Received 31 August 2020; revised 8 October 2020; accepted 13 October 2020.

Date of current version 7 January 2021.

Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/JMW.2020.3033156

Microwave Superconductivity
STEVEN M. ANLAGE (Member, IEEE)
(Invited Paper)
Quantum Materials Center, Department of Physics, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742-4111 USA
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742-3285 USA
Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742-2115 USA (e-mail: anlage@umd.edu)
This work was supported by the U.S. Department of Energy under Grant DESC0018788 (support of SMA) and the U.S. National Science Foundation under Grant
DMR2004386.

ABSTRACT We give a broad overview of the history of microwave superconductivity and explore the tech-
nological developments that have followed from the unique electrodynamic properties of superconductors.
Their low loss properties enable resonators with high quality factors that can nevertheless handle extremely
high current densities. This in turn enables superconducting particle accelerators, high-performance filters
and analog electronics, including metamaterials, with extreme performance. The macroscopic quantum
properties have enabled new generations of ultra-high-speed digital computing and extraordinarily sensitive
detectors. The microscopic quantum properties have enabled large-scale quantum computers, which at
their heart are essentially microwave-fueled quantum engines. We celebrate the rich history of microwave
superconductivity and look to the promising future of this exciting branch of microwave technology.

INDEX TERMS High-temperature superconductors, Josephson junctions, Quantum computing, SQUIDs,

Superconductivity, Superconducting filters, Superconducting logic circuits, Superconducting materials, Su-
perconducting microwave devices, Superconductive tunneling.

I. INTRODUCTION technologies has been considerably lowered in recent years

The unique microwave properties of superconductors enable through the development of inexpensive and highly reliable
a remarkable range of novel applications and technologies. cryogenic technology infrastructure.
The low Ohmic losses of the superconducting state allow for This overview touches lightly on many fascinating topics.
extremely high efficiency and compact charged particle ac- The technical detail (and rigor) is kept to a minimum in order
celerators based on microwave resonant cavities with quality to bring out the main trends in the development of super-
factors exceeding 1011 . The unique electrodynamic properties conductors for microwave applications. To delve deeper, the
of superconductors enable low-dispersion transmission lines interested reader is advised to consult a number of helpful
that preserve the integrity of extremely short electrical im- books, monographs, and articles on microwave superconduc-
pulses. This, along with the macroscopic quantum properties tivity that have appeared in the recent past. The most com-
of superconductors have enabled a family of radically new prehensive is probably the collected papers from a NATO Ad-
digital electronics based on magnetic flux quantization and vanced Study Institute [2]. Other accessible but more special-
the Josephson effect. The low-loss and nonlinear properties ized sources on microwave superconductivity include works
of superconductors create an ideal setting for demonstration on RF superconductivity for particle accelerator applications,
of quantum phenomena such as entanglement and controlled [3], [4] Josephson junction dynamics, [5] electrodynamics of
quantum state evolution. Because microwave superconductiv- high-temperature superconductors, [6] analog superconduct-
ity is a key enabler for present and future quantum technolo- ing microwave electronics, [7]– [10] high-frequency super-
gies, anyone trained in microwave engineering has entry level conducting materials issues, [11] and early microwave mea-
skills for this exciting new technology frontier [1]. My goal surements of superconductors [12].
in this article is to give an overview of the remarkable mi- This article begins with a review of the basic features
crowave technologies uniquely enabled by superconductivity. that distinguish superconductors from ordinary metals. It then
I will also argue that the barrier to utilizing these ‘exotic’ summarizes the key technical quantities that characterize the
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License. For more information, see https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
VOLUME 1, NO. 1, JANUARY 2021 389
ANLAGE: MICROWAVE SUPERCONDUCTIVITY

superconducting state, at least as far as microwave applica-

tions are concerned. The heart of the paper is a discussion
of major applications of superconductors in the microwave
domain, and a discussion of the history of microwave super-
conductivity, emphasizing the main thrusts of applications.
The article concludes with some forward-looking statements
about possible future directions for this exciting field at the
interface between science and technology.

II. INTRODUCTION TO THE ESSENTIALS OF

SUPERCONDUCTIVITY
FIGURE 1. Illustration of the Meissner effect for a superconducting sphere
All superconductors are characterized by three universal hall- (shown in cross section as a white circle). Above the transition temperature
marks, namely zero DC resistance, the Meissner effect (think a static externally applied magnetic field Ba in the vertical direction
uniformly permeates the normal metal sphere (left, yellow corresponds to
of floating magnets), and macroscopic quantum phenomena Bz = Ba ). Below the transition temperature the superconductor
(quantum mechanics visible to the eye!). spontaneously excludes the magnetic field (right, colors show Bz /Ba ).
Shown are vertical cross sectional views through the center of the sphere.
A. ZERO RESISTANCE The colors represent the magnitude of the z-component of magnetic field
while the black lines are streamlines of the magnetic field. The diameter of
The zero resistance state of metals was discovered by H. the superconducting sphere is 30 penetration depths. The calculation is
Kamerlingh Onnes in 1911 (Nobel Prize in Physics in 1913). performed using time-dependent Ginzburg-Landau theory [20].
Onnes was the first to liquefy Helium, and found that the resis-
tance of Mercury went to zero below a temperature of 4.2 K.
[13] The temperature at which DC resistance goes to zero in least for photons with energy less than the minimum value of
the limit of zero current is defined as the critical temperature, the energy gap, h f < 2 where h is Planck’s constant and f
Tc . This temperature is material specific. Experimental values is the frequency of the radiation. Hence such a superconductor
of Tc range from 0.3 mK for Rh, to 9.2 K for Nb, to more can show a nearly zero loss microwave behavior in the limit of
than 30 K for La2−x SrxCuO4 , to more than 145 K for the Hg- very low temperature. This creates conditions for very high-
Ba-Ca-Cu-O family of cuprate superconductors, and is even Q resonators, and sets the stage for exploration of dramatic
approaching room temperature for a family of super-hydride quantum effects, as we discuss below.
materials, although they are stable only under extremely high
pressure [14]. These latter three families of compounds are
examples of High-Tc Superconductors (HTS), and have all B. THE MEISSNER EFFECT
been discovered since 1986. A large number of materials have A superconductor can be distinguished from a mere perfect
been found to be superconducting at low temperature, making conductor (i.e. a metal with zero DC resistance) through the
superconductivity the preferred ground state for most metals Meissner effect. Consider a superconducting sample at a tem-
[15]. One interesting observation is that ‘good’ metals (e.g. perature above Tc in a static external magnetic field, as shown
low resistivity metals like Cu, Ag, Au) tend to be ‘bad’ super- in Fig. 1. After some time, the eddy currents in the sample will
conductors (i.e. no measurable Tc ), whereas ‘bad’ metals (high have died away because of the sample’s finite resistance, and
resistivity) tend to be ‘good’ superconductors (i.e. higher Tc the magnetic field will be homogeneously distributed inside
values or other useful superconducting properties). This sur- the sample. If the material is now cooled below Tc , it will
prising correlation exists because often the mechanism that spontaneously develop screening currents which will actively
causes scattering in the normal state is also the mechanism exclude magnetic flux from the interior of the sample. The
that produces pairing of electrons in the superconducting state. result is shown in the right side of Fig. 1 for a superconducting
The most dramatic demonstration of zero DC resistance sphere. Note that a material which transitioned from ordinary
comes from measurements of persistent currents in closed conductor to perfect conductor at Tc would not show the
superconducting rings [13]. The circulating current creates Meissner effect in a static magnetic field. It would instead
a solenoidal magnetic field and the zero resistance state can trap the magnetic flux inside itself, as it became a perfect
also be used to generate very large and stable magnetic fields conductor. The Meissner effect is unique to superconductors
by making a superconducting solenoid [16]. Both magnetic and arises from the quantum correlations created between
resonance imaging and high-resolution nuclear magnetic reso- electrons in the superconducting state.
nance spectrometers are enabled by superconducting magnets The Meissner effect is best defined as the development of a
[17]. (near) perfect diamagnetic state in a static external magnetic
In terms of finite frequency properties, the superconducting field, and is at the root of the magnetic levitation effect. The
state is characterized by the creation of an energy gap  in Meissner effect demonstrates that superconductivity and mag-
the electronic excitation spectrum. A full energy gap over the netism are generally (although not universally) incompatible.
entire Fermi surface turns a superconductor, somewhat para- It implies that a large enough magnetic field applied to the
doxically, into an insulator in the limit of zero temperature, at sample can destroy superconductivity.

390 VOLUME 1, NO. 1, JANUARY 2021

C. MACROSCOPIC QUANTUM PHENOMENA the Cooper-pair tunnel current are directly related by means of
The superconducting state is fundamentally and uniquely a universal constants of nature. These two simple Josephson ef-
quantum state of matter. In other words it cannot be under- fects have given rise to many remarkable microwave applica-
stood based entirely upon classical concepts. For example, tions, including new computational paradigms that are poised
a single complex quantum wavefunction, which is phase co- to revolutionize our digital computing technology. Josephson
herent over macroscopic distances, can be used to describe won the Nobel Prize in Physics for this work in 1973 (along
the superconductor in many (but not all) circumstances. This with Esaki and Giaever).
wavefunction describes a condensate of Cooper-paired elec- The Bardeen-Cooper-Schrieffer (BCS) theory of supercon-
trons. In the Ginzburg-Landau approach, the superconducting ductivity [19] has at its heart a ground state superconducting
state can be described by a complex order parameter (r ) = wavefunction that includes the subtle quantum correlations
|(r )|eiφ(r ) , where φ(r ) is the position-(r ) dependent phase between all of the charge carriers in the metal. The theory
factor. As such, the material can show unique macroscopic (along with its many generalizations) is essentially exact,
quantum phenomena such as the Josephson effect, magnetic at least for a broad class of superconducting materials, and
flux quantization, and microscopic quantum superposition forms a very firm foundation for superconducting microwave
states and entanglement. technology. This work earned the authors the Nobel Prize in
The order parameter must be single-valued throughout the Physics in 1972. Next we discuss the essential phenomenol-
superconductor. This in turn implies that φ(r ) returns to the ogy of superconductivity that is relevant for understanding
same value (modulo 2π ) for any closed circuit taken through microwave applications of superconductors.
the superconductor. Consider a superconductor which incor-
porates a hole (i.e. a doughnut), or containing a finite bounded
III. PHENOMENOLOGY OF SUPERCONDUCTIVITY
region in which the order parameter |(r)| → 0. Following a
(Tc , Hc , Jc , ωc )
path C through this material, which encloses the hole,  will
 · d l There are strict limits to the domain of superconductivity.
lead to the conclusion that the magnetic flux  = C A
Superconductivity is destroyed for temperatures above Tc be-
must be quantized in integer multiples of the quantum of
cause the thermal agitation destroys the subtle quantum corre-
magnetic flux 0 = h/2e. Here the line integral is over the
 along a closed circuit lations between electrons that constitute the superconducting
dot product of the vector potential A
state. Due to the general incompatibility of magnetism and
C that lies entirely inside the superconductor. This unit of
superconductivity, there is a limit to how large a magnetic
flux involves only fundamental constants of nature (Planck’s
field a superconductor can exclude in the Meissner state.
constant and the charge of the electron) and the factor of 2
This is characterized by the critical field, Hc . An estimate
arises from the microscopic phenomenon of Cooper pairing
of the critical field comes from comparing the energy den-
of the charge carriers in the metal. Flux quantization imposes
sity of the magnetic field required to destroy superconduc-
important constraints on any closed-loop superconducting cir-
tivity to the free energy gain of the superconducting state:
cuit, and when combined with the Josephson effects leads to
μ0 Hc2 /2 = fn (T )- fs (T ) where fn and fs are the Helmholtz
surprising new phenomena.
free energy densities in the normal and superconducting state
Brian Josephson predicted that pairs of electrons could
at temperature T and zero field. This thermodynamic critical
tunnel through a classically forbidden region (barrier) be-
field μ0 Hc can exceed 1 Tesla at low temperatures, depending
tween two superconductors even at zero potential difference
on the material. Related to this, the superconductor is able
[18]. Consider two superconducting banks, each described
to support large zero frequency current densities, J. These
by a macroscopic quantum wavefunction with independent
currents carry significant kinetic energy because the currents
phases φ1 and φ2 , separated by a thin insulating barrier.
flow without dissipation or scattering. The critical current
The DC pair tunnel current through the barrier is given by
density, Jc , is reached when the kinetic energy in the current
I = Ic j sin δ, where the gauge-invariant phase difference δ =
 carried by the superconductor equals the free energy gain of
φ1 − φ 2 −  2π  · d l includes the effects of magnetic field
A
0 the superconducting state over the normal state. Silsbee’s rule
in the junction (through the vector potential A),  and Ic j is states that when the surface self-magnetic field created by the
the critical (or maximum) current of the junction. This pre- current in a round conducting wire approaches the critical
dicts that a spontaneous supercurrent will flow between the field, superconductivity will be destroyed. The corresponding
two superconductors, and its magnitude and direction can critical current density can often exceed 109 A/m2 .
be controlled through electromagnetic means. Josephson also Finally there is a frequency limit to superconductivity due
predicted that a voltage difference V imposed between the two to the finite binding energy of the Cooper pairs that make
superconducting electrodes will cause the phase difference to up the superconducting condensate. The gap frequency ωc =
increase linearly with time t as φ = 2eV t/, where  is 2/ corresponds to the photon energy that directly breaks
Planck’s constant h divided by 2π . Putting this back into the Cooper pairs into un-paired quasiparticles, thus degrading the
first Josephson equation results in a supercurrent between the superconductor. The range of gap frequencies fc = ωc /2π
electrodes which oscillates at frequency ω = 2eV/. Note that vary from about 20 GHz for some low-Tc superconductors to
the imposed voltage and resulting frequency of oscillation of the THz range for high-Tc cuprate superconductors. Hence for

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ANLAGE: MICROWAVE SUPERCONDUCTIVITY

frequencies substantially above ωc the superconductor basi-

cally responds the same way as it would in the normal state.
Thus superconductors have infrared and visible wavelength
properties that are essentially no different when compared just
below and just above the superconducting transition tempera-
ture Tc .
Superconductors come in two flavors, Type I and Type II.
They are distinguished by their response to a magnetic field. A
Type I superconductor usually does not compromise with the
magnetic field; it is either superconducting in the Meissner
state, or it is a normal conductor when the applied magnetic FIGURE 2. Schematic of the two fluid model of superconductor response
to microwave fields. A finite frequency electric or magnetic field will
field exceeds the thermodynamic critical field, Hc . However, induce currents in both the superfluid (upper branch) and the normal fluid
depending on the geometry of the sample, a type-I super- (lower branch). The superfluid channel is purely inductive (Ls ) in nature
conductor can enter a “compromise state” known as the in- and the current is carried by Cooper pairs.The normal fluid channel has
both resistance R and (usually small) inductance (Ln ) and is carried by the
termediate state. The regions of superconducting and normal normal fluid. The complex impedance of this simple circuit gives an
material act in some sense like two immiscible fluids because excellent qualitative picture of superconductor response as a function of
the superconductor/normal interfaces are energetically costly. frequency and temperature.

Type II superconductors, on the other hand, will compromise

with the magnetic field and create a mixed state” in which
magnetic field is allowed to enter the superconductor but only resulting screening currents in the superconductor (required
in discrete flux-quantized bundles, called magnetic vortices. by the Meissner effect) show a simple frequency-independent
In this case the superconductor/normal interface is energeti- penetration depth, λ, as Js (z) ∝ e−z/λ , with no oscillation. The
cally favorable, which results in a proliferation of the inter- screening properties are frequency independent up to frequen-
faces such that each vortex carries an integer number of mag- cies on the order of the superconducting energy gap, /h,
netic flux quanta, 0 , ultimately as few as one. Microwave which can be in the THz range. For future reference, note that
measurements were among the first to clearly demonstrate in the low frequency limit (below the critical frequency ωc )
that magnetic vortices exist in type-II superconductors. The σ2 = 1/(Xs λ) = 1/(μ0 ωλ2 ).
measurements of Gittleman and Rosenblum demonstrated that How does a superconductor respond to an imposed elec-
vortices act as coherent entities that experience a Lorentz-like tromagnetic field tangent to its surface? This can be approxi-
force in the presence of an alternating current, and encounter mately described by London’s phenomenological equations.
both pinning and viscous drag forces as well [21]. The first states that the superconducting electrons will be
accelerated by the electric field, with no dissipation due to
A. MICROWAVE SCREENING PROPERTIES scattering: ∂ (Js )/∂t = E  , where  = m/(ns (e)2 ) = μ0 λ2
L
Our main concern here is the response of superconductors to and Js is the supercurrent density. We can think of the London
high frequency electromagnetic fields. Most ordinary metals penetration depth λL as the ideal magnetic penetration depth
have a conductivity σ that is real and frequency indepen- λ when all of the electrons in the metal participate in the
dent in the microwave to mm-wave frequency range. Solving Meissner screening. The first London equation says that in
Maxwell’s equations for a plane wave impinging on a normal order to create an alternating current (i.e. any current at a non-
metal satisfying the Ohm’s law local constitutive equation zero frequency) it is necessary to establish an electric field
(J = σ E
 ) results in a complex surface impedance given by
√ in the superconductor. However, this has implications for the
Zs = (1 + i)/σ δ, where δ(ω) = 2/μ0 ωσ is the frequency finite-frequency losses in superconductors. If any un-paired
dependent skin depth. The tangential electric √ field obeys electrons (quasiparticles) are present, they will be accelerated
E (z) ∼ e−ikz with complex wavenumber k = iωμ0 /Zs as a by this electric field, scatter, and cause Ohmic dissipation. The
function of depth z. This reveals that microwave currents will second London equation defines the response of a supercon-
flow both in-phase and in quadrature to the imposed electric ductor to a magnetic field, ∇  × Js = −B,
 which holds for
field, and these currents will both oscillate and decay as a both static and dynamic fields. Hence this equation shows that
function of depth into the material as Jn (z) ∝ eiz/δ(ω) e−z/δ(ω) . a magnetic field can be used to induce screening supercurrents
A significant limitation of normal metals is their strong disper- (DC or AC), in a dual manner to how a current is induced in a
sion in the oscillation and decay characteristics as a function normal metal with an electric field.
of frequency, known as the ‘skin effect’. This handicaps the To gain a good qualitative understanding of the microwave
ability of normal metal transmission lines to carry broadband properties of superconductors one can consider the two-fluid
information [22], [23]. model of loss and inductance (see Fig. 2). The model is very
Superconductors on the other hand have a complex conduc- simple, but contains a number of key features that are con-
tivity (σ = σ1 − iσ2 ) that is primarily imaginary (σ2  σ1 ), sistent with experiment, and qualitatively in agreement with
giving rise to a surface impedance that is dominantly reac- full microscopic theory [24]. A superconductor is thought to
tive, Zs = Rs + iXs with Xs >> Rs at low temperatures. The have two independent fluids, one made up of superconducting

392 VOLUME 1, NO. 1, JANUARY 2021

electrons, the other of normal electrons, that inter-penetrate electromagnetic stimulations of a superconductor result is
and act in parallel, but do not interact. The relative abundance some (usually very) small dissipation. Heinz London was
of these two fluids changes as a function of temperature. the first to show experimentally that superconductors have
We say that the superfluid has a number per unit volume of non-zero microwave loss below the transition temperature,
ns (T ), while the normal fluid has a number density of nn (T ). [25] and Pippard later showed that superconductors present
The total number density is equal to that of the metal in the considerable microwave reactance as well [26]. Numerous
normal state: ns (T ) + nn (T ) = n, a number density fixed by microwave applications of superconductors rely on the low
the nature of the metal. microwave losses present in the superconducting state. Micro-
The total conductivity of the superconductor is the sum scopically, losses come from un-paired electrons that directly
of the superfluid and normal fluid components: σ = σs + σn . absorb microwave photons, as described originally in the mi-
There is a simple circuit analogy that captures the essential croscopic theory of Mattis and Bardeen [27]. For a fully-
features of this complex conductivity (Fig. 2). The supercon- gapped superconductor the losses are exponentially small in
ductor acts as if it is a parallel connection of a resistor R the limit of zero temperature because creating unpaired elec-
(representing the normal channel) and a pure lossless inductor trons requires that they be thermally activated over a finite
Ls (representing the superfluid channel). At zero frequency energy gap  [28]. The microwave surface resistance Rs
all of the current goes through the inductor, and there is of a superconductor, which is proportional to the dissipated
2 4kB T −/kB T
no Ohmic loss (the property of infinite DC conductivity). power P, is given by Rs ∝ P ∝ (ω) kB T ln( ω )e , valid
At finite frequency the inductive channel now presents some for T /Tc < 1/2, ω , and ω kB T . This low-loss limit
non-zero impedance (Zsuper = iωLs ) and as a result some of enables highly efficient microwave particle accelerator cavi-
the current is shunted into the resistive channel (we ignore ties with quality factors Q exceeding 1011 [3]. The cavities are
the usually small Ln ). The relative population of the normal designed to convert microwave energy into the kinetic energy
and super channels depends on frequency and temperature of a charged particle beam. The objective is to maintain the
as Js /Jn = σ2s /σ1n = nnns ωτ1 n , where τ1n is the scattering rate low-loss properties (high Q) up to high accelerating gradi-
of the normal fluid electrons. Since it is often the case that ents (large RF electric field on the accelerating axis of the
ωτn << 1 the ratio Js /Jn is usually much larger than 1, mean- microwave cavity) to create compact and efficient accelerator
ing that most of the current flows through the super-channel structures. To excel at this application, the superconducting
until one reaches frequencies near the superconducting gap material must satisfy many constraints, and so far only a few
frequency ωc , or near the transition temperature where ns (T ) materials have shown promise. Tremendous progress has been
is very small. made in optimizing the surface properties of bulk Nb used in
It is important to understand the frequency dependence of these cavities. Other superconducting materials are also un-
the dissipated power in a superconductor due to a current der development, such as Nb films on copper substrates, and
density J. The dissipated power per unit volume can be cal- Nb3 Sn coatings [29]. It is expected that compact supercon-
culated from P = Re[ρ]J 2 = Re[1/σ ]J 2 . This results in P = ducting accelerator structures will find wider applications as
σ1
σ 2 +σ 2
J 2 . For a superconductor at “low frequencies” such that their efficiency increases and as materials with higher transi-
1 2
σ1 2 tion temperatures are successfully utilized in high-Q cavities.
ωτn << 1, we can take Ps ≈ σ22
J . To good approximation
Another application enabled by low microwave losses are
we can take σ1 to be independent of frequency and we know
high-performance microwave band pass filters [30]. The high
that σ2 ∝ 1/ω from above, hence for a superconductor we
Q values of the individual resonators representing poles of
expect Ps ∝ ω2 . The corresponding calculation for a normal
the filters allow for design of extremely selective bandpass
metal results in a dissipated power per unit volume Pn ∝ ω0 ,
filters, as illustrated for example in Refs. [10], [31], [32]. Su-
but the total dissipated power scales as Pn,Total ∝ ω1/2 be-
perconducting filter structures can be made physically smaller
cause the skin depth scales as 1/ω1/2 . Hence superconductors
than their normal metal counterparts because of their superior
start with far smaller loss than normal metals at low frequency,
current-handling capabilities and the high dielectric constant
but Ohmic losses can ultimately exceed normal metals beyond
substrates used for growing HTS films. These properties allow
a crossover frequency, typically at frequencies above 100 GHz
two-dimensional superconducting structures that are as good
for cuprate superconductors [10].
as, or superior to, three dimensional normal metal and dielec-
tric filter structures, effectively reducing the dimensionality
IV. MICROWAVE TECHNOLOGIES ENABLED BY of the structures and saving space and weight. The filters have
SUPERCONDUCTIVITY extremely low insertion loss in the pass band, and the cryo-
Here we introduce the high frequency applications of super- genic environment allows for inclusion of low-noise ampli-
conductors that follows from each unique property discussed fiers directly behind the filters, capitalizing on the low-noise
above. environment of the cryo-platform.
The low-loss properties of superconductors are limited by
A. LOW-LOSS PROPERTIES AT MICROWAVE FREQUENCIES high power microwave signals that induce currents approach-
As discussed above, superconductors only display zero dis- ing the critical current of the superconducting components
sipation at precisely zero frequency. All finite frequency [33]. Before that however, superconductors harbor a number

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ANLAGE: MICROWAVE SUPERCONDUCTIVITY

introduced earlier. The presence or absence of such voltage

pulses can act as digital bits, and a decision-making logic
can be constructed with other Josephson junctions. Several
generations of such Josephson-based high-speed digital super-
conducting logic have been developed [43].
Low-loss superconducting transmission lines also offer the
ability to support slow waves and to create compact delay
lines, as well as other types of analog microwave devices [44],
[45]. The large kinetic inductance of superconductors (see
below) is strongly dependent on temperature and DC transport
current [46] allowing for widely variable microwave delay
lines and amplifiers [47], [48].

C. SUPERCONDUCTING KINETIC INDUCTANCE

FIGURE 3. Photoresponse (PR) image of a superconducting spiral Kinetic inductance arises from the inertia of the current-
resonator standing wave pattern at 256.67 MHz and 3.039 K. The PR is a carrying charge carriers, and acts in series with the magnetic
convolution of the RF current standing wave pattern and the anisotropic inductance of a conductor. Heinrich Hertz had set out to mea-
nonlinear Meissner effect of this nodal superconductor. The resonator is a
thin film of Y Ba2Cu3 O7−δ on an MgO substrate with well-defined sure the inertia of charge carriers at the age of 21 [49]. He
crystallographic orientation. The grey and red lobes at the center show the was motivated to work on this topic when a notice for a Prize
superconducting order parameter of the film, as deduced from the angular was posted at the Friedrich-Wilhelms University in Berlin in
dependence of the photoresponse. For more details see Refs. [37], [38].
Image courtesy of Dr. A. P. Zhuravel of the B. I. Verkin Institute for Low the Fall of 1878. The Prize was for a solution of the problem
Temperature Physics and Engineering in Kharkov, Ukraine. of electrical inertia, and he was given access to a laboratory
by Prof. von Helmholtz to perform the experiments. His first
scientific publication, “Experiments to Determine and Upper
of nonlinearities, both intrinsic and extrinsic, and these can Limit to the Kinetic Energy of an Electric Current,” was de-
limit the performance of superconducting microwave devices voted to this problem. Hertz had attempted to measure this
[34]. In addition, if the superconductor has nodes in its energy form of inductance, but found that it was at least 300 times
gap, such as d-wave superconductors (e.g. most high-Tc smaller than the geometrical inductance, concluding that it
cuprates), then a number of qualitatively new phenomena was not relevant to the electrical properties of ordinary con-
appear [35]. First is the existence of enhanced nonlinearity at ductors [49]. The first explicit experimental demonstration of
low temperatures associated with the quasiparticle excitations superconducting kinetic inductance was apparently made by
near the nodes of the superconducting gap. This gives rise to W. A. Little in 1967 [50]. Soon after, Meservey and Tedrow
enhanced intermodulation distortion, [36] and a remarkable measured the kinetic inductance of thin Tin (Sn) films and
anisotropic nonlinear Meissner effects of both diamagnetic noted that the kinetic inductance is extremely sensitive to
[37] and paramagnetic character [38]. Figure 3 illustrates temperature changes, magnetic field, and current [46].
the diamagnetic anisotropic nonlinear Meissner effect in an Superconducting kinetic inductance is directly related to
HTS RF resonator, imaged with a cryogenic laser scanning the superfluid density ns as Lkinetic = m/(ns e2 )(L/A) for a
microscope [39]. In addition, the low temperature losses have superconducting wire carrying a uniform current along its
an intrinsic finite residual conductivity σmin = ne2 /(π m0 ), length L and cross-sectional area A. Thus any disturbance
where 0 is the maximum value of the gap on the Fermi that reduces the superfluid density will result in enhanced
surface [40]. Also there is a linear temperature dependence kinetic inductance. Examples include temperatures near Tc ,
of the surface resistance in the clean limit, Rs (T ) ∼ T at low large transport currents approaching the critical current den-
temperatures. Hence nodal superconductors are not employed sity Jc , and large magnetic fields approaching Hc . However the
for ultra-low loss applications, and must find their niche reduction of superfluid density is accompanied by the creation
elsewhere. of quasiparticles, and a corresponding increase in surface re-
sistance and dissipated power. Hence obtaining large kinetic
B. NEAR-ZERO DISPERSION OF SUPERCONDUCTING inductance in this manner is most suitable for low frequency
TRANSMISSION LINES applications such as very precise thermometry, [51] unless
The lack of dispersion in superconducting transmission lines Josephson inductance is employed (see below).
makes them very attractive for high-speed electronics, [22], A new class of radiation detectors have been built based
[23], [41] and forms the basis for multiple generations of on the sensitivity of superconducting kinetic inductance to
superconducting electronics and digital computing, beginning temperature changes. In this case the inductor is part of
in the 1970’s [42]. Josephson junctions can undergo a rapid a resonant microwave circuit, so that changes in kinetic
2π phase slip, as fast as time scales on the order of h/ ∼ inductance translate into frequency shifts of the resonating
few ps for Nb. The resulting quantized voltage pulse V (t ) has element [52]. The ability to create compact superconducting
the property that V (t )dt = 0 , which is the flux quantum, resonant circuits (see below) using lumped-element

394 VOLUME 1, NO. 1, JANUARY 2021

components allows many such resonators to be in a focal E. MACROSCOPIC QUANTUM PHENOMENA
plane array of an imaging system. Each resonator can be tuned The superconducting state can only be understood microscop-
to a distinct frequency such that large numbers of them can be ically through its quantum mechanical properties. A phase
monitored by means of a single interrogation transmission line coherent many-particle quantum wavefunction governs the
[53]. In order to minimize losses from absorption of radiation ground and excited states of a superconductor. Several re-
and the creation of quasiparticles, granular superconducting markable macroscopic quantum phenomena follow from this
materials are often employed in the inductor. These materials property. As introduced in Section III, a vortex is a continuous
have small superconducting grains that are Josephson-coupled strand of suppressed superconducting order parameter, upon
to each other, enhancing their inductance and mitigating their which the magnetic field is centered, that can reach deep
loss due to creation of quasiparticles to some extent. These into a superconductor. It contains a unit of magnetic flux and
microwave kinetic inductance detectors (MKIDs) have proven associated screening current, and can have elastic properties,
to be very useful for imaging weak sources of electromagnetic interactions with other vortices, and experience forces from
radiation over a broad range of frequencies above ωc . pinning sites or structures. This entity in some sense enjoys a
In fact, the Josephson inductance of engineered junctions life of its own, and essentially uses the superconductor simply
offers an alternative tunable inductance that can be accompa- as a medium in which to exist. In response to microwave
nied with low microwave losses. The inductive response of a currents the magnetic vortex will experience an oscillating
Josephson junction is characterized by an effective Josephson Lorentz force and produce both reactive and dissipative re-
inductance LJJ = 2πIcj 0cos δ , where δ is the gauge-invariant sponse [21], [68]. Vortices are often deemed undesirable for
phase across the junction, including the magnetic field in the many microwave applications. For example they can produce
barrier through the vector potential A  [54]–[56]. The nonlin- residual loss in SRF accelerator cavities, and they can disrupt
ear Josephson inductance has been used for many years to high-speed Josephson based digital computing circuits. Ide-
directly detect radiation through a variety of means [57]. By ally vortices are either eliminated from the material, or are
incorporating the junction into a superconducting loop one relegated to “moats” [69], [70] that effectively immobilize
can manipulate δ by means of the magnetic flux threading them and sequester them from microwave currents.
the loop. Such a structure (originally known as an RF super- High-speed superconducting digital logic is based on the
conducting quantum interference device - RF SQUID [58]) use of a single magnetic flux quantum as the classical bit. A
acts as a flux-tunable resonant circuit with strongly tunable Josephson junction can be sent through a 2π phase winding
and nonlinear properties. It has been used to add variable of its gauge-invariant phase on time scales as short as the
inductance to superconducting transmission lines, [59] and inverse gap frequency τ = /, which is on the order of a
as a meta-atom for new forms of artificial matter [60]–[64]. few ps for Nb. The time-dependent phase difference creates
Josephson inductance, and it’s nonlinearity, are a key ingredi- a voltage pulse V (t ) ∝ dδdt which is on the scale of /e in
ent for superconducting quantum circuits [65]. magnitude and duration on the scale of τ . This voltage pulse
has
 the property that it contains a unit of magnetic flux:
D. COMPACT SUPERCONDUCTING STRUCTURES V (t )dt = 0 . The presence or absence of such a pulse at
A hidden advantage of superconductors over normal metal logic gates (made up of other Josephson junctions) acts as the
components is the fact that superconductors can support much classical bit for logic operations. The use of low-dispersion
larger current densities but still maintain low losses. This and low-loss superconducting transmission lines (as discussed
enables very compact structures to be built that survive under in Sections IV A. and B. above) preserves the integrity of
high current densities without significantly degrading their these pulses as they propagate through the logic circuits.
superconducting properties. Hollow metallic resonators have This logic scheme was dubbed the rapid single-flux-quantum
quality factors that scale as Q ∝ V/Sδ, where V and S are (RSFQ) circuit family, [71] and has matured into a number
the volume and surface area of the resonator and δ is the of derivative logic families of high speed and low power
depth of penetration of the electromagnetic fields in the metals consumption. An RSFQ-based digital frequency divider has
making up the walls of the resonator. In general one finds been operated up to 750 GHz [72]. It has become clear that
high-Q values in three-dimensional structures where V/S can low-dissipation-per-operation logic is absolutely critical for
be made large. However, because of their unique and low moving beyond peta-flop computing, [73], [74] and a number
dissipation properties, and the ability to support large current of superconducting logic families show promise in this regard
densities, superconductors enable high-Q planar (quasi-two- [75], [76]. Designing and building these advanced supercon-
dimensional) structures. This has led to the development of ducting digital technologies poses many exciting challenges
compact highly-selective and low insertion loss planar band- in microwave engineering [77].
pass filters. It also facilitates extreme sub-wavelength meta-
atoms to create effective media metamaterials with precisely
defined and low-loss properties. Example meta-atoms include F. MICROSCOPIC QUANTUM PHENOMENA
split-ring resonators [66] and compact spiral resonators [67] As noted in Section II C. above, the superconducting state
that are as small compared to the resonant microwave wave- is defined by a remarkable macroscopically coherent many-
length as a Hydrogen atom is to visible light. electron quantum wavefunction. Under the right conditions

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ANLAGE: MICROWAVE SUPERCONDUCTIVITY

this property enables superconductors to display microscopic a point representing the quantum state of the two-level system
quantum phenomena even when the devices involved are on the Bloch sphere [81]. The microwave manipulations can
macroscopic in size. Think about the famous “particle in a be used to perform fundamental ‘gate’ operations, such as a
box” one-dimensional quantum mechanics problem covered π pulse that inverts the state of the qubit, or various π /2
in undergraduate textbooks [78]. The quantum energy states rotations that create non-trivial superposition states of |g >
of the particle are discrete and widely separated, labeled by and |e > [65]. After demonstrating control over individual
positive integers, and the corresponding wavefunctions are qubits, the creation of multi-qubit systems greatly complicates
sinusoidal patterns that span the length of the box. In the case the microwave engineering issues. To first approximation each
of a superconducting quantum bit (qubit) the particle is a bit qubit must be completely isolated from all the others, and
more abstract, being essentially a “phase point” in a “box” no microwave cross-talk can occur for the control signals.
described by the potential energy of a Josephson junction. At the next level of operation, the qubits must be brought
This device is a superconducting system utilizing one or more into precisely controlled interaction to spread the quantum
Josephson junctions with two nearby energy levels, a ground information so that it eventually entangles all the qubits in
state |g > with energy Eg and a first excited state |e > with the entire quantum processor. The engineering details to ac-
energy Ee , with all other higher energy levels safely separated complish these tasks are extremely intricate and demanding
such that the system can be maintained in this limited (two- [80]–[82].
state Hilbert space) manifold. The energy difference between Many ancillary operations with superconducting qubits
the two states of the qubit is chosen to be in the microwave take advantage of the other microwave properties mentioned
range, fqubit = (Ee − Eg )/h, with fqubit ≈ 5 GHz. Hence the above. For example it is important to control the electro-
quantum state of the qubit can be manipulated by means of magnetic impedance that the qubits experience at microwave
microwave photons. To exhibit quantum effects, the tempera- frequencies [82]. The quantum states are extremely delicate
ture of the qubit must be maintained below the point at which and prone to being lost due to electromagnetic interactions
thermal excitations cause transitions between the two states, with the environment. One issue is the presence of parasitic
namely kB T h fqubit . Since a 5 GHz photon has an equiva- two-level systems in dielectrics that mimic the properties of
lent thermal energy corresponding to 240 mK, superconduct- the qubits and can couple to them and destroy their quantum
ing qubits are typically operated at temperatures below 20 information [83], [84]. More distant perturbations can be con-
mK. This may sound like an extreme condition, but in fact trolled by placing the qubit in a high impedance environment.
such temperatures are routinely achieved with commercially This can be accomplished by coupling it to large inductances
available automated cryostats that are fully compatible with (called superinductors), such as that provided by high kinetic
microwave transmission lines, amplifiers, circulators, etc. inductance materials or by arrays of closely spaced Josephson
The earliest superconducting qubits utilized higher transi- junctions [65]. The scale for the impedance required is given
tion frequencies to ease the cooling requirements [79]. Flux- by the quantum of resistance R > RQ = h/(2e)2 ≈ 6.45k
based qubits are typically designed as compact self-resonant
structures based on lumped-elements that also include one V. A TIMELINE OF MICROWAVE SUPERCONDUCTIVITY
or more Josephson junctions incorporated into supercon- Figure 4 offers the author’s personal perspective on the time-
ducting loops. The earliest versions were patterned on the line of important events in the development of microwave su-
basic structure of a Superconducting Quantum Interference perconductivity. The foundation for these developments was
(SQUID) device, which is just a superconducting loop inter- laid by the discovery of superconductivity in the lab of K.
rupted by one, two, or more Josephson junctions. Because of Onnes in 1911 [13] (Nobel Prize in Physics in 1913). The
the macroscopic quantum properties of flux quantization and demonstration of the spontaneous magnetic flux-excluding
the Josephson effect, an applied magnetic field (specifically properties by Meissner and Ochsenfeld in 1933 [85], [86]
the magnetic flux applied to the loop) can be used to con- showed that superconductivity was a uniquely non-classical
trol the gauge invariant phase difference δ on the Josephson phenomenon and was intimately related to electromagnetism.
junctions. This in turn allows one to control the Josephson Our understanding of the electrodynamic properties of su-
potential energy landscape to create a quantum “particle in perconductors was developed through the phenomenological
a box” scenario that produces the requisite ground and first models, along with the early experimental work of London
excited states making up the qubit. The nonlinearity of the [25] and Pippard [26] on the microwave properties of super-
Josephson potential energy then facilitates the isolation of the conductors. The two-fluid model [87], [88] and the London
two lowest energy states from the others during subsequent theory [89]–[91] of superconductor electrodynamics, along
microwave signal manipulations. with Ginzburg-Landau theory, [92] provided a phenomeno-
The next step is to carefully apply microwave signals of logical understanding of how electromagnetic fields interact
precisely controlled frequency and duration to manipulate the with superconductors. Landau won the Nobel Prize in Physics
quantum state of the qubit [80], [81]. These signals are created in 1962, while Ginzburg won in 2003 (along with Abrikosov
with arbitrary waveform generators with precisely controlled and Leggett).
in-phase and quadrature content. The signals perform manip- Heinz London was the first to measure non-zero resistance
ulation of the qubit state and can best be visualized in terms of below the transition temperature of a superconductor, and he

396 VOLUME 1, NO. 1, JANUARY 2021

FIGURE 4. The author’s subjective timeline of major events in the history of microwave superconductivity, from the discovery of superconductivity to
circa 2020. Events are arranged in chronological order and (the believed) seminal references are given. The events are color coded as Discovery (red),
Fundamental Result (purple), Technology Demonstration (blue), and Maturing Technology (black).

attributed the measured microwave losses to residual normal theory [27] of superconductor electrodynamics demonstrated
fluid as proposed by the two-fluid model [25]. Pippard was the importance of the superconducting energy gap and quan-
able to show through microwave surface impedance measure- tum coherence effects in the complex conductivity and surface
ments that a new length scale was required to understand the impedance of superconductors. Mattis-Bardeen theory pre-
penetration depth data taken from samples of varying purity, dicts that losses in fully-gapped superconductors will become
and this led to the concept of a coherence length, which proved arbitrarily small as the temperature is decreased, enabling
to be an important ingredient for later microscopic theories of ultra-high quality factor superconducting resonators for high-
superconductivity [26]. Microwave measurements were also efficiency particle accelerators, as initially demonstrated by
instrumental in proving the existence of quantized magnetic Schwettman and Turneaure utilizing a solid Nb cavity [95].
vortices in type-II superconductors. The measurement of mi- Materials and infrastructure development over many years
crowave loss vs. frequency of a superconductor in a magnetic has made solid Nb cavities the method of choice for high-
field by Gittleman and Rosenblum was interpreted in terms of efficiency and compact charged particle accelerators, [3] even
the coherent motion of vortex-particles subjected to a Lorentz- to the point that normal metal accelerator cavities are now
like force and hindered in their motion by pinning and viscous being replaced by their superconducting versions [96].
damping forces [21]. Their model has stood the test of time Experimental basic research efforts have led to many im-
and is still considered a definitive starting point for treatments portant developments in microwave superconductivity. The
of microwave vortex response. More sophisticated treatments ability to perform measurements at low temperatures were
of vortex motion under microwave stimulus now include the greatly expanded by the availability of the Collins cryostat
effects of flux creep, [68] and vortex elastic properties, [93] and abundant quantities of liquid Helium in the late 1940’s
among other effects [94]. [97]. In the 21st century world-wide demand for Helium gas
The Bardeen-Cooper-Schrieffer (BCS) theory laid out a and liquid has proven problematic for low-temperature mea-
microscopic understanding of the superconducting state and surements and applications. A switch to closed-cycle refrig-
showed that the many-particle quantum wavefunction that erators has occurred as developments in efficient refrigera-
describes all of the electrons in the metal has a macroscopic tor technology have accelerated (see below). The availability
phase-coherence and rigidity that explain many unique prop- of user-friendly automated dilution refrigerators in the sec-
erties, [19] such as the macroscopic quantum effects. The ond decade of the current century has helped to greatly ex-
essential quantum nature of the superconducting state has en- pand the experimental and practical use of superconductors at
abled many applications, and fueled the rise of quantum tech- ultra-low temperatures where quantum microwave effects are
nology in the 21st century. In particular the Mattis-Bardeen dominant.

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Many exciting microwave applications have been enabled superconductors by Bednorz and Müller in 1986 [112]
by the elucidation of the Josephson effects [18] and the ex- (Nobel Prize in Physics in 1987) had a tremendous impact on
perimental demonstration of the AC Josephson effect [98], microwave superconductivity. These new materials promised
[99] in particular. It was quickly realized that a Josephson operation above the boiling temperature of liquid nitrogen,
junction acts as a nonlinear and parametric inductor, making it and in many cases require operating temperatures that can
ideal for low-loss parametric amplification of high frequency be easily reached with single-stage closed-cycle cryocoolers.
signals [54]. The time dynamics of the Josephson junction is Many new applications were pursued in the subsequent years,
ultimately
√ restricted by the plasma frequency of the junction, with high-performance microwave bandpass filters being one
ω p = 1/ LJJ C, where C is the capacitance of the junction, of the most commercially successful [31], [113], [114]. The
so that f p = ω p /2π can range from 10’s of GHz to 1 THz, HTS filters make use of carefully coupled high-Q thin film
depending on the junction size and design. Hence the junc- resonators of compact design to produce extraordinarily low-
tion can act on remarkably short time scales (as small as insertion loss and dramatically abrupt band-edge performance
a few ps), giving rise to quantized voltage pulses, as dis- [32]. To illustrate the advanced stage of development of these
cussed in the context of RSFQ logic above, among other microwave applications, a spacecraft made up of 8 HTS su-
things. This, combined with the low-loss and low-dispersion perconducting microwave devices (including filters, receivers,
properties of superconducting transmission lines, has led to analog-digital converter, delay line and antenna array) acting
several generations of Josephson-based digital logic families as a system was launched into earth orbit [115]. The system
[100], [101]. One resulting application is high-speed analog- was operated on a space-qualified cryocooler that provided a
to-digital (A/D) conversion, which was demonstrated in a temperature of 65 K, and the system operated successfully for
sampling oscilloscope that was decades ahead of its time, two years, which was the lifetime of the program.
[102], [103] while further refinement has achieved A/D sam- Another remarkable property of HTS cuprate superconduc-
pling rates up to 20 GHz [104]. Related logic families have tors is their layered structure, with superconductivity being
been used to create entirely superconducting microprocessors confined mainly to Cu-O layers which are separated from each
in which essentially every function of a computer (including other by nominally non-superconducting ‘spacer materials’ in
memory) is executed with superconducting circuits [43]. the perpendicular direction. Associated with this layering is a
Another remarkable high frequency application of the AC built-in and naturally occurring Josephson coupling between
Josephson effect is the development of the world-wide voltage superconducting layers. This property was explicitly demon-
standard based on conversion of a microwave frequency into strated by applying a DC voltage along the perpendicular di-
a precisely controlled voltage value, typically either 1 V or 10 rection of a strongly-layered single crystal of a cuprate super-
V [105]. This concept has been taken one step further through conductor and observing Josephson radiation from the crystal
the creation of a Josephson arbitrary waveform synthesizer [116]. This was later engineered into a remarkable voltage-
[106]. In this case short current-pulses are sent to an array controlled Josephson oscillator that spans the frequency range
of Josephson junctions, generating quantized arbitrary wave- from 100’s of GHz up to over 1 THz [117].
forms with excellent spectral purity with low noise and no The ability of superconductors to handle high current den-
drift [107]. sities while maintaining low losses has enabled numerous
The un-diminished superfluid screening response under al- microwave applications. Planar (thin film) microwave filters
ternating fields led to the demonstration of superconducting utilizing patterned resonant structures incorporate many com-
kinetic inductance, an effect long surmised by Helmholtz and pact coupled high-Q resonant structures that create a tailored
Hertz, but not directly observed until the 1960’s [46], [50]. transmission response with very little insertion loss and steep
Large kinetic inductance that is extremely sensitive to envi- transmission drop-off out of band [31], [32], [113], [114].
ronmental perturbations have proven a key enabling technol- Similar ideas have gone into the development of resonant
ogy for extremely sensitive detectors of electromagnetic radi- and non-resonant superconducting metamaterials. [64], [66],
ation such as MKIDs [52], [53], [108]. At lower frequencies [118], [119] In this case the meta-atoms are composed of ex-
Josephson tunnel junction based detectors provide very high treme sub-wavelength structures that maintain high-Q despite
sensitivity to mm-wave and sub-THz radiation [109]. When large microwave fields [53]. The incorporation of macroscopic
such radiation is directed onto a junction (typically attached quantum effects into superconducting meta-atoms has made
to an antenna), the DC current-voltage curve will exhibit both them extraordinarily sensitive to RF and DC magnetic fields,
Shapiro steps as well as steps due to photon-assisted tunneling and enabled metamaterials with extreme nonlinearity [120].
[110]. This allows heterodyne detection of radiation with fre- Utilizing microscopic quantum effects has led to the develop-
quencies between roughly 100 GHz and 1 THz. Both tunnel ment of qubit-based superconducting metamaterials that open
junctions and MKIDS have the advantage that they can be a new field of research into truly quantum metamaterials [60],
easily multiplexed into large arrays for imaging. [119], [121].
Many superconducting microwave devices based on low- Microwave superconductivity has provided the setting
loss, high kinetic inductance, and the Josephson effects were for the revolutionary and rapid rise of superconducting
explored in the 20th century using low-transition temperature quantum computing and quantum information science
superconductors [111]. The discovery of high-Tc (cuprate) (QIS). Other QIS technologies, such as semiconductor

398 VOLUME 1, NO. 1, JANUARY 2021

quantum dots, impurity spins, and trapped ions, all depend VII. THE FUTURE
on RF/microwave signal manipulations and cryogenic It is clear that the quantum information revolution is built
technologies. Landmark results in this rapidly evolving field squarely on the foundation of microwave superconductivity.
include the development of the first qubit, [79] circa the turn Tremendous microwave engineering challenges are in store
of the 21st century, the development of a single microwave for the development of large scale quantum coherent comput-
photon on-demand source, [122] and the development of a ing machines, creating many opportunities for new applica-
sensitive single microwave photon detector [48], [123]. QIS tions of superconductors.
measurements are now routinely done in the single microwave It seems likely that new superconductors with inter-
photon limit in microwave resonators coupled to microwave esting properties will continue to be discovered. Most
transition-frequency qubits [65]. technologically-relevant superconductors are s-wave super-
conductors, meaning that the two electrons that make up a
Cooper pair enter into an  = 0 quantum angular momentum
VI. MICROWAVE SUPERCONDUCTING INFRASTRUCTURE state. These superconductors generally have a full excitation
A long-time major limitation for the adoption of supercon- energy gap on the Fermi surface, giving rise to an expo-
ducting microwave technology has been the issue of cryo- nentially small number of quasiparticles in the limit of zero
genic cooling. Much of the historical research on supercon- temperature, among other features. An increasing number of
ductivity was performed with liquid cryogens, namely helium superconductors discovered since the 1970’s have shown clear
and nitrogen, which are consumable materials with incon- evidence of  = 1 and  = 2, and possibly higher, quantum
sistent supply, at least in the case of helium. However, the angular momentum pairing states of the electrons. These ma-
advent of closed-cycle mechanical cryocoolers, and numerous terials generally have nodes in their energy gap, meaning that
derivatives with increasing efficiency and fewer moving parts, quasiparticles can be excited even at the lowest temperatures,
has revolutionized cryogenic technology [124], [125]. Today thus creating altogether different low-energy properties of
there are many options for low-cost and highly reliable cry- these materials. So far, few of these more exotic materials
ocooler technologies, especially those adapted for cryogenic have found an application based specifically on these pairing
microwave applications [77]. For example, in the last 30 years properties. Related to this, superconductors with non-trivial
the pulsed tube refrigerator, which eliminates all moving parts electronic topological properties have recently been proposed
at low temperatures, has greatly increasing reliability without and discovered [129], [130]. These materials may host chiral
compromising efficiency. edge currents and perhaps other exotic phenomena that may
Another important issue for microwave superconductivity find use in future QIS applications [131], [132].
is the ability to get high frequency signals back and forth It is also likely that new superconductors with transition
to the cryogenic environment without compromising the in- temperatures exceeding 100 K will continue to be discovered.
tegrity of the signal or the efficiency of the cryogenic cooling So far many of these higher-Tc materials have been difficult
system. This has led to development of low-microwave loss to utilize in applications because of their toxic chemical con-
transmission lines that are simultaneously a small heat-load stituents, brittle mechanical properties, or the fact that they
on the cryogenic environment [126]. Examples of such struc- can only be stabilized under extraordinarily high pressures.
tures include flexible dielectric tapes with an array of super- However, our ability to predict the properties of new materials,
conducting or low-loss metallic transmission line structures. and their stability, is growing more sophisticated with time
Superconductors have the advantage of being poor thermal [133], [134]. This theoretical effort has directly led to dis-
conductors below Tc , no worse than insulators in most cases. covery of new superconductors with transition temperatures
The QIS revolution has led to a proliferation of approaching room temperature, [135], [136] the holy grail
commercially-produced and cryogenically-qualified of the superconducting materials community [137]. Turning
microwave devices [127]. Examples of such passive devices these new materials into practical devices and products will
include attenuators, isolators, circulators, and switches. take time, but it seems likely that superconducting microwave
Active devices have recently seen great advancement in terms devices will find increasingly wider application and usage in
of low-dissipation broadband low-noise amplifiers that are the future.
very well suited for the cryogenic environment. There has also
been great leaps forward in development of quantum-limited VIII. CONCLUSION
amplifiers (QLA) based on the parametric properties of This broad overview of microwave superconductivity is in-
Josephson junctions. Two main classes of QLAs are currently tended to give the reader a taste of this very exciting field of
in use, Josephson traveling wave parametric amplifiers and microwave technology that shows great promise for young
Josephson parametric converters [128]. engineers and technologists. Harnessing the unique quan-
Finally, as noted above, there has been development of tum mechanical properties of the superconducting state of-
new cryogenic microwave sources and detectors capable of fers many opportunities for invention and for the solution to
operating down to the single photon limit. Both the intrinsic numerous problems in modern life. We hope that this review
Josephson effect in cuprates, and the use of artificial Joseph- will help to inspire more creative uses of superconductors in
son devices, have enabled these new technologies. microwave devices, systems, and applications.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENT [25] H. London, “The high-frequency resistance of superconducting tin,”

The author would like to thank the many advisors, colleagues, Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. Ser. A, Math. Phys. Sci., vol. 176, no. 967,
pp. 522–533, 1940.
current and former students, and post-docs who have con- [26] A. B. Pippard, “An experimental and theoretical study of the relation
tributed to his understanding of microwave superconductivity. between magnetic field and current in a superconductor,” Proc. Roy.
Specifically, he would like to thank Bakhrom Oripov for per- Soc. Lond. Ser. A, Math. Phys. Sci., vol. 216, no. 1127, pp. 547–568,
1953.
forming the TDGL Meissner calculation and creating Fig. 1, [27] D. C. Mattis and J. Bardeen, “Theory of the anomalous skin effect
and Alexander P. Zhuravel for providing Fig. 3. He also thanks in normal and superconducting metals,” Phys. Rev., vol. 111, no. 2,
Stuart Berkowitz, Marty Nisenoff, and Dan Oates for helpful pp. 412–417, 1958. [Online]. Available: http://prola.aps.org/pdf/PR/
v111/i2/p412_1
comments. [28] J. P. Turneaure, J. Halbritter, and H. A. Schwettman, “The surface
impedance of superconductors and normal conductors - The Mattis-
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vol. 64, no. 2, pp. 189–193, 1986. CA, USA, in 1984 and 1988, respectively. He is
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“Superconducting microwave filter systems for cellular telephone base the Department of Electrical and Computer Engi-
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conductors,” Science, vol. 318, no. 5854, pp. 1291–1293, 2007. and Advanced Materials, from 2007 to 2009, and is a member of the Maryland
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materials,” J. Opt., vol. 13, no. 2, 2011, Art. no. 024001. Department of Physics. In 2011, he was appointed as a Visiting Professor
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metamaterials,” Supercond. Sci. Technol., vol. 27, no. 7, 2014, Art. no. nology, Germany, and in 2019, he was a Visiting Fellow with the Institute of
073001. Advanced Studies, Loughborough University in the United Kingdom. He has
[120] D. Zhang, M. Trepanier, T. Antonsen, E. Ott, and S. M. Anlage, authored or coauthored more than 200 research papers in scientific journals.
“Intermodulation in nonlinear SQUID metamaterials: Experiment and His research in high-frequency superconductivity has addressed questions
theory,” Phys. Rev. B, vol. 94, no. 17, 2016, Art. no. 174507. of the pairing state symmetry of the cuprate and heavy Fermion supercon-
[121] P. Macha et al., “Implementation of a quantum metamaterial using ductors, measurements of the nonlinear Meissner effect, the dynamics of
superconducting qubits,” Nature Commun., vol. 5, 2014 Art. no. 5146. conductivity fluctuations and vortices, and microwave applications such as
[122] A. A. Houck et al., “Generating single microwave photons in a circuit,” superconducting metamaterials that incorporate the Josephson effect. He has
Nature, vol. 449, no. 7160, pp. 328–331, 2007. also developed and patented a near-field scanning microwave microscope for
[123] B. R. Johnson et al., “Quantum non-demolition detection of single mi- quantitative local measurements of electronic materials (dielectrics, semicon-
crowave photons in a circuit,” Nature Phys., vol. 6, no. 9, pp. 663–667, ductors, metals, and superconductors) down to nm length scales. Prof. Anlage
2010. is a member of the American Physical Society and the Materials Research
Society.
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