Note that the Reynolds number is a dimensionless quantity

The Reynolds number at which the flow becomes turbulent is called the critical Reynolds
number, Recr. The value of the critical Reynolds number is different for different geometries
and flow conditions. For internal flow in a circular pipe, the generally accepted value of the
critical Reynolds number is Recr is 2300.
For flow through noncircular pipes, the Reynolds number is based on the hydraulic diameter
Dh defined as;

4𝐴𝑐
Hydraulic Diameter, 𝐷ℎ =
𝑝

Where;

𝐴𝐶 is the cross-sectional area of the pipe

𝑝 is its wetted perimeter

For a square duct (figure 1.3) the Hydraulic Diameter is calculated as follows;

wwsss

Figure 4.3 Cross- Sectional View of a Square Duct

4𝑎2
𝐷ℎ = =𝑎
4𝑎

For a rectangular duct (students to calculate);

4(𝑎𝑏) 2𝑎𝑏
𝐷ℎ = =
2(𝑎 + 𝑏) 𝑎 + 𝑏

The hydraulic diameter is defined such that it reduces to ordinary diameter, D, for circular
pipes

2
4(𝜋𝐷 ⁄4)
𝐷ℎ = =𝐷
𝜋𝐷

The value of the critical Reynolds number is different for different geometries and flow
conditions. For internal flow in a circular pipe, the flow in a circular pipe is laminar for
𝑅𝑒 ≤ 2300, turbulent for 𝑅𝑒 ≥ 4000 and transitional is in between. That is,

𝑅𝑒 ≤ 2300
2300 ≤ 𝑅𝑒 ≤ 4000

𝑅𝑒 ≥ 4000