on

RESONANCE
and
ALIGNMENT
 ON

RESONANCE
AND
ALIGNMENT

Published by

JOHN F. RIDER, Publisher

1440 BROADWAY NEW YORK CITY
 Copyright 1936, by
JOHN F. RIDER

All rights reserved, including that of translation

into the Scandinavian and other
foreign languages

Printed in the United States of America

 TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER I. GENERAL REVIEW OF TUNED CIRCUITS.-1.
Reactance and Impedance-2. Inductive Reactance-2. Ca-
pacitive Reactance--4. Series Resonance-6. Tuning or
Trimming-9. Applications of Series Resonant Circuit-10.
Parallel Tuned Circuit-11. Effect of Resistance on Series
Tuned Circuit-17. Effect of Resistance on Parallel Tuned
Circuit-20. Shunt Resistance-22. Coupling and Resonance
Curves-23. The Double Tuned Transformer-26. Selec-
tivity Requirements-31. Variable Selectivity Circuits-33.
CHAPTER II. ALIGNMENT PROCEDURE.-39. Need for
Alignment-40. Trimmer Adjustments-42. Use of the
Tuning Wand-43. Regeneration-44. AVC Adjustment
during Alignment-44. Output Indicators in Audio System-
45. Output Indicators Based upon AVC Action-47.
CHAPTER III. ALIGNMENT AND NEUTRALIZATION OF
TRF RECEIVERS.-49. Synchronizing Variable Condensers
-52. Neutralization of TRF Receivers-52. Neutralizing
Procedure-53.
CHAPTER IV. THE ALIGNMENT OF SUPERHETERODYNE
RECEIVERS.-55. General I-f. Amplifier Alignment-57.
Aligning Atwater Kent Receivers-58. Balancing Unit for
General Use-59. Aligning Overcoupled I-f. Transformers
with Output Meter-60. Neutralization of I-f. Amplifiers-
61. Regenerative I-f. Amplifiers-61. Staggering-62. Dual
Band Receivers with Single Oscillator Range-65.
CHAPTER V. OSCILLATOR ALIGNMENT.-66. Oscillator
Tracking-67.
CHAPTER VI. R-F. AND DETECTOR ALIGNMENT.-70.
Dummy Antenna-70. R-f. and First Detector Alignment-
70. Low-Frequency Oscillator Alignment-72. Rocking Nec-
essary for High-Frequency Detector Alignment-73. Insuf-
ficient Attenuation at Higher Frequencies-73. I-f. Wave
Trap Adjustment-74. Image Suppression Circuits-75.
Double Conversion Systems-77. Converter Alignment-79.
Beat Oscillator Alignment for C-W. Reception-SO. Adjusting
10-Kc. Audio Filters-SO. Determining Unknown I-f. Peaks
-81. Use of Signal Generator Harmonics-82. Visual Align-
ment-84. Visual Alignment at 600 Kc.-88. Frequency
Range of Visual Alignment-91.
iii
 Chapter I
GENERAL REVIEW OF TUNED CIRCUITS
AT FIRST thought it may seem inappropriate to begin a discussion
of alignment and its problems by a consideration of the tuned
circuit and the elements of which it is composed. However,
when we take into account the fact that the tuned circuit is the
basic unit encountered in all alignment problems, it is only
natural to expect that a knowledge of the operation of a tuned
circuit will be of tremendous value in simplifying the problems
encountered during the alignment process. It is of extreme im-
portance that the man called upon to align a receiver be as
familiar with what is actually happening, speaking from the
technical viewpoint, when a circuit is trimmed, as he is with the
ultimate result with respect to operation of the receiver unit.
Admittedly, alignment operations have been carried on for a long
time-but in altogether too many cases these operations con-
sisted of nothing more than a series of arbitrary or mechanical
steps.
Basically, all alignment operations are alike, yet all of us
who have had experience in this type of work realize that certain
differences exist purely as a result of circuit variations intro-
duced by the men responsible for the design of the receiver.
With nothing but a mechanical knowledge of the operations of a
radio receiver, the men called upon to align such receivers con-
sider each of these various systems as a separate and different
problem. A general review of resonance phenomena and the
functions of the elements which comprise the tuned circuits, can-
not help but prove of value in attaining proficiency in aligning.
It is for this reason that the first section of this book is devoted
to a general treatment of the tuned circuit.
1
2 AN Hou& A DAY WITH RIDER

It is our intention, with respect to the general treatment of the

tuned circuit, to omit the mathematical details. In the event
that you are interested in the complete technical exposition of the
tuned circuit with its ramifications and in the practical math-
ematics relating thereto, we suggest that you secure the com-
panion volume "An Hour A Day With Rider On Alternating
Currents In Radio Receivers."

Reactance and Impedance

When a direct current is caused to flow through a circuit, that
current meets no opposition or hindrance other than the direct-
ourrent resistance of the circuit. If, however, an alternating
current is caused to flow through the circuit, the opposition to
the flow of that current depends upon several factors. One of
these is the resistance of the circuit; another is the reactance of
the circuit, usually expressed in ohms. The total hindrance en-
compassing the resistance and the reactance, is known as the
impedance, which, likewise, is expressed in ohms.

Inductive Reactance
By inductive reactance is meant the opposition to the flow of
alternating current presented by an inductance. An inductance,
sometimes referred to as an inductor, may be in any one of a
number of forms. Such units as r-f. chokes, filter chokes, plate
chokes, the windings in r-f., i-f., a-f., and power transformers are
inductances. In fact, all coils are inductances, with the excep-
tion of such windings as are especially arranged to be free of
inductive properties. Lest some misconception exist, the term
inductance, as designating the physical unit, has become a com-
monplace expression, hence is used throughout this volume.
Inductive reactance depends primarily upon the frequency of
the applied voltage and the inductance value of the unit. When-
ever inductive reactance is mentioned, it is customary to mention
also the frequency, at which the measurement was made viz; a
choke has a reactance of 1000 ohms at 60 cycles. The manner
in which inductive reactance varies with frequency is illustrated
in Fig. 1, wherein inductive reactance, for a fixed value of in-
ductance, is plotted against frequency. As is evident, the vari-
 RESONANCE AND ALIGNMENT 3

ation of inductive reactance with frequency is a straight line,

which means that inductive reactance varies in direct proportion
with the frequency. At zero frequency the inductive reactance
is zero. As the frequency is increased, the inductive reactance
increases. Doubling the frequency, doubles the inductive re-
actance. Halving the frequency, halves the inductive reactance.
Thus, if a winding has an inductive reactance of 10,000 ohms at
600 cycles,-at 1200 cycles the inductive reactance will be 20,-
000 ohms and at 300 cycles, the inductive reactance will be 5000
ohms.
Reactance in general, can be looked upon as a sort of resist-
ance offered to the flow of alternating current through the device
or unit. At the same time, however, it is necessary to understand
that inductive reactance is different from the direct-current re-
sistance of a winding. The former depends upon the presence

Fig. 1. The graph at the right +

shows that when the frequency
of the current Bowing through
an inductance increases, then ~
the inductive reactance in- <!
~~~!s,! ':f:!~11infei~~:ed
~~ac:; ~ oi..:;,._--~-R-E_Q_v._~_N_c:_Y_ _ _ __
being positive and so is shown 11:
above the zero line.

of alternating current, or, expressed in another manner, the ap-

plication of an alternating e.m.f., whereas the latter is a function
of the conductivity of the wire used. It is possible that a coil
will have a d-c. resistance of 10 ohms, yet present a reactance of
10,000 ohms at a certain frequency. It is also possible, although
not generally true in practice, that a coil will offer a reactance at
a certain frequency within the operative range, which is less than
the direct-current resistance. Basically speaking, the determina-
tion of the reactance does not include or embrace the direct-
current resistance of the unit.
Inductive reactance is usually referred to as being positive,
and is shown above the zero reference line, as in Fig. 1. At the
same time, it is necessary to understand that if an alternating
e.m.f. is applied to a circuit containing an inductance, then the
4 AN HOUR A DAY WITH RIDER

current flowing through the inductance is said to "lag" behind

the applied voltage. There is a very definite reason for this con-
dition. Expressed in the simplest manner, in order to avoid an
elaborate discussion, it is of the following order: When an al-
ternating voltage, or e.m.f., is applied to a coil, current flows
through the coil and varies between zero and maximum and
changes its polarity or direction in accordance with the rise and
fall and change of polarity of the impressed or applied voltage.
This change in current intensity sets up a continually varying
magnetic field around the turns of the coil. The magnetic lines
of force, created as a result of the varying current flowing
through the turns, again cut the turns of the coil, and there is in-
duced in the coil, a counter e.m.f. of self-induction.
This counter e.m.f. of self-induction opposes any change in
the current which causes it. In other words, it tends to keep the
current low when the current is increasing and tends to keep the
current high, when the current is decreasing. The consequence
is that the variations of intensity of the current are not simul-
taneous with the variations in magnitude of the impressed
voltage. By this is meant that the current and impressed volt-
age are not in phase. Expressed differently, the current through
the coil does not pass through its maximum point until a short
interval after the impressed voltage has passed through its maxi-
mum point. The same delay exists between the voltage and
current at all other points along the cycle. Such a condition is
described by saying that the current "lags" behind the voltage.
(More extensive details concerning this phenomenon will be
found in the companion volume "Alternating Currents in Radio
Receivers.")

Capacitive Reactance
The presence of a condenser in an a-c. circuit introduces an
opposition to the flow of the alternating current. This opposi-
tion, or hindrance, is referred to as capacitive reactance. In
contrast to inductive reactance, the opposition offered by a con-
denser varies inversely with frequency, as illustrated in Fig. 2.
Whereas inductive reactance increases with frequency, capacitive
reactance decreases with frequency. The inverse relation be-
 RESONANCE AND ALIGNMENT 5

tween frequency and capacitive reactance identifies that if one

is increased, the other decreases. In other words, if the
frequency is increased twice, the capacitive reactance decreases
to one-half of its original value. For example, if at 1000 cycles
the capacitive reactance is 31,840 ohms, at 2000 cycles the
capacitive reactance would be 15,920 ohms. If the frequency is
increased ten times, the capacitive reactance becomes one-tenth
of its original value. Capacitive reactance also depends upon the
value of capacity. Increasing the capacity, decreases the re-
actance and conversely, decreasing the capacity, increases the
reactance.
Referring to Fig. 2, you will note that the curve representing
capacitive reactance is plotted below the horizontal axis, thereby
indicating that it is negative. If you remember, the curve repre-
+
Fig. 2. When a condenser is
connected in a circuit, the ca- ti
pacitive reactance decreases ~
with an increase in frequency. ::
Note that the curve is below the "
horizontal axis, indicating that ~
the capacitive reactance is al- II:
ways considered to be negative.

senting inductive reactance was plotted above the horizontal

axis. The relation between positive and negative reactance, as
mentioned before, becomes of importance when considering
resonance problems and will be explained at greater length later
in this chapter.
The relation between alternating current and voltage in a
circuit containing a condenser is such that the current leads the
voltage. The reason for the leading current in a capacitive
circuit can be explained in the following manner: Assume that
a voltage is applied to a condenser and that this voltage starts
at zero. As the voltage increases, there is a flow of electron~
(current) around the circuit as the electrons are moved from
one plate to the other, in accordance with the voltage applied.
After a certain interval of current flow, the condenser becomes
fully charged to the value of the voltage applied. It is, there-
6 AN HOUR A DAY WITH RIDER

fore, evident that a flow of current takes place prior to the time
that the voltage across the condenser becomes maximum. Con-
sequently, it is said that the current in a capacitive circuit
"leads" the voltage. For a more elaborate discussion of this
subject, which is not deemed necessary at this time, see "An
Hour A Day With Rider On Alternating Currents In Radio Re-
ceivers."
No doubt you have experienced practical examples of the
relation between capacitive reactance and frequency in connec-
tion with bypass circuits. More than likely you have at one time
or another discovered that a certain condition, perhaps regenera-
tion, is occasioned by the fact that the value of the capacity,
used in any one position in the circuit, is not sufficient to bypass
properly the frequencies present in that system. The reactance
is too high and proper bypassing is not obtained. By increasing
the capacity, the reactance is decreased and a more ready path
is offered for the flow of the signal currents and, consequently,
they are kept out of harmful paths. It might also be well at this
time, to remember that under certain circumstances, when the
frequency is very high, it is possible that the presence of a con-
denser will be the equivalent of a virtual short-circuit to that
frequency, because the reactance of that condenser may ap-
proach zero or an extremely low figure.

Series Resonance
Having briefly considered inductance and capacity separately,
let us now speak about the circuit which contains both capacity
and inductance, as, for example, the circuit illustrated in Fig. 3,

c:;0000,
R /..
Fig. J. The fundamental
series resonance circuit is
shown at the left, con-
taining resistance, induc-
tance and capacity.

where C represents capacity and L represents inductance. We

also introduce the resistance R, because it is invariably present
in all circuits and because in the final analysis it plays ar. im-
portant part with respect to the operation of resonant circuits,
 RESONANCE AND ALIGNMENT 7

such as will be considered in connection with alignment pro-

cedure.
These three elements, L, C and R, are connected in series and
a series circuit is recognized by tracing the path of the current
through the system. A circuit is said to be a series circuit if the
current is equal in all parts of the circuit, and if but a single
path is offered to the flow of current. Which is the case in Fig.
3. Check this for yourself. A generator is assumed to be the
source of the voltage applied to the circuit.
Now let us suppose that the frequency of the applied voltage
is increased, starting at zero. What happens in the circuit? •.•
When the frequency is very low, there will be substantially no
current, or very little flowing through the circuit; because al-
though the reactance of the coil is very small, the reactance of
the condenser at these low frequencies is very great. Now,-if
the frequency is increased, the inductive reactance will increase
from its low value and the capacitive reactance will decrease
from its high value. This is in accordance with Figs. 1 and 2.
In accordance with Fig. 1, the inductive reactance increases in a
positive direction and in accordance with Fig. 2, the capacitive
reactance will decrease numerically, and will always remain
negative throughout the frequency range.
If one reactance is increasing and the other reactance is de-
creasing, as the frequency is being increased, there will come a
time when the frequency will be such that the inductive re-
actance of the coil will exactly equal the capacitive reactance of
the condenser. Now, since the inductive reactance is positive
and the capacitive reactance is negative, the two will tend to
neutralize or oppose each other, and since the two reactances
are equal and of opposite sign, in effect, they cancel each
other and the net reactance becomes zero. This frequently is
termed the "resonant" frequency of L and C, and it can be
said that the resonant frequency is that at which the com-
bined reactance of L and C in the circuit is zero.
No doubt you have noted that in all of the considerations
concerning inductive reactance and capacitive reactance, we have
omitted the resistor R. This is quite natural since this unit, even
if it represents the direct-current resistance of the coil, plays no
part in the reactance phenomenon. Since the reactance at the
8 AN HouR A DAY WITH RIDER

resonant frequency is zero, you would normally expect that the

current in the circuit at this frequency would be very large and
this is, in fact, the case. With zero reactance, the current limit-
ing agent is the resistance of the circuit and/or the direct-current
resistance of the generator. It is the presence of some resistance
which prevents infinite current at resonance. The impedance
of the series circuit at resonance is its resistance. Off resonance,
the impedance embraces the net reactance and the resistance.
You have noted how we arrived at the resonant frequency of
the L and C combination by increasing the frequency from zero.
What happens if the frequency is increased beyond the resonant
frequency? Referring once more to Figs. 1 and 2, you can see
that the reactance of the coil will increase, whereas the reactance
of the condenser will decrease. Because of this mode of varia-
tion, the balance which existed between the two reactances at
resonance is destroyed. When the frequency is above resonance,
the reactance of the condenser is decreased, but the reactance of
the coil is increased, so that the current flowing in the circuit for
frequencies above the resonant frequency, is reduced just as
when operation is below the resonant frequency. If the frequency
of the voltage applied differs greatly from the resonant fre-
quency, the current through the circuit will be very small. An
examination of the table given herewith illustrates the variation
of inductive reactance, capacitive reactance and resultant re-
actance with the frequency of the voltage applied to a series
circuit, and advanced towards and beyond resonance. Arbitrary
values of inductance and capacity are used. Note that resonance
occurs at 1007 kc. at which frequency the two reactances cancel
each other.
f kc. XL ohms Xe ohms XT ohms
700 110 227 -117
800 126 199 73
900 141 177 - 36
1007 158 158 - 0
1100 173 145 + 28
1200 189 133 + 56
1300 204 122 + 82
 RESONANCE AND ALIGNMENT 9

The relation between circuit impedance and frequency and

circuit current and frequency, in a series circuit, is shown in Figs.
4A and 4B. In 4A you will note the change in impedance as the
frequency is varied above and below the resonant frequency,
and in Fig. 4B you will note the variation in current under
similar conditions. Note that when the impedance is maximum,
the current is minimum, and when the impedance is minimum,
the current is maximum. The reason why the current does not

F'R~QV4NCY

Figs. 4A, left, and 4B. The left curve shows that the impedance is a
minimum at the resonant frequency for a series circuit and the curve
at the right shows that the current is a maximum at the resonant
frequency.
become infinite at resonance is because the circuit impedance
never is zero, due to the resistance of the coil. Fig. 4B can be
said to be a resonance curve of the series circuit.

Tuning or Trimming
It might be well, at this time, to say a few words concerning
the means of attaining a state of resonance when the frequency
is fixed. Inductive reactance is a function of inductance as well
as frequency. In other words, if, with a fixed value of induc-
tance, an increase in frequency will increase the inductive re-
actance and a decrease in frequency will decrease the inductive
reactance-an increase in inductance with fixed frequency will
likewise increase the inductive reactance. Conversely, a decrease
in inductance with fixed frequency will, therefore, decrease the
inductive reactance. As far as the capacitive reactance is con-
cerned, if the frequency is fixed-increasing the capacity will
10 AN HOUR A DAY WITH RIDER

decrease the reactance, and decreasing the capacity will increase

the reactance. Thus it is possible to obtain the proper balance
of reactances so as to produce the state of resonance when the
frequency of the voltage applied is fixed, either by varying the
inductance and maintaining the capacity constant, or by varying
the capacity and maintaining the inductance constant. The
latter is usually the method employed. Such is the function of
the tuning or trimmer condenser.*

Applications of Series Resonant Circuit

Based upon what has been said so far, you can appreciate
the various applications of the series resonant circuit. Bearing
in mind that maximum current flows during the state of reso-
nance and that during that time the impedance of the circuit is a
minimum, it is possible to accomplish two things. One of these
is to utilize the low impedance as a short-circuiting path at the
resonant frequency, or as a trap circuit and the second is to
employ the device so that maximum current is allowed to flow
through the desired circuit at resonance. These two applications
though identical in basic design, differ in circuit arrangement and

Figs. SA, left, and SB. The wave trap, L and C in the left circuit
bypasses the current at the resonant frequency and so rejects it.
The circuit of Fig. SB passes on to coil B current at the resonant
frequency only.
are shown in Figs. 5A and 5B. In Fig. 5A, the wave trap LC
is the series circuit used as a short-circuiting impedance at
resonance. It is shunted across the antenna coil A and its pur-
pose is to bypass the current at the resonant frequency. If we
assume that the function of this circuit is to bypass an inter-
* See note page SB.
 RESONANCE AND ALIGNMENT 11

fering signal of, say, 465 kc., tuning this circuit to 465 kc. will
prevent the development of a voltage at this frequency across the
antenna coil, consequently there would be no signal voltage at
this frequency applied to the r-f. amplifier tube. At 465 kc. the
reactance of L cancels that of C and there is no net reactance in
the trap circuit. The impedance of the circuit, being limited
solely by the resistance, is consequently very low; much lower
than that of the antenna coil A. The lower the resistance of the
circuit, the less its impedance at resonance and the greater
its efficiency. The greater the efficiency of this circuit, the less
its effect upon signals higher or lower than the resonant fre-
quency. In other words, the sharper the trap.
Another application of the same principle, but employed
differently, is shown in Fig. 5B. L r.nd C now constitute the
tuned circuit in the antenna system. The impedance is a mini-
mum at resonance, consequently the maximum amount of cur-
rent flows through the circuit. Coil B, being coupled to L,
receives the maximum amount of energy. In Fig. 5A, the
resonant circuit is used to trap out or reject a certain signal,
whereas in Fig. 5B the same principle is employed to accept the
desired signal.
Still another practical application of the phenomena relating
to series circuits is the scratch filter used in connection with
phonograph pick-ups and audio amplifiers. The series resonant
circuit, tuned to the approximate frequency of the scratch noise,
is connected across the pick-up and its purpose is to bypass or
short-circuit the balance of the system at this noise frequency
by offering a low impedance path.
Referring again to Figs. 4A, 4B, 5A and 5B, tuning or trim-
ming a circuit so as to produce the desired state of resonance, is
the adjustment of that circuit so that the respective inductive
and capacitive reactances balance each other.

The Parallel Tuned Circuit

In addition to series resonance, there is another type of
resonance which appears in practically all radio circuits. This is
the parallel tuned circuit and resonance in such a circuit is
termed parallel resonance. As in the case of the series resonant
12 AN HOUR A DAY WITH RIDER

circuit, the resonant frequency of a parallel circuit is reached

when the reactance of the coil is equal to the reactance of the
condenser. An example of a parallel resonant circuit is shown
in Fig. 6, where L is the inductance, C the capacity and R the
resistance. The distinction between the series and the parallel
resonant circuits is found in the manner in which the current
flows through the circuit. We have stated that a series circuit
is one in which there is but one path for the current. In a
parallel circuit, however, there is more than one path for the
current. In Fig. 6 you will note a capacitive branch and an in-
ductive branch. The presence of R in the inductive branch will
receive additional mention later.
Let us for the moment consider each of these branches as a
separate entity with respect to the frequency of the applied volt-
age. At very low frequencies, the reactance of the condenser

-------v Fig. 6. An example of a

parallel resonance circuit
is shown at the left. In-
stead of there being but
L

0
one path for the current
to follow, as in the series
C circuit of Fig. 3, here
there are two paths along
which the current can
R flow. Note that in this
circuit the dominating in-
fluence with respect to
current flow is the lower
- - - - - - - VI reactance.

branch is high. Consequently, very little current flows in that

circuit. However, at the low frequencies the inductive reactance
of L is low. Consequently, the inductive branch carries the
major portion of the current. At very high frequencies, the re-
actance of the inductive branch is very high. Consequently,
very little current flows through that branch. However, at such
frequencies the reactance of the capacitive branch is very low,
so that the major portion of the current flows through that
branch. As in the case of the series resonant circuit, at some
frequency in between these two extremes, at each of which the
impedance of the circuit is low, the impedances of the capacitive
 RESONANCE AND ALIGNMENT 13

branch and the inductive branch are the same. This is the
"resonant frequency."
In the series circuit, we showed that the limitation of current
was due to the higher of the two reactances. Whether it was the
capacitive reactance or the inductive reactance, if one of these
was high, as a result of the frequency of the voltage applied, the
current through the circuit was small. In the parallel resonance
circuit, we find a different condition. In this circuit the domi-
nating influence, with respect to current flow, is the lower re-
actance. If the frequency is such that the capacitive reactance
is high and the inductive reactance is low, the total impedance
of the circuit is low, because a low reactance shunts the high
reactance. If, on the other hand, the frequency is high, so that
the inductive reactance is high, but the capacitive reactance is
low-the net impedance is still low for the same reason as given
above. At resonance, however, both the capacitive reactance and
the inductive reactance are of like order and the total impedance
is a maximum. There is equal division of current flow through
the two branches, but the current through the coil is at every
moment opposite to the -current through the condenser. This is
so because the current through the coil lags behind the voltage,
whereas the current through "the condenser leads the voltage.
The sum result is that the total current through the circuit is
very small, hence the impedance of the circuit at resonance is a
maximum.
This reference to the minimum current through the circuit
should not be confused with the fact that at resonance there is
very large circulating current in the tuned circuit itself-that is,
flowing around L and C. In fact, this circulating current in the
tuned circuit may be many times larger than the line current
flowing through the tuned circuit. This large circulating current,
which is present only at resonance, is due to the energy surging
back and forth from the condenser to the coil. Furthermore,
because the capacitive reactance balances or offsets the inductive
reactance, the net reactance in the tuned circuit is zero. Con-
sequently, the tuned circuit behaves as a pure resistance and
may, in fact, be considered as such when computed in radio
circuits. The smaller the resistance R of the tuned circuit, the
14 AN HOUR A DAY WITH RIDER

greater will be the circulating current in the tuned circuit at

resonance and the greater is the operating efficiency.
It might be well to elaborate upon the relation between the
circulating current in the tuned circuit and the line curreilt
through the tuned circuit by saying the following: During the
state of resonance, the function of the line current is to be just
great enough to supply the circuit losses. In view of the low
resistance of the tuned circuit, the energy losses therein are
small-consequently the line current is small. The higher the
losses in the tuned circuit, the higher is the line current with
respect to the circulating current.
The manner in which the impedance of a parallel circuit
varies with frequency as resonance is approached and passed is

Fig. 7. The imped-

ance of a parallel
resonance circuit
reaches a maximum
at the resonant fre-
quency, which is
opposite to the con-
dition for a series
circuit, as shown in
Fig. 4A.

shown in Fig. 7. Compare Fig. 7 with Fig. 4A. You will note
that at resonance, the impedance of the series circuit is a mini-
mum, whereas in the parallel circuit it is a maximum.
Let us examine Figs. SA and SB. In Fig. SA, the parallel
circuit, consisting of L 1 C11 is in series with the antenna lead and
the antenna transformer primary coil A. We can assume that as
a result of the signal received, the voltage is applied across the
antenna and ground points. These two points would be the
equivalent of the two points V and V11 shown in Fig. 6. Current
flow in this complete circuit, inclusive of coil A, depends upon
the tuning of the parallel resonant circuit. If the frequency of
the voltage applied is below the resonant frequency, then current
will flow in the circuit through the low impedance L 1 branch.
If the frequency is above the resonant frequency, current will
flow in the circuit through the low impedance C1 branch. At
resonance, however, the minimum amount of current will be
 RESONANCE AND ALIGNMENT 15

found in the circuit, because, while it is true that the same volt-
age is being applied, the impedance of the resonant circuit is
maximum, and the line current through coil A would be very
small. If this applied voltage is a signal voltage, the circuit L1
C1 serves as a trap to keep the undesired signal out of coil A.
All other signals pass through L1 C1 •
Let us now refer to Fig. SB. L 1 and C1 are still in parallel
and coil L1 is inductively coupled to coil A. The voltage is intro-
duced through this medium of coupling between coils A and L 1 •
What happens in this system?
The voltage developed across a parallel resonant circuit is
equal to the current times the impedance. For any condition
other than resonance, with the frequency of the voltage intro-
duced via coil A, the impedance of the parallel circuit is low, as
has been stated. Consequently, the voltage developed across the
circuit is a minimum. However, when the L1 C1 combination is
properly resonated with the frequency of the voltage fed into the
circuit via coil A-which may be the signal voltage introduced
through the antenna system-the impedance of the parallel
Cl

LI
A

Figs. 8A, left, and 8B. In the circuit at the left, a minimum of cur-
rent is found in coil A at resonance, while in the circuit of Fig. 8B,
the voltage delivered to the grid of the tube is a maximum at the
resonant frequency.
resonant circuit is maximum. Consequently, the maximum volt-
age is developed across the tuned circuit and applied to the input
of the tube. By making the efficiency of the parallel circuit very
high, so that any unbalance of the respective inductive and
capacitive reactances results in a major change of impedance, it
16 AN Houn A DAY WITH RIDER

is possible to make the system very responsive to the resonant

frequency and lack response off resonance. The greater the
efficiency of the circuit, the greater the change of response for a
given change in frequency. The circuit shown in Fig. SB is
typical of the average parallel resonant circuit in a radio re-
ceiver.
If you now compare Figs. SA and SB you will note the dif-
ference in application of the parallel resonant circuit. In Fig.
SA the circuit is so arranged that at resonance, influence of the
high impedance is such that it keeps a certain signal out of the
circuit. On the other hand, in Fig. SB, the resonant condition
and the resonant high impedance enables maximum response at
a certain signal frequency. A more detailed explanation of the
voltages present across parallel and series resonant circuits will
be found in "An Hour A Day With Rider On Alternating Cur-
rents In Radio Receivers." Additional material supplementing
that which has already been mentioned in this volume on res-
onance and alignment will be found later on in this chapter.

Parallel Resonant Circuit Most Common

The parallel resonant circuit finds far more extensive applica-
tion in radio receivers than the series resonant circuit. This
condition is not due to any difference in operating efficiency of
the two circuits, but rather to the fact that the arrangement of
the elements, which comprise the parallel circuit, is such that the
coil constitutes a ready path for the application of the operating
potentials to the elements of the respective tubes. In other
words, the coil in the parallel circuit supplies a continuous path
for the plate current and grid current. Another reason for the
widespread application of the parallel resonant circuit is that the
circuit arrangement makes it possible to place the condenser or
the tuning capacity at ground potential, thereby providing
freedom from hand and body capacity effects with greatest ease
and convenience.
Perhaps the most important reason for the greater use of the
parallel tuned circuit as against the series tuned circuit is that the
former offers a high impedance at resonance, while, as we have
seen, the impedance of the latter at resonance is very small.
 RESONANCE AND ALIGNMENT 17
Since it is necessary to provide a high impedance load in order to
secure any degree of amplification from a vacuum tube, the
reason for the more frequent occurrence of the parallel resonant
circuit is at once apparent.
Series and parallel resonant circuits, such as have been
described, find a number of different applications. In this vol-
ume we are concerned solely with applications at frequencies
within the i-f. and r-f. bands. As far as alignment operations
are concerned, there are two important considerations to remem-
ber. One of these is the manner in which the circuit is employed
with respect to what is to be accomplished. The second is the
electrical phenomenon developed when the trimmer condenser
or the tuning condenser is being adjusted. Referring to the
former, it is necessary that the man carrying out the alignment
procedure understand the purpose of the circuit being trimmed.
You must recognize whether the circuit is being resonated to a
certain frequency in order to eliminate that signal, or if the
circuit is being resonated to a certain frequency in order to build
up that signal to maximum level. Both of these objectives can
be obtained by means of series as well as parallel resonant
circuits.

Effect of Resistance on Series Tuned Circuit

We have explained that due to the relation between the in-
ductive reactance and the capacitive reactance in a series tuned
circuit, there is no net reactance at resonance. It was also shown
that the current at resonance is limited solely by the resistance
of the circuit. The greater the resistance, the lower will be the
current. The resistance we are referring to is that represented as
R in Fig. 3. The variation of current at resonance in a series
circuit for constant voltage input and for varying values of
resistance is shown in Fig. 9. This curve is the equivalent of a
resonance curve for such a series resonant circuit with various
values of resistance.
In connection with the reference to the resistance R, it is not
necessary that this be an external resistor or an individual re...
sistor. It is possible that this symbol of a resistor may represent
the resistance of the coil. Likewise, it may represent a poor
18 AN HOUR A DAY WITH RIDER

contact in the circuit or the electrical connections in the system.

The three values of resistance shown are arbitrary, selected to
illustrate the effect of resistance in the circuit.
It stands to reason that every circuit has a definite amount
of inherent resistance, so that a specific finite curve exists. It
then becomes necessary, in order that the maximum current be
obtained at resonance, to make the circuit structure such that it
possesses the minimum amount of resistance. This is a matter
of design.
Now-in addition to the fact that the current at resonance is
decreased as the resistance is increased-a close examination of
the curves shows that another significant fact is developed as the
resistance is increased. If this current curve is representative of
the ability of the circuit to discriminate between frequencies both
sides of the resonant frequency, then it is evident that as the

Fig. 9. The group of

three curves shown at
the left indicates the
variation of the cur-
rent at resonance in a
series circuit, shown
above, for diHerent
values of resistance.
In order to get the
greatest amount of cur-
rent at resonance, it is
necessary to have a
~,
o------=::!:--t---:'=....------- minimum of resistance.
~
'fl'!
FR~~V4NCY
resistance is increased, not only does the current decrease, but
the ability to discriminate between frequencies likewise is im-
paired.
Perhaps this reference to discrimination between frequencies
deserves somewhat lengthier comment. The ability of a circuit
to discriminate between frequencies both sides of resonance de-
pends primarily upon the ratio between the current in the circuit
at resonance and the current in the circuit at some frequency
either side of resonance. For example, referring to curve No. 1,
if we set an arbitrary value of 1000 kc. as being the resonant
frequency, and if we say arbitrarily that the current in the
 RESONANCE AND ALIGNMENT 19

circuit is 10 units at resonance, the characteristic of that circuit,

at whatever value of resistance is present, is such that at 10 kc.
off resonance, the current in the system is reduced to 6 units.
In other words, if the circuit is resonated to 1000 kc., and some
other signal of 990 kc. finds its way into the circuit, the current
at this frequency is only 6 units. The same is true if another
signal of 1010 kc. finds its way into the circuit when the circuit
is resonated to 1000 kc. The greater the current at the resonant
frequency, with respect to the current in the circuit at some fre-
quency off resonance, the more readily does the circuit dis-
criminate between the two frequencies, namely, the resonant
frequency and the off-resonance frequency. If you will now refer
to curve No. 2 in Fig. 9, representative of the same circuit but
with a larger value of resistance, you will note that the circuit
is still resonant to 1000 kc., but now the current at resonance is
only 8 units and at 10 kc. off resonance is still 6 units. This
means that the circuit will not discriminate as readily between
the 990 kc. and the 1000 kc. signals, because the current off
resonance is not very much less than the current at the resonant
frequency.
If you will now refer to curve No. 3 in Fig. 9, which is repre-
sentative of a still greater value of resistance present in the
resonant circuit, you will note that the circuit is still resonant to
1000 kc., but that the curve is much flatter. It is no longer as
steep as the curve developed with lower values of resistance. If
you check the current at resonance, you will find that it is 5
units, and 10 kc. off resonance it is approximately 43/4 units. The
off-resonance signal develops approximately as much current in
the system as the resonant signal. Consequently, such a circuit
would not discriminate between the two frequencies, and if such
a condition is interpreted in actual practice, it means that the off-
resonance signal would interfere with the resonant frequency
signal.
What has been said in connection with the off-resonance
signal at 10 kc. below the resonant frequency, is likewise true if
the interfering signal or the off-resonance signal is 10 kc. above
the resonant frequency.
The ability of a circuit to discriminate between frequencies is
the ability of that circuit to select between signals and is a
20 AN HoUR A DAY WrTH RIDER

measure of the selectivity of the circuit. The flatness of curve

3 implies directly that the circuit will not be able to respond
differently to different frequencies and hence implies that the
selectivity of that circuit is poor. Accordingly, we can see that
the greater the resistance of the circuit, the less its selectivity
powers. Interpreting this entire situation into practice, it would
mean that interference would exist and that the amplitude of the
signal at the resonant frequency would be comparatively low.
It might be well, at this time, to comment upon the deliberate
insertion of resistance in such a series circuit under certain
circumstances. Based upon what is shown in Fig. 9, it is clearly
evident that varying the resistance of the circuit varies the fre-
quency response of the circuit over a band of frequencies both
sides of the resonant frequency. This characteristic is utilized
when the series resonant circuit is employed as a trap or a bypass
in audio-frequency systems. Perhaps discussion of this subject
does not belong in this volume, but a few words will not be amiss.
Oftentimes such a circuit is employed to take out or eliminate
the scratch noise when an electric pick-up is used in a phono-
graph installation, or when attenuation or reduction of the in-
tensity of certain audio signals is required in an audio amplifier.
Total elimination at the resonant frequency not being desired,
the resistance is inserted and by varying the resistance, it is pos-
sible to limit the amount of bypassing through the series resonant
circuit. Thus we see how under one condition resistance in the
circuit is detrimental, and in another case how the resistance is
deliberately inserted so as to accomplish a certain effect.

Effect of Resistance on Parallel Tuned Circuit

It is somewhat more difficult to understand the effect of re-
sistance on the characteristics of the parallel tuned circuits with-
out going into the mathematical computations. However, the
following can be readily appreciated: We have previously seen
how at resonance the electrons surge back and forth from the
coil to the condenser. With a minimum of resistance in the
circuit, this energy transfer can take place with maximum ampli-
tude. Consequently, the circulating current in the tuned circuit
is high. Adding resistance to the circuit, such as R in Fig. 6,
 RESONANCE AND ALIGNMENT 21

does two things: First it reduces the amount of current circulat-

ing between the coil and the condenser. In other words, it damps
the circuit. In accordance with what has been said before con-
cerning the function of the line current, loss is introduced as a
result of the resistance and tends, in effect, to reduce the im-
pedance of the parallel resonant circuit. With a reduction in the
impedance of the circuit, the voltage developed across the circuit
is reduced. Because of the damping of the circuit, the change
in impedance both sides of the resonant frequencies, is not as
great as when minimum resistance exists in the circuit. This
means that the selectivity powers of the circuit are impaired as
the resistance of the circuit is increased, or, if we say that such
resistance represents losses-as the losses in the circuit are in-

100,ooa
.,
90,000
Fig. 10. The curves at
the right show how the liJ 80,000

impedance of a parailel ~ 70,000

circuit varies with <: ~.ooo
three diflerent values ~ 50,000
of R, see schematic ~ 40,000
diagram in upper right
~ :,o,000
corner. Note bow the
.._ 20,000
resonance curves Bat-
ten as the value of R 10.000
is increased. 0
!
1000
KC
FREQUENCY

creased. Fig. 10 illustrates the variation in impedance of a

parallel circuit at three values of resistance over a band of
frequencies.
The curve No. 1, Fig. 10 is for what would be the equivalent
of minimum, normal amount of resistance in such a circuit. Note
the sharpness of the resonance curve. This is the same in char-
acter as curve No. 1 in Fig. 9. In this curve we illustrate the
discriminating powers of the circuit by noting the change in
impedance as the frequency of the applied voltage is made lower
than the resonant frequency and as it is made higher than the
resonant frequency. In actual function, Figs. 9 and 10 are
similar. Both are selectivity curves, but in Fig. 9 the resonance
curve is established on the basis of current change in the circuit,
22 AN HouR A DAY WITH RIDER

whereas in Fig. 10, the resonance curve is developed as a result

of the change in impedance.
If you examine curve No. 1 in Fig. 10, you will note that the
impedance at resonance is 100,000 ohms and at 990 kc., which is
10 kc. below resonance, the impedance is approximately 60,000
ohms. If you now examine curve No. 2 in Fig. 10, which is for
a higher value of resistance, the impedance at resonance is ap-
proximately 80,000 ohms, and at 990 kc. the impedance is
approximately 60,000 ohms. Obviously the change in impedance,
as the frequency is changed by 10 kc., is not as great as previ-
ously, and if the 990-kc. voltage is that of an interfering signal,
the selectivity powers of the circuit would not be great enough
to choose between the two signals. Note also that the slope of
the curve is not as steep and that the peak of the resonance curve
is much broader than is the curve indicative of the lower value
of resistance. Curve No. 3 of Fig. 10 is for a still greater value
of resistance. Note that the top of the curve is almost flat. At
resonance the impedance is approximately 50,000 ohms, and at
990 kc. the impedance is approximately 48,000 ohms-practically
no variation in impedance over this 10-kc. band. Obviously the
selectivity powers of such a circuit over this 10-kc. band are
substantially nil. What has been said concerning the 10-kc.
change below the resonant frequency is naturally applicable to
10-kc. above the resonant frequency.
In accordance with what explanations have been given in
connection with Figs. 9 and 10, it is clearly evident that su-
perfluous resistance in either series or parallel resonant circuits
can be very harmful and should be avoided wherever possible.
At the same time, we might remark that there are times when,
a small value of resistance may be inserted into a circuit, in
order to increase the width of the response curve. Such is the
case in high fidelity systems in some of our modern receivers.
The relation between the width of the response curve at its peak
with respect to fidelity of reception, is discussed later in this
chapter under the caption, "Selectivity Requirements."
Shunt Resistance
We have spoken about the series resistance in a series or
parallel resonant circuit. It is equally important to keep the
 RESONANCE AND ALIGNMENT 23

shunt resistance across a tuned circuit as low as possible. Ef-

fectively, a resistance shunted across a tuned circuit is equivalent
to a resistance in series with the coil and the effects are exactly
as described in preceding paragraphs. Shunt resistance will
interfere with the selectivity characteristics just as readily as
series resistance.

Coupling and Resonance Curves

We have considered the subject of resonance from the view-
point of balanced reactances. We have also spoken of the cur-
rent curve or impedance curve of the simple tuned circuit as
being representative of the resonance curve. Let us now give
some thought to the effect of the coupling of various types of
tuned transformers upon the resonance curve. From the practi-
cal viewpoint there is very little need for such adjustments, be-
cause in the majority of instances, the coupling within the
transformer is definitely fixed, and seldom, if ever, subject to
adjustment in the field. The only exception to this statement is
the type of transformer wherein variable coupling is employed
as a form of volume control or as a means of increasing the band
width of the response curve. Of course, if the type of coupling
used in a unit is such that either an inductance or a condenser is
common to the coupled coils, and if this coupling unit is not

Fig. 11. At the right is shown

the simplest form of a two-
winding transformer. Note
that here the primary, P, is un-
tuned, while the variable con-
denser shunted across the sec- p
ondary tunes that winding.

intact and replacement is required, that also constitutes an ex-

ception, but when the replacement is made, the original degree
of fixed coupling prevails. Nevertheless, in order that you have
the proper conception of the reason why certain types of response
curves are secured with certain types of units, it is necessary to
consider the relation between coupling and the shape of the
resonance curve. It is our belief that alignment operations are
expedited when this is well known.
24 AN HouR A DAY WITH RIDER

The simplest of the two-winding transformers found in r-f.,

i-f. and mixer or first detector systems, is shown in Fig. 11. It
consists of an untuned primary P coupled to a tuned secondary
S. When establishing the primary and secondary windings, it is
customary to designate as the primary that winding in which
the applied e.m.f. is found. The other circuit is designated as
the secondary. If a third coupled winding is used, that winding
is identified as the tertiary winding.
When two windings are linked together through a magnetic
or electrostatic field, or have something in common, they are said
to be coupled. By being coupled is meant that the application
of an alternating e.m.f. to the primary winding will result in the
generation of a corresponding voltage in the coupled winding or
windings, as the case may be.
When two or more circuits are coupled to each other, they
react upon each other. The amount of reaction displayed varies
under different conditions and is dependent upon the degree of
coupling between the windings. The greater the coupling, the
greater the reaction. The reaction of one winding upon the
other is displayed in two ways: One of these is the effect upon the
selectivity powers of the unit, consisting of the coupled circuits.
The second of these effects is found in the amplitude of the volt-
age developed in the coupled circuit. The second of these effects,
expressed from a practical viewpoint, is the effect upon signal
output or sensitivity of the receiver.
As a result of variation in coupling, or the degree of reaction
between the coupled circuits, the response curve can be made to
have extremely steep sides, thereby discriminating to an appreci-
able degree between the resonant frequency and other frequencies
below and above resonance. Then again the shape of the
resonance curve can be such that it is wide and has a substan-
tially flat top, so that very little discrimination exists between
the resonant frequency and a reasonable range of frequencies
both sides of the resonant frequency.
Considering the amplitude of the voltage developed in the
resonant circuit, this is the equivalent of referring to the ampli-
tude of the resonance curve. This condition is associated with
the shape of the resonance curve, so that it is evident that cou-
 RESONANCE AND ALIGNMENT 25

pling is related to both selectivity and signal output or sensi-

tivity.
The simple tuned transformer, consisting of a single tuned
secondary circuit coupled to an untuned primary circuit, is
productive of a resonance curve which has but a single peak at
resonance. The peak is sharp and the sides are steep. With
respect to the width of the curve, the resonance curve for a
complete transformer is somewhat wider than that of the trans-
former secondary itself-taken with the primary absent. The
presence of the primary-untuned though it may be-has the
e:ffect of introducing some resistance into the secondary winding.
Maximum transfer of electrical energy between the primary and
secondary windings develops the resonance curve with the great-
est amplitude and this occurs when optimum coupling exists.
Increasing the coupling beyond this point will reduce the ampli-
tude of the resonance curve and tend to broaden it. Reducing
the coupling below the optimum point will likewise reduce the
amplitude of the curve and make it narrower.
As far as coupling is concerned, what is said about the simple
single tuned circuit transformer is true about all other types-
that is, with respect to the results of optimum coupling. The
shape of the resonance curve may change with other types of
transformers, but there is an optimum adjustment or condition
of coupling sometimes expressed as coefficient of coupling, which
provides maximum transfer of energy. At this time we hasten
to add-that with the exception of those transformers which are
provided with means of changing the coupling-you who may
have occasion to work upon such transformers in connection
with the testing or checking of finished receivers, should not take
it upon yourselves to change the coupling in the transformers.
The desired condition will be obtained by correct alignment.
Of far greater importance, as far as the operator is concerned,
is that he should know the type of resonance curve to be attained,
in accordance with the type of transformer involved. Let us now
consider the most popular type of transformer used in modern
radio receivers-namely, the double tuned transformer.
26 AN HOUR A DAY WITH RIDER

The Double Tuned Transformer

The double tuned, inductively coupled transformer is illus-
trated in Fig. 12. The basic description of such a transformer is
one in which two separate circuits, coupled to each other, are
tuned to the same frequency. Some variations of this condition
will be found in practice as outlined later, but the basic con-
dition is as has been stated. In this transformer, both the
primary and secondary are parallel resonant circuits. This is

Fig. 12. A conventional i-f. trans-

former is shown on the left, hav-
ing both its primary and secondary
tuned. The arrow between the
windings indicates that the coup-
ling can be varied, the eflects of
which are e:xplained in the accom•
panying te:xt.

the common practice as far as receiver application is concerned,

but what will be said is just as true if either or both circuits are
of the series resonant variety and the inductances in the two
circuits are inductively coupled. What happens in this type of
unit under two conditions-first, the effect of coupling and
second, the effect of incorrect tuning?
What can we expect when the coupling is varied? In accord-
ance with the function of coupling and from what has been said
in connection with the simple single tuned transformer, it is more
or less obvious that the overall resonance curve is going to de-
pend upon the coupling. In order that the effect of coupling be
illustrated in the most practical manner, a conventional i-f. trans-
former of the commercial variety used in a modern superhetero-
dyne receiver, was arranged to simulate working conditions and
in such manner that the coupling could be changed at will. The
unit was connected into an oscillograph circuit, so that oscillo-
grams of the overall resonance curve could be taken. The con-
stant voltage input to the transformer was secured from a
frequency-modulated oscillator. The two windings were tuned
accurately to the same frequency, with minimum coupling be-
tween the windings, so that there would be no reaction between
the windings and accurate tuning would be possible. (For a
 RESONANCE AND ALIGNMENT 27

complete resume of how such curves are made with the cathode-
ray oscillograph, see Rider's "The Cathode-Ray Tube At Work.")
The amplitude of the response curve for each condition of cou-
pling is representative of the actual performance of the unit under
the conditions named. The results are shown in the series of
nine oscillograms given in Fig. 13, and are for increasing values
of coupling, beginning with the minimum coupling, which would
result in the transfer of just sufficient energy so that a resonance
curve could be obtained.
The effect of increasing coupling is evident in figures 13-A,
13-B, 13-C and 13-D. As you can see, increasing the coupling
from the minimum point results in an increase in energy transfer,
until a critical point is reached, where there is no further increase

Figs. 13A, left, 13B, middle, and 13C. As the coupling between the
two transformer windings is increased, more and more energy is
passed, as may be seen from the increasing height of the peak in the
three oscillograms above.
in amplitude of the response curve, but there is a slight broad-
ening of the peak. Fig. 13-D illustrates the curve with the
slightly broadened peak. During this time, there has been no
change in the tuning or the magnitude of the signal voltage fed
into the test circuit. The frequency-modulated oscillator sup-
plies a signal voltage which varies from about 445 kc. to 485 kc.
twenty-five times per second and is constant in voltage over
this range. The periodic frequency or the resonant frequency of
the transformer is 465 kc.
Up to this time the effect of coupling increase is to increase
the energy transfer. Neglecting the very slight amount of inter-
action between the primary and secondary, as indicated by the
slightly broadened peak, we can say that critical coupling exists.
A slight increase in coupling, with everything else unchanged,
develops the curve shown in Fig. 13-E. Note that the amplitude
28 AN HOUR A DAY WITH RIDER

of the curve does not increase, that is, gain through the trans-
former, but the shape of the curve is changed in that two dis-
tinct peaks have appeared both sides of the slight dip in the
center. Also that the band-width has increased at the top of
the curve, as well as at the base. Note that the dip occurs at
the point which was originally the peak and that one peak now
occurs below the resonant frequency and another peak occurs
above the resonant frequency. A still further increase in cou-
pling develops the curve shown in Fig. 13-F, which illustrates an

Figs. 13D, left, 13E, middle and 13F. As tbe coupling between tbe
windings is increased further it reaches an optimum value in Fig.
13D. A further increase results in the development of a peak on
each side of the resonant frequency, in this case 465 Ice.

accentuation of the condition shown in Fig. 13-E. The dip is

more pronounced and there is a slight decrease in the overall-
amplitude of the resonance curve. • • • Also the frequency band
pass is increased as indicated by the increased separation be-
tween the two peaks.
The interaction between the primary and secondary windings,
as a result of the higher degree of coupling, is manifesting itself.
Coupling which produces a double peaked or double hump
resonance curve, is known as close coupling. Naturally, there
are various degrees of close coupling, as is evident in Figs. 13-E
and 13-F and more to follow. The following is a brief explana-
tion of why the resonance curve appears as shown.
For coupling in excess of the critical or optimum amount, the
presence of the secondary winding reduces the current through
the primary at the resonant frequency. Since the current in the
secondary circuit conforms, to a major extent, to the primary
current variations, a dip at the resonant frequency occurs. The
greater this coupling, the greater is this dip. At frequencies
 RESONANCE AND ALIGNMENT 29

above and below resonance, the effect of the secondary is to

increase the pri:::nary current to values greater than those when
the secondary is absent. The closer the coupling, the further
apart the two peaks and the greater the dip at the resonant
frequency-simultaneous with a gradual reduction of the ampli-
tude of the curve. This is shown in Figs. 13-G, 13-H and 13-I,
where Fig. 13-I is for maximum coupling possible with the i-f.
transformer used in the test.

Figs. 13G, left, 13H, middle, and 131. As the coupling is increased,
the frequency at which the peaks occur departs farther from the
resonant frequency, as is indicated in the frequency designations
under the oscillograms in Figs. 13E to 131.
"\Vhen external influences, such as regeneration, are absent,
the resonance curve is quite symmetrical. By this is meant that
the variations in the curve are essentially the same both sides of
the resonant frequency and the amplitude of the two peaks is
the same.
Let us now analyse the curves of Figs. 13-A to 13-I.and see
what can be learned concerning the resonance curves of such
double-tuned transformers. First, it is evident that such a
transformer is capable of providing a single peaked or a double
peaked resonance curve. Whichever is developed depends upon
the degree of coupling. Second, that unless external and unde-
sired influences are present, the curve should be symmetrical.
This is of value when the resonance curve is established by any
one of the numerous means available, as will be stated later.
Third, because of the range of resonance curves possible with
such a unit, it is possible to increase the band of frequencies
passed by the device-PROVIDING THAT THE COUPLING
IS VARIABLE. . . . However, in the event that the coupling
is fixed, then the optimum setting is that which can be secured
solely by correct tuning. . . . If the design of the transformer
30 AN HOUR A DAY WITH RIDER

is such that the curve of Fig. 13-D is the correct figure, then
the correct tuning and correct conditions will develop such a
curve. On the other hand, if the design of the transformer is
such that the curve of Fig. 13-E, is the correct curve,-then
correct tuning and correct conditions will develop this curve.
Correct tuning can be stated as being that which provides
the maximum amplitude for the resonance curve, consistent
with the proper frequency band-pass. Information concerning
frequency band-pass is given under the heading "Selectivity
Requirements," later in this chapter.
What happens if the two windings are not resonated to the
same frequency? The major effect is that the two peaks are
not of like amplitude. If the frequency of resonance in the
Figs.14A,left, and
14B. If both wind-
ings of a trans-
former are not
tuned to the same
frequency, two
peaks of unequal
heights result.
Note that these os-
cillograms were
made with two
types of oscilli-
graphs, as ex-
plained in the text
below.
primary circuit does not differ very greatly from the resonant
frequency of the secondary circuit, then the two bumps or peaks'
will not be far apart, but if these two frequencies differ widely,
then the two peaks will be far apart and of uneven amplitude.
Another effect is that the dip does not take place at either
resonant frequency, but some place between-at least not mid-
way between the peaks, as is the case when both primary and
secondary circuit are resonated to the same frequency. Further-
more, the two peaks do not occur at the two resonant frequencies
of the primary and secondary respectively. An example of an
asymmetrical curve, or one with uneven amplitudes for the peaks,
due to incorrect tuning, is shown in Figs. 14-A and 14-B. The
former was taken with the double image type of visual align-
ment method, and Fig. 14-B was taken with the single image
 RESONANCE AND ALIGNMENT 31
type of visual alignment method. (For the difference between
these two systems, see Rider's "The Cathode-Ray Tube at
Work.")

Selectivity Requirements
An understanding of the selectivity requirements in the
alignment process and how these are related to the quality of
reception, is highly desirable, because it establishes the type of
resonance curve which should be developed and the advantage of
one type of curve over the other. Suppose we consider the fre-
quency composition of a 1000-kc. carrier, which is modulated
with a 1000-cycle tone. In actual voice transmission, as practiced
by the majority of broadcasting stations, the highest frequency
used for modulation is 5000 cycles. In some few instances where
high-fidelity transmission is effected, the highest frequency is
about 7500 cycles. Referring once more to our example, such a
modulated wave consists of three frequencies: the 1000-kc. car-
rier, the 1001-kc. upper sideband and the 999-kc. lower sideband.
This is shown graphically in Fig. 15. If this same carrier is
Fig. 15. II the carrier fre-
quency is 1000 kc. and ii tbis is
modulated by a 1000-cycle note,
then the frequencies of the two
sidebands will be 999 kc. and
1001 kc., as are indicated in the 999 1000 1001
accompanying graph. KC KC XC

modulated by a 30-cycle tone, the frequencies in the wave are

the carrier of 1000 kc., the upper side band of 1000 kc. +30
cycles and the lower sideband of 1000 kc. - 30 cycles. If the
modulating frequency is 10,000 cycles, then the three frequencies
are 1000 kc., 1010 kc. and 990 kc.
In these examples we assume a constant tone for modulation.
If complex tones are used so that 30 to 5000 cycles is the band of
modulating frequencies, then the upper and lower sidebands
are limited by the highest frequencies. The carrier frequency
remains as before, 1000 kc. The carrier frequency may of
course be other than 1000 kc.
Now, an essential characteristic of a receiver is to pass the
modulated carrier without any suppression of the sidebands.
32 AN HOUR A DAY WITH RIDER

This means that those parts of the receiver which are called
upon to pass the modulated carrier, should be equally responsive
to the sidebands as well as to the carrier. In order that this be
so, the ideal response curve required for the various tuned cir-
cuits is a square top curve with vertical sides. The width of

I
I
I
~
"'
I ---- _ ___, I~ I
995 1000 1005 99.S 1000
KC KC l<C KC KC KC
Fig. 16, left. The ideal square topped response curve of a unit pass-
ing S kc. sidebands.
Fig.17,right. In practice the ideal Bat top of Fig.16 is approached by
response curve of the type shown here and secured as explained in
the text.
the top should be the full width of what is classified as being
normal sidebands for normal broadcast transmission. . . . With
5000-cycle modulation this is 10 kilocycles, or 5 kilocycles each
side of the carrier frequency. This is illustrated in Fig. 16. If
the modulating frequency limit is 10,000 cycles, then each side-
band is 10,000 cycles wide and the total band-width must be
20,000 cycles or 20 kc.
Up to the present time, square top resonance curves have
been impossible to attain, but an approach has been reached.
For example the curves of Figs. 13-E and 13-F show a fairly
:flat top. If you compare Figs. 13-D and 13-E, you will note
that while the amplitude or the response of both is substantially
the same at the carrier frequency, which in this case is assumed
to be the resonant frequency, the response 3.0 kc. each side of
the carrier is greater with the adjustment indicated by Fig. 13-E
than with the adjustment indicated in Fig. 13-D. In turn, the
adjustment indicated in Fig. 13-F, shows greater response at
about 5.0 kc. each side of the carrier than either Figs. 13-D or
13-E. At the same time, Fig. 13-F, shows less response at the
carrier frequency than either of the other two oscillograms.
In the modern high-fidelity receiver, even a closer approach
to the ideal is attained, by developing a curve, such as that
 RESONANCE AND ALIGNMENT 33
shown in Fig. 13-F or Fig. 13-G, in the i-f. system and depend-
ing upon superimposed r-f. selectivity, which is most responsive
to the carrier, as shown in Fig. 13-D, to fill in the dip between
the two outside peaks. The curve developed as a result of the
combination of the response characteristic of the i-f. amplifier
with a resonance curve, such as that shown in Figs. 13-G and
13-D, is shown in Fig. 17. The variation in amplitude between
the peaks is not sufficient to cause any complications. At the
same time, the proper band-pass is obtained and the sides of
the curve are a close approach to the straight lines of Fig. 16.
The flat top of Fig. 16 is simulated by the top of the curve of
Fig. 17.

Variable Selectivity Circuits

The effect of a very sharply tuned amplifier, which has a
characteristic similar to that of Fig. 13-D, is to attenuate the
outer sidebands and hence to attenuate the higher audio fre-
quencies, which are contained in these sidebands. Thus, exces-
sive selectivity results in reduced high frequency (audio)
response. It is for this reason that the intermediate-frequency
Fig. 18. By varying the
coupling between the wind-
ings of the first and second
i-f. transformers, the selec-
tivity of the stage can be
varied. Note that the third
i-f. transformer bas fixed
coupling; the response of
this is broad enough so that
the sidebands are not at- - Cl
tenuated. Courtea11 Zenith Radio Corp.

amplifiers of almost all the high-fidelity receivers on the market

incorporate some arrangement for broadening the response of
the amplifiers so as not to lose the higher audio frequencies. If
you examine the modem receiver you will find that many
systems are in use for accomplishing this result and also that
they all depend upon the fact that the frequency response of a
transformer becomes broader as the coupling is increased. The
time has come to discuss some of the circuits now in use in cur-
rent receivers.
34 AN HOUR A DAY WITH RIDER

A direct application of the principles previously discussed is

in the Zenith Stratosphere. That part of the receiver which
concerns us is shown schematically in Fig. 18. As indicated by
the conventional arrow, the coupling in the first and second i-f.
transformers is continuously variable. This receiver is represen-
tative of that type which uses a mechanical variation of the
coupling in a two-winding transformer to accomplish a contin-
uous variation of the selectivity. It is interesting to note that
only the first two i-f. transformers are so controlled, the response
of the third i-f. transformer being sufficiently broad so that the
sidebands are not appreciably attenuated.
The Wells-Garner ODM is typical of the class of receivers
which uses a switching arrangement to obtain various degrees of
coupling in the i-f. amplifier. Referring to the partial schematic
shown in Fig. 19, you can see that a third winding is included
~l(7
. 7lt ~----.r. ....... ,~ltl!·z,.,.MIP Fig. 19. Wben tbe tbird
winding is in tbe circuit, tbe
coupling is close, giving a
broad response character-
istic, as is sbown in Fig. IJF.
Witb tbe tbird coil out of
tbe circuit, tbe coupling
between primary and sec-
ondary is loose and tbe se-
lectivity is sbarp.

Courtes11 Wells Gardner & Co.

in the first and second i-f. transformers. The primary and

secondary are loosely coupled, while the auxiliary winding is
closely coupled to the primary winding. The required close
degree of coupling is obtained by winding the third coil under-
neath the primary. By means of the selectivity control switch,
this third winding can be put into or out of the circuit. Two
values of coupling are provided. With the switch in the "broad"
position, the third winding is part of the secondary tuned circuit
and the effect is to produce a large value of coupling between
primary and secondary. With the switch in the "sharp" position,
the third winding is out of the circuit and the resultant coupling
is loose. The result is a sharp selectivity characteristic. The
coupling in the second i-f. transformer is controlled in the same
way and the two selectivity control switches are ganged to form
 RESONANCE AND ALIGNMENT 35
the overall selectivity control. A general idea of what repre-
sents a "sharp" selectivity characteristic is shown in Fig. 13-D
and Fig. 13-F illustrates in a general way, a "broad" charac-
teristic.
A slightly different variation of the same principle is used
in the Fairbanks-Morse 100. Reference to Fig. 20 shows that
the secondary is composed of three sections-L2, L4, and L5.
Fig. 20. When coil L4 is con-
nected in the circuit and, as
this is closely coupled to L3,
the overall coupling e.iect is
close and the resulting re-
sponse curve is broad. When
L4 is replaced by switching
in LS, which is loosely cou-
pled to L3, then the response
curve will be sharp, as the
main windings, LI and L2,
are loosely coupled.
Courtesy of Fairbanks-Morse Home Appliances, Inc.

The primary is composed of Ll and L3. . . . Ll and L2 are

loosely coupled to each other and constitute the major portion of
the primary and secondary inductances respectively. L3 and L4
are tightly coupled, while the coupling between L5 and the
primary is loose. With the switch in the broad position L5 is
out of the circuit and the secondary winding consists of L2 and
L4. Since L4 is closely coupled to L3, the coupling between the
secondary and primary windings is sufficiently great so that a
broad response is obtained. With the switch in the "sharp" posi-
tion, the closely coupled L4 is replaced by L5, which has the
same inductance but is loosely coupled. Thus, in this position
the overall coupling between primary and secondary is low and
hence the frequency response is sharp. The alignment is not
disturbed when changing from the sharp to the broad selectivity
position.
Up to the present point we have limited our discussion to
i-f. transformers wherein selectivity is a function of the coupling
between two tuned circuits. A variable selectivity type of three
winding transformer in common use is shown in Fig. 21; this is
a partial schematic of the Stromberg Carlson Model 70. Note
that the first and second i-f. transformers consist of three tuned
circuits. Transformers of this type operate in the following
36 AN HouR A DAY WITH RIDER

manner: The primary and secondary windings are loosely

coupled, while the third or tertiary winding is closely coupled to
the secondary winding. When the resistance in series with the
tertiary winding is greatest, the tertiary tuned circuit draws
practically no current and consequently there is practically no

Fig. 21. In series with each

tertiary winding will be seen
a variable 10,000-ohm resis-
tor and this controls the
effective coupling between
the windings. With this re-
sistance maximum, the terti-
ary circuit draws practically
no current and so there is
no reaction between it and
the other windings, making
the overall selectivity sharp.
The Jess resistance in the
circuit, the broader the se-
lectivity.
Courtesy of Stromberg-Carlson Tel. Mfg. Co.

reaction between it and the other windings. Thus the trans-

former operates as an ordinary loosely coupled two-winding
transformer to provide normal, sharp selectivity and reduced
band-width. In the maximum selectivity position, a switch
operated by the selectivity or fidelity control, opens the tertiary
tuned circuits completely. Now let us see what takes place when
the third winding is in the circuit and the resistance in the
tertiary tuned circuit is decreased. This circuit, being tuned to
the i-f. peak, acts as a load across the secondary winding,
abstracts energy therefrom, and results in a broadened response.
This effect is most pronounced, of course, when all resistance is
out of the circuit, for then a maximum current flows in the
tertiary circuit and there is a maximum broadening of the fre-
quency response. This is the high-fidelity position and results in
a selectivity characteristic similar to Figs. 13-E or 13-F.
The Philco 201 is another example of a receiver using three
winding i-f. transformers, with a variable resistance in series
with the tertiary winding to control the selectivity and band-
width. At this stage you may be interested in the manner in
which the response characteristic of such three-winding trans-
formers change during manipulation of the control.
 RESONANCE AND ALIGNMENT 37

The three oscillograms in Fig. 22 indicate how the form of

the selectivity curve changes with the magnitude of the resist-
ance in the tertiary tuned circuit. Fig. 22-A is the response
of an amplifier employing two transformers of this three-winding
type and one closely coupled two-winding i-f. transformer; this
is for maximum selectivity or maximum resistance in the ter-

Figs. 22A, left, 22B, middle and 22C. With a maximum resistance in
the tertiary winding circuit of a three-winding transformer, shown
in Fig. 21, the resulting response curve is sharp, as in Fig. 22A.
With a decreased amount of resistance, the curve broadens out, as in
Fig. 22B and a greatly increased band-width results with no re-
sistance, as in Fig. 22C.
tiary circuits. Fig. 22-B is the response of the same i-f. ampli-
fier with an intermediate value of resistance in the tertiary
circuits. Note how the selectivity is broadened as against the
sharp response of Fig. 22-A. With no resistance in the tertiary
circuits, the absorption of energy at the peak frequency results
in the familiar dip and greatly increased band-width, as is shown

Fig. 23. The third winding

of the i-f. transformer on
the right picks up a certain
portion of the plate voltage
and feeds it back to the
screen circuit in correct
phase. This prevents any
tendency towards oscilla-
tion and so is reaJJy a stabi-
lizing factor, having nothing
to do with the degree of
coupling between the wind-
ings.
Courtesy Atwater Kent Mfg. Co.

in Fig. 22-C. An intermediate setting between Figs. 22-B and

22-C results in a flat top.
While on the subject of three-winding transformers, the
function of the transformer used in the Atwater Kent 856, Fig.
38 AN HOUR A DAY WITH RIDER

23, is not to provide a control over the selectivity, but to make

possible increased gain in the i-f. stage by stabilizing the ampli-
fier. This, as can be seen from the schematic, is accomplished
by using the third winding to feed back a portion of the voltage
from the plate to the screen circuit in the correct phase to pre-
vent any tendency toward oscillation.
In the oscillograms shown in Fig. 13, we showed how the
gain as well as the selectivity was dependent upon the degree of
75
DU·A.F. Fig. 24. Tbe variation of tbe
volume of the set of which a
portion of the schematic dia-
gram is shown at the left, is
e.iected by varying the cou-
pling between the primary
and secondary of the output
i-1. transformer. The cou-
pling is always quite loose,
so that the selectivity re-
mains sharp.
Courteau Sears-Roebuck &: Co.

coupling. A practical example of such gain control is shown in

Fig. 24. The volume control in this receiver is effected by vary-
ing mechanically the coupling between the primary and second-
ary of the last i-f. transformer. It should be noted that there
is no appreciable change in selectivity with this arrangement,
since the coupling is at all times sufficiently loose so that there
is negligible reaction between primary and secondary. This
arrangement is used in several receivers made by Sears-Roebuck.

Note Permeability Tuning

Another method is to vary the inductance by the positioning
of an iron core inside the coil. In some of the later RCA re-
ceivers, the i-f. transformer windings are shunted by a fixed con-
denser and the inductive reactance is adjusted for resonance by
varying the position of the iron core within the transformer
windings. A variable core is used for each winding.
 Chapter II
ALIGNMENT PROCEDURE
THE purpose of this chapter is not only to discuss the actual
procedure involved in the alignment process, but also to explain
the "why" behind the various steps in the operation. A clear
understanding of the reasoning involved in the multitude of
adjustments that constitute the alignment of present day re-
ceivers will go far toward simplifying and improving the quality
of the job.
We shall first make certain observations which are common
to every type of alignment work and it should be understood
that these apply in every case. To avoid the necessity for
repeating them over and over again, we shall enumerate them
here and take it for granted that you will bear them in mind
as you progress through this book.

Signal Generator and Test Oscillator

The necessity for a good signal generator cannot be over-
emphasized. It is unfortunate that in the past its value as a
service instrument has been grossly underestimated. Past years
have witnessed operation without a signal generator, but today
it is impossible to service modern single, dual, and multi-band
receivers properly without possessing a good signal generator.
Fortunately, many types of generators are available; some are
expensive and others on the market are at a price which puts
them within the reach of every service man. Whichever signal
generator is selected, it should be stable, well shielded, have a
good attenuator, and be capable of covering the range of fre-
quencies commonly in use, either by means of fundamental
frequencies or by means of harmonics.
It may be well at this point to clarify our position as to the
39
40 AN Hurn A DAY WITH RIDER

use of the terms signal generator and test oscillator. In this

book we are intentionally using the designation "signal genera-
tor," whenever referring to an instrument which is used for
generating a standard signal.
However, it so happens that in the past, instruments of this
type used in the service field have been widely known as "test
oscillators" rather than signal generators, the use of the latter
term having been confined for the most part to high quality
instruments used in research and design work. Frankly speak-
ing, there is no real reason why all signal generators, regardless
of price, should not be known as such and this is one of the
reasons why we have adopted this term throughout the book.
A more important reason is that it is very often necessary to
talk about the oscillator in a superheterodyne and a signal gener-
ator at the same time. This leads to unnecessary confusion
between the oscillator in the receiver and the "test oscillator"
and this, to us, is a more important reason for the universal
adoption of the designation "signal generator." Whenever, then,
the term signal generator is used in this book, let it be under-
stood that it is synonymous with test oscillator and is used
because it is a more apt designation and because it minimizes
confusion.

Need for Alignment

The alignment adjustments of a receiver should not be
changed before the person working on the receiver has satisfied
himself that the poor performance of the receiver is due to mis-
alignment of the tuned circuits. There are many reasons why
realignment is necessary but there are also other troubles in
receivers. In the first place, changing tubes often may throw
a receiver out of alignment because of lack of uniformity in the
interelectrode capacities of the tubes. This is especially impor-
tant where metal tubes are substituted for glass tubes. A change
of this nature should always be accompanied by a complete
realignment of the receiver. Movement of r-f. and i-f. wiring
may necessitate realignment, because changes in the position of
the wiring influences the tuning of the circuits.' This is especially
important on the short-wave bands, particularly in the case of
 RESONANCE AND ALIGNMENT 41

sets which have an ultra-high-frequency band. Under no con-

dition should the r-f. wiring, associated with this last named
band, be changed, because the distributed capacity and induc-
tance of the wiring usually is an appreciable part of the total
capacity and inductance for these bands.
The aging of vital parts associated with the tuned circuits of
the receiver is another important factor which makes realign-
ment of receivers necessary at certain intervals. The interval
at which realignment becomes necessary will, of course, vary, de-
pending upon the construction of the receiver-particularly the
types of trimmers-whether they are of the air dielectric or
mica type. Excessive vibration and jarring of the receiver
should be avoided as this tends to disturb its alignment.

General Considerations
When the service man has satisfied himself that the per-
formance of the receiver can be improved by alignment, in
general, the first step is to consult the manufacturer's instruc-
tions relative to the alignment of the receiver in question.
Specific alignment data, as supplied by the manufacturer, will be
found in "Rider's Manuals." We stress the importance of this
step, because, in the last analysis, the alignment procedure de-
pends upon the design of the receiver and the manufacturer is
best qualified to state the special steps in the process of aligning
his particular set.
While it is true that in the great majority of cases the align-
ment follows along the same general lines, at the same time, a
number of receivers require definite departures from the estab-
lished routine.
In some receivers it will be found that the r-f. and oscillator
coils are exposed and that no metal bottom is provided for the
receiver chassis. In these cases, if the test bench has a metal
top, then the alignment adjustments reached under these con-
ditions will be in error when the chassis is installed in its wooden
cabinet. For these reasons it is generally advisable that align-
ment operations be carried out on a bench provided with a
wooden top. On the other hand, if the receiver has a metal
bottom, this should be in place during alignment.
42 AN HOUR A DAY WITH RIDER

Trimmer Adjustments
To avoid hand capacity effects, the receiver should be
grounded, and all tube shields should be in position. The screw-
drivers and socket tools used for alignment work should con-
tain little metal-the less the better. To check whether the
presence of the alignment tool is disturbing the alignment,
observe whether there is a change in output as the tool is
removed from the trimmer. If there is a change, the trimmer
must be adjusted by successively turning the trimmer in small
steps, each time removing the tool and noting the output reading.
That adjustment which gives the greatest reading with the tool
removed is the correct one. This precaution is to be especially
observed in peaking oscillator trimmers on the short-wave bands.
Incidentally, before attempting to peak a trimmer, it is a good
plan to make sure that the trimmer belongs to the band which
is under alignment. As a general rule, the whole alignment
process should be repeated as there is a certain amount of
reaction between the various stages.
A trimmer should never be left loose in its minimum capacity
position; if necessary, bend the end plate so that the nut rests
firmly against the plate. With alignment completed, it is advis-
able to seal the trimmer or tighten the lock nuts, as the case
may be. In applying sealing compound, care should be taken
to see that it does not run down between the plates of the trim-
mer, as this will introduce serious losses and detune the resonant
circuit. Use the sealing compound very sparingly, and check
to see that there is no change in sensitivity after applying it;
this can be done by watching the output meter as the trimmer
is being sealed. If a change occurs, correction is necessary.

Use of the "Tuning Wand"

It is desirable where possible to determine whether the set-
ting of a trimmer is initially correct before making any change
in its adjustment. Where the coil associated with the particular
trimmer is not completely shielded, and is accessible to the
extent that the end of a rod can be inserted into the winding
form, such a test can be made. Such a rod is known as a "tuning
wand."
 RESONANCE AND ALIGNMENT 43

The tuning wand consists of a bakelite rod, one end of which

is attached to a small brass cylinder and the other end of which
is attached to a core of finely divided iron particles-similar to
that used in the new iron core i-f. and r-f. transformers. The
brass end of the bakelite rod, if inserted in the magnetic field of
a coil, will decrease the effective inductance of the coil. On the
other hand, if the iron core end is inserted at one end of the
coil, then the permeability of the iron core acts to increase the
inductance of the coil. Inserting the iron core end lowers the
resonant frequency of the tuned circuit and inserting the brass
end raises the resonant frequency. To check the alignment, the
signal generator and output indicator are connected to the
receiver in the usual manner and the effect upon the output of
inserting each end of the tuning wand is noted. In carrying out
this operation, the tuning wand should not be inserted to a depth
greater than that necessary to determine whether the effect is
a decrease or increase in the output.
If the tuned circuit is in perfect alignment, then insertion of
either end will reduce the output. On the other hand, if the
trimmer capacity is too high, then a decrease in inductance will
compensate for this and thus insertion of the brass end will
increase the output and insertion of the iron core end will reduce
the output. If the trimmer capacity is too low, then an increase
in inductance is required to bring the tuned circuit to resonance.
This can be accomplished by inserting the iron core end. In
other words, if insertion of the iron core end raises the output
and insertion of the brass end lowers the output, then the trim-
mer capacity is too low and can be compensated for by increas-
ing the trimmer capacity. The interpretation of the tuning
wand readings is indicated in the following table:

End of Wand Output Trimmer Capacity

Brass Decreases Do not change
Iron Decreases
Brass Increases Decrease
Iron Decreases
Brass Decreases Increase
Iron Increases
44 AN HOUR A DAY WITH RIDER

In general, turning the alignment tool clockwise increases the

trimmer capacity and turning the tool counter-clockwise decreases
the trimmer capacity.

Regeneration
Where the trimmer adjustments are extremely critical, it is
probably due to the presence of regeneration. If a visual method
of alignment is being used, then the regeneration will be readily
apparent. More will be said about this in the chapter on visual
alignment. Before the alignment of such a receiver is attempted
the regeneration should be eliminated or at least minimized so
that it does not influence the tuning. It is to be understood that
the remarks made here do not apply to those receivers in which
regeneration is intentionally introduced by the manufacturer.

Warm-up Period
Before the final alignment adjustments are made, it is a good
plan to allow the receiver to reach its normal operating temper-
ature by having it operate for at least 15 minutes. This pre-
caution is especially important on the short-wave bands, where
changes in oscillator frequency, due to temperature effects, are
especially important.

AVC Adjustment During Alignment

Receivers equipped with AVC require that special attention
be given to the signal input to the receiver during alignment. A
good general practice to observe is to set the volume control at
maximum and feed the weakest possible signal consistent with
a reasonable deflection on the output indicator. In this way it is
possible to operate below the point at which the AVC circuit
levels off the response. When aligning receivers which do not
employ AVC, it makes no difference whether the signal level is
high or low, providing, of course, that the input is not high
enough to cause overloading. The effect of overloading is to
broaden the selectivity curve and hence to cause incorrect peak-
ing of the trimmers.
In noisy locations it will be impossible to operate with a
signal strength low enough so as to work on the lower portion
 RESONANCE AND ALIGNMENT 45
of the AVC curve. Under these conditions several courses are
open. Instead of working so as to nullify the AVC action, this
is used to serve as the output indicator. In a system incorporat-
ing AVC, the bias on the controlled tubes of course depends
upon the strength of the signal which reaches the AVC rectifier,
which may be the second detector or a separate tube employed
for this purpose. Now, if, due to improper alignment, the signal
reaching the AVC rectifier is low, then the control voltage will
be low. On the other hand, if the trimmers are adjusted to
resonance, then the signal at the AVC rectifier is increased and
the control voltage correspondingly increased. But an increase
in control voltage is evidenced by a decrease in the plate current
of the controlled tubes; thus a milliammeter inserted in series
with the plate supply lead of one of the controlled tubes or in
series with one cathode of the controlled tubes can be used to
function as a resonance indicator.
We discussed the necessity for working below the AVC level
when aligning a receiver by means of the ordinary type of out-
put indicator, which depends for its action upon the audio output
of the receiver. We also mentioned the fact that it was possible
to align a receiver incorporating AVC with a signal of normal
strength, if the operation of the output meter is made to depend
upon the AVC action taking place in the receiver. The discus-
sion of output indicators to follow will be divided into two parts
-first those which depend upon the audio output and second,
those which depend upon the AVC action.

Output Indicators in Audio System

The most generally used output indicator consists of a recti-
fier type a-c. voltmeter, 1000 ohms per volt, connected across
the primary of the output transformer, as indicated in Fig. 25.
The blocking condenser, which may be in the indicator or ex-
ternally connected, has a capacity of about 1 mfd. The 5-volt
range provides more than ample sensitivity, even where the
receiver incorporates AVC and the alignment must be carried
out with a weak signal.
A somewhat similar arrangement is to use a low range a-c.
voltmeter across the speaker voice coil; or the voice coil can
46 AN HOUR A DAY WITH RIDER

be opened and an a-c. milliammeter connected in place of the

voice coil. The last two arrangements offer the disadvantage of
requiring meters not generally available and do not have any
advantage over the output meter first described.
If the output stage consists of two tubes in pushpull, the
output indicator can be connected from the plate of one tube to
ground, as previously described, or if so desired it can be con-
nected from plate to plate of the pushpull tubes. The latter

Fig. 25. The output in-

I dicator here shown is
MFT a rectifier type a-c.
Al./010
INPI.IT
~--1, voltmeter. The 1-ml.
condenser is some-
Tl.I/JI!
-=-10:
._ __ J
times incorporated
within the meter. A
range of 5 volts for
Ot.lTPt./7 this meter is ample.
hVDICATO/l

arrangement has the advantage of not subjecting the blocking

condenser to the plate voltage, but generally is not so convenient
to connect. It might be well to point out that if an external
blocking condenser, such as in Fig. 25 is used, it should be rated
at about 600 volts to avoid possibility of breakdown and conse-
quent meter burnout.
An output indicator employing a neon tube and a tapped
step-up transformer, has been on the market for some time.
The instrument is connected across the voice coil and the tapped
primary provides a range of three impedance values. The
intensity of the glow tube is used to indicate the audio output.
Where a triode detector is used, a d-c. voltmeter across the
detector bias resistor can be used. This should be a low-range,
high-resistance meter, or, if desired, a milliammeter can be in-
serted in series with the plate supply lead feeding the second de-
tector. The best position is between the low end of the load and
the B supply. This meter should have a full scale range of about
1 to 2 milliamperes, depending upon the type of coupling used
between the detector tube and the succeeding audio stage. The
maximum range of the meter also depends upon the type of de-
tector used, that is, whether it is of the power detector type or of
the conventional type. The lower range meter can be used with
 RESONANCE AND ALIGNMENT 47
resistance-coupled detectors and with power detectors. The
higher range is preferable with transformer-coupled detectors.
These two types of indicator systems are somewhat limited in
their application and, with the exception of the fact that they do
not require that the test signal be modulated, offer no advantage
over the simple a-c. voltmeter and blocking condenser unit con-
nected across the primary of the output transformer.

Output Indicators Based Upon A VC Action

We now come to the class of output indicators which depend
upon AVO for their operation. As previously explained the
magnitude of the AVO voltage generated depends upon the
alignment of the tuned circuits. As the circuits are brought into
alignment, the AVO voltage increases. Thus the indication of
a very high-resistance voltmeter connected across the AVO bus
can be used to meter the output. A simple vacuum-tube volt-
meter will serve very well to indicate this voltage. However the
ordinary high-resistance voltmeter is not suitable, as it will upset
the AVO system. A simple vacuum-tube voltmeter is shown in
Fig. 26. A 50-ohm rheostat is shunted across the meter to pro-
606
Fig. 26. A simple
vacuum-tube volt-
meter, connected as in
tbe accompanying sche-
matic, can be used to
measure tbe output of
a receiver in wbicb is 2Z.5v.
incorporated A VC. "tow0• s._i_tM •
_________-11 •+...-----

vide some control over the sensitivity of the instrument. In

practice the rheostat is set so that the meter reads full scale.
The input terminals are connected to the AVO bus and the
trimmers adjusted so that the reading is a minimum. As the
circuits are brought into alignment, the shunt resistance should
be increased so that the meter always reads well up on scale.
The "low" side of the vacuum-tube voltmeter should be con-
nected to the cathode at the second detector or AVO tube.
48 AN HOUR A DAY WITH RIDER

Another useful method in aligning AVO receivers is to dis-

connect the AVO supply lead at the AVO tube (or the second
detector) and to use a fixed value of O bias while the alignment
is effected. This fixed bias is inserted in series with the AVO
supply lead. In this way an ordinary output meter can be used
to carry out the alignment, without regard to keeping the signal
input to a very small value. This procedure is especially useful
where trouble is suspected in the AVO system.
Another method already mentioned in brief is the use of a
low-range d-c. milliammeter in the plate circuit or the cathode
circuit of one of the AVO controlled tubes. The more perfect
the state of alignment, the greater the signal voltage fed into
the AVO tube, consequently, the greater the control bias voltage
fed to the controlled tubes. This control bias reduces the plate
current, hence the greatest reduction in plate current in the con-
trolled tube cathode or plate circuits, is indicative of maximum
signal strength, hence best alignment. The same principle applies
to the use of the meter in the cathode circuit of the controlled
tubes. Such a meter should have a full scale range of about
five milliamperes.
Still anotlier method is the use of a low-range, high-resistance
voltmeter across the fixed bias cathode resistor in the controlled
tube circuits. The greatest decrease in fixed bias voltage, as
the result of the decrease in plate current, indicates that the
highest bias has been applied through the control circuit, and is
indicative of the greatest signal input into the AVO tube, hence,
best alignment.
The use of the resonance indicators described above offer
certain advantages over the audio output type. In the first
place they do not require that the signal input to the receiver
be of extremely small magnitude. The use of a very small signal,
of course, means that the receiver is operating at maximum
sensitivity during the alignment operation-hence is susceptible
to noise pickup, especially on the short-wave bands. In very
noisy locations, this is a serious handicap and in severe cases
necessitates the use of screened rooms. With the AVO type of
indicator, this difficulty is overcome since the signal used is
almost always of greater intensity than the noise voltage pickup.
 Chapter III

ALIGNMENT AND NEUTRALIZATION OF TRF

RECEIVERS
IN ORDER that this material be presented in the most comprehen-
sive manner, we are going to separate the TRF receiver which
does not contain any method of neutralization from the TRF re-
ceiver which contains a neutralizing arrangement. The reason
for making this division is that the alignment process, as applied
to a neutralized TRF receiver, is secondary to the process of neu-
tralization. By this is meant that neutralization is the first re-
quirement, since an unneutralized state interferes with correct
alignment of the receiver.•.• We will start with the TRF re-
ceiver which does not require neutralization.
As far as alignment procedure is concerned, such receivers in-
volve two varieties of alignment adjustments. One of these is
the receiver which has regular trimmers in shunt with the main
tuning condenser. The second type of receiver is that which em-
ploys tuning condensers with slotted end plates and the segments
of these end plates constitute the trimmers. As a general rule,
those receivers which contain trimmers in shunt with the tuning
condensers employ these "high-frequency" trimmers for align-
ment at 1400 kc. or thereabout. Receivers with slotted end plate
condensers are aligned at the respective frequencies which occur
whe.n each one of the segments is alternately fully meshed.
The first step in the actual alignment procedure is to place the
receiver in operation with all trimmers accessible and all shields
in place. It is understood that the operating voltages have been
checked and are correct. The lack of sensitivity and selectivity
is apparently due to misalignment.
49
50 AN HOUR A DAY WITH RIDER

Connect the signal generator to the receiver through a dummy antenna,

consisting of a .00025-mfd. condenser and a 200-ohm resistor, as shown in
Fig. 27. Check the dial position. Turn the condenser shaft until the tun-
ing condenser plates are fully meshed. Generally, a reference mark is pro-
vided by the set manufacturer for the purpose of indicating the position
which represents a fully meshed or fully open condenser. Set the con-
denser so that the reference mark on the dial coincides with the reference
mark on the chassis. Inspection will readily determine whether the refer-

'-----oA
RECEIVER
°""'----------..ae
--
Fig. 27. The output of the signal generator is connected to the
receiver through a dummy antenna consisting of a .00025-mf. con-
denser in series with a 200-ohm resistor.

ence mark is for the condenser plates fully unmeshed or fully meshed.
Where the cabinet escutcheon constitutes the dial pointer, a temporary
pointer should be provided and centered, so that its position corresponds
to that of the escutcheon. A piece of stiff wire, properly mounted and
bent, will serve the purpose well.
Tune the receiver to 1400 kc., unless some other alignment frequency
is specified or is indicated by the dial markings. Now tune the signal gen-
erator to 1400 kc. and with the receiver volume control on full, adjust the
output of the signal generator so that the output indicator, used during the
test, reads about half of the full-scale deflection. (See text on output in-
dicator.) Now adjust the various trimmers, working from the detector
towards the antenna. In each case adjust for maximum output indication
upon the meter. It may be necessary to reduce the output of the signal
generator in order to maintain the meter reading within the limits of the
instrument..•. After all adjustments have been completed, they should
be repeated so as to assure correct alignment at whatever frequency is
used for this test.

In the event that the condenser end plates are slotted and
these segments are used as the trimmers, the tuning condenser is
first completely unmeshed and then the high-frequency segment
is fully meshed by turning the condenser through the proper arc.
Adjustment of this segment may be controlled by a screw, or it
may be necessary to bend the end plate. Whichever is required,
the adjustment is the same as if it were a regular trimmer.
 RESONANCE AND ALIGNMENT 51
The next step is to check the alignment of the receiver at
other frequencies throughout the band. In a large number of
receivers, adjustment at frequencies other than the highest fre-
quency within the band is accomplished by changing the position
of the segments of the slotted end plate. Alignment is effected by
bending the segment away from or toward the adjacent plate of
the condenser. The former decreases the capacity, and the latter
operation increases the capacity. During the past few years, the
trend has been toward precision manufacture of condenser gangs
and in practice you will find that the necessity for bending plates
will seldom occur. An example of a condenser with slotted end
plates and in which segments are adjusted with screws is shown
in Fig. 28.

~~~~@}
AIJIS11H SCl:IW
fOl 1120 ll.C
A
AO,JUSTING 1(1111!•
11011: l•O 11.('.
8
AOJu&TING SCHIii'
FOR 700 ICC.
C
Ao.,unn,G SU!W
fff 600 I.C
D
AO.IUSTlltG SCUii
fOlt SSOll C
E
Courte.sy RCA ,Wfg. Co.
Fig. 28. The slotted end plates of a variable condenser are adjusted
with screws to secure alignment at the frequencies indicated.

Alignment of dual-band TRF receivers, which are not pro-

vided with special high-frequency trimmers for the short-wave
band, may require a slightly different mode of attack. Align-
ment of the broadcast band is carried out as already stated.
Ailgnment of the short-wave band, however, may require move-
ment of the last turn or two of the short-wave coil in order to
align the circuits. Moving these few turns closer to the other
turns of the winding will increase the inductance. Moving the
turns away from the remainder of the winding upon the coil will
decrease the inductance. As a general rule, the short-wave band
in such TRF. receivers is created by shunting a short-wave coil
across the regular broadcast coil. In some cases, a switch in-
serts the short-wave coil into the circuit and it is tuned with the
regular tuning condenser. However, in order not to upset the
adjustment at the broadcast band, it is preferable, if at all pos-
sible, to align the short-wave band by means of inductance varia-
 52 AN HOUR A DAY WITH RIDER

tion and such alignment is carried out only at the high-frequency

end of the band.

Synchronizing Variable Condensers

Many of the old TRF receivers are not provided with trim-
mer condensers, but have an individual adjustment for synchro-
nizing the condensers, which are driven by a single control.
If the synchronism has been disturbed in a belted type receiver, the
condensers can be resynchronized by loosening the pulley set screws and
adjusting the rotor of each condenser to give peak output on a constant-
strength signal of 1000 kc. The pulley screws are then tightened and if
the condensers and r-f. transformers are matched, the synchronism should
be good at all other points on the dial. If the sensitivity of the receiver
is poor at other points in the band, then either the condensers or the r-f.
coil group are not matched. In this case a new condenser group or a new
transformer group (as necessary) should be installed and the condensers
should be resynchronized.
In making adjustments of this type, there is always a tend-
ency for the rotor to shift as the screw is being tightened For
this reason the maximum reading on the output indicator should
be noted just before the screw is tightened and if the reading is
less after the screw is tightened, then the adjustment should be
repeated until the reading, when the screw is tightened, is
the same as the original maximum indkation on the ouput
indicator.

Neutralization of Tuned R-F. Receivers

Since the commercial advent of the screen grid tube in 1930
the necessity for neutralization has disappeared and is not likely
to make its appearance again in radio receivers. Nevertheless,
the fact that many receivers manufactured prior to this date in-
corporated a neutralized circuit makes it desirable to devote some
space to this subject.
When a triode is used as an r-f. amplifier, the capacity be-
tween the grid and plate of the tube becomes very important, be-
cause it serves as a means for an interchange of energy between
the plate and grid circuits. This feedback of energy is generally
great enough to cause serious instability and oscillation. Prior
 RESONANCE AND ALIGNMENT 53

to the time at which screen grid tubes became available, many

receivers used a circuit in which a portion of the voltage from the
output circuit of the neutralized stage was fed back to the grid
circuit in order to cancel the voltage induced on the grid through
the grid-plate capacity. This process is called neutralization.

Neutralizing Procedure
While it is true that many types of neutralization circuits
have been used, they all depend in the main upon the same basic
principle, namely, upon a voltage balance which cancels out the
feedback through the internal grid-plate capacity of the tube.
• . . As far as we are concerned, the important item is that the
neutralizing technique follows along the same lines for substan-
tially all neutralizing systems.
In Fig. 29 is shown a partial schematic of the Majestic 90 and
the neutralizing condensers are indicated as Cl, C2, C3, and C4,
there being four r-f. stages and a neutralizing condenser for each

Fig. 29. Tbe neutralizing condensers, Ct, C2, CJ, and C4, are used
to balance out the coupling introduced through the grid-plate ca-
pacity of the tubes.

stage. Each stage is individually neutralized by means of its

own neutralizing condenser. The operation consists of adjusting
the capacity of the neutralizing condenser to balance out the
coupling introduced through the grid-plate capacity. This is
most easily effected by the use of a dummy tube, that is, a tube
similar in every way to the tubes used in the r-f. amplifier, but
with one heater or filament prong removed. With this dummy
tube inserted in the stage being neutralized, the associated neu-
tralizing condenser is adjusted for minimum output.
Referring to Fig. 29, the signal generator and receiver are
placed in operation and tuned to about 1000 kc. The signal gen-
54 AN H01JR A DAY WITH RIDER

erator is adjusted to give a good reading on the output meter.

To neutralize the fourth r-f. stage, the fourth r-f. tube is replaced
by the dummy tube. It will now be necessary to increase the
output of the signal generator and at the same time the neutral-
izing condenser C4 is adjusted for minimum output. To keep the
receiver tuned to the signal frequency, it is desirable to readjust
the tuning control of the receiver frequently as the neutralization
progresses. This is required because there is some reaction be-
tween the tuning and the neutralizing adjustments. Having ad-
justed C4, the tube is replaced and the dummy tube inserted in
the third r-f. socket. In the same way C3 is adjusted for mini-
mum output. Similarly the dummy tube is in turn inserted in
the second and first r-f. sockets and C2 and Cl, respectively, are
adjusted. It is to be understood that a modulated signal is being
used throughout the above procedure and that the volume con-
trol is at maximum.
The frequency at which the receiver is to be neutralized will ,
depend upon the design, and "Rider's Manuals" should be con-
sulted for available data. In general, a frequency in the neigh-
borhood of 1000 kc. is satisfactory and provides adequate
neutralization throughout the band. If the receiver, when neutral-
ized at 1000 kc., shows a tendency to oscillate at the high-fre-
quency end of the band, then neutralization should be carried out
at a higher frequency, say about 1200 kc. On the other hand, if
the receiver is stable at the high-frequency end but oscillates at
about 600 kc., the low-frequency end, then the receiver should be
neutralized at about 800 kc. In every case it is important to
check the stability of the receiver throughout the entire band.
If the receiver uses tube shields, it is important that they be in place
during neutralization. Repetition of the entire procedure is advisable in
those cases where an appreciable change in the neutralizing condensers is
made. Having completed the neutralization, the receiver can now be
aligned in accordance with the instructions given in a preceding section.
Should the receiver show a tendency toward instability after alignment,
the neutralizing adjustments should be repeated. It should be pointed out
that neutralization is effective only insofar as instability and oscillation
are caused by feedback through the grid-plate capacity of the tube. If
the feedback is due to other causes, such as inadequate shielding, im-
proper voltages, or open bypass condensers, it will b'e impossible to neu-
tralize the receiver properly before these dejects are corrected.
 Chapter IV
THE ALIGNMENT OF SUPERHETERODYNE
RECEIVERS
A THOROUGH understanding of the basic principles underlying the
superheterodyne is indispensable if alignment is to be carried out
intelligently and efficiently. For this reason we digress at this
point to offer a brief explanation of the operation of superhetero-
dyne receivers. The limited space available makes it impossible
for us to go into great detail. For a complete treatment of the
subject we refer you to "Servicing Superheterodynes" by Rider.
Fig. 30 will help to explain the general principles involved in
the alignment of the superheterodyne.

I.F
,s.,ccwo 2""#.D£T.

,,,,.

C7

L.b L7
L Q E 2}
osc.

/45',KC

Fig. 30. A fundamental superheterodyne circuit. The frequencies at

which the signals pass through the components are designated.

An input signal frequency of 1000 kc. is assumed and, begin-

ning at the antenna, we will trace the progress of the signal
through the tuned circuits subject to alignment. The function of
the first radio-frequency stage is to amplify the signal; conse-
quently, the first tuned circuit L 1C1 is tuned to 1000 kc. After
55
56 AN HOUR A DAY WITH RIDER

amplification, the 1000-kc. signal emerges in the plate circuit of

the first r-f. stage and is impressed on the grid of the first detec-
tor tube via L 2 C2 , which is tuned to 1000 kc. This tube is com-
monly known by several different names: first detector, modu-
lator, frequency converter, translator and mixer. It is the tube
in which the signal frequency is converted into the intermediate
frequency.
The function of the oscillator is to generate a voltage which
differs in frequency from the signal being received by an amount
equal to the intermediate frequency. In this case, the interme-
diate frequency is assumed to be 456 kc., so that the oscillator
frequency in 1456 kc. That is, the circuit L 8 C8 is tuned so that
the oscillator generates a 1456-kc. voltage, when the r-f. and
mixer circuits are tuned to 1000 kc. This local oscillator voltage
is impressed on the modulating grid of the first detector, and, as
a result of the rectification which takes place in the first detector,
a frequency equal to the difference between the signal and the
oscillator frequencies appears in the plate circuit of the first de-
tector.
In order that the maximum signal voltage at the difference
frequency-the intermediate frequency-appear in the plate cir-
cuit of the first detector, the tuned plate circuit is resonated at
456 kc. This is L 4 C4 • It is important to realize that the 1000-kc.
modulated signal, which was impressed on the antenna, has now
been converted into a 456-kc. signal, which contains exactly the
same modulation as the original 1000-kc. signal. We are now
interested in amplifying the 456-kc. signal and, therefore, the first
i-f. transformer, comprising L 4 C4 and L 6 C6 , is tuned to the inter-
mediate frequency, 456 kc. Succeeding i-f. stages are also tuned
to 456 kc. The greatly amplified 456-kc. voltage is now im-
pressed on the second detector grid. Demodulation, rectification,
or detection, whichever you want to call it, takes place and the
resultant audio voltage appears in the plate circuit of the second
detector. It is important to understand that the audio voltage,
which appears in the plate circuit of the second detector, is ex-
actly the same as the audio voltage which would have been ob-
tained if the original 1000-kc. signal were passed through a
1000-kc. amplifier and detected, as in the conventional TRF
receiver.
 RESONANCE AND ALIGNMENT 57

General Intermediate-Frequency Amplifier Alignment

Prior to the popularization of the cathode-ray oscillograph
and visual forms of alignment, there was but one method of
aligning a radio receiver. This was the use of a signal generator
and an output meter. In this discussion of i-f. amplifier align-
ment, we are going to deal with the older method, namely the use
of a signal generator and the output indicator. The visual form
of alignment, utilizing the frequency-modulated oscillator and
the cathode-ray oscillograph, will be dealt with later in this
volume.
The first step in the alignment of any superheterodyne is the
alignment of the intermediate-frequency amplifier. Regardless
of the type of superheterodyne, or the frequency range covered,
the intermediate-frequency transformers are adjusted independ-
ently of any tuned circuits in any other part of the receiver. Un-
der no circumstances should the intermediate-frequency align-
ment be made secondary to the r-f. or oscillator adjustment. We
shall use the circuit in Fig. 30 as a model in describing the pro-
cedure to be followed in i-f. alignment.
To prevent harmonics of the signal generator from feeding
into the r-f. amplifier and causing miscellaneous beats, it is de-
sirable to short the oscillator section of the variable condenser.
This is a general method in that it is equally applicable when a
separate oscillator tube or when a combination oscillator-modu-
lator is used. A short clip lead is convenient for this purpose.
If the receiver incorporates a selectivity control, it is important
that this control be placed in the maximum selectivity position.
While aligning the i-f. amplifier, it is good practice to have
the wave-band switch in the broadcast-band position. With the
switch in the short-wave range position, it may not be possible
to get enough voltage from the signal generator to drive a signal
through the i-f. amplifier when the stages are badly out of line.
This is so because the coil in the receiver detector grid circuit acts
as a virtual short circuit across the signal generator output when
the receiver wave-band selector switch is set on one of the high-
frequency ranges. If, when this precaution has been observed, it
is impossible to get a reading on the output meter, connect the
signal generator to the grid of the last i-f. tube, instead of to the
58 AN HOUR A DAY WITH RIDER

first detector grid. If you find that this change is necessary, ad-
just the last i-f. transformer for maximum output. Use the at-
tenuator on the signal generator to cut down the signal input, as
the stage is brought into resonance.
If you feed the signal through the mixer, connect the signal
generator to the mixer grid through a shielded lead, as shown in
Fig. 31. Note that the grid lead is connected to the grid of the

Fig. 31. When the signal

generator is fed to the
mixer tube, it should be
connected through a .001-
mf. condenser and a 10,-
000-ohm resistor, as is
shown on the left.

first detector through a 10,000-ohm resistor. It is convenient to

fit this resistor, which may be a small one-third watt unit, with
a grid cap connector at one end and the grid post from the top
of an old tube at the other end. The grid lead is then removed
and replaced by the special coupling resistor; the grid lead should
not be left free, but should be connected to the other end of the
resistor. This coupling resistor unit should be as small as pos-
sible, so that it does not interfere with the tube shield, which must
be in place during alignment. In every case, the final alignment
should be made with the signal generator connected to the first
detector and all the trimmer adjustments repeated because of
possible interaction between the circuits. As shown in Fig. 31,
the output from the signal generator is taken through a .001-mfd.
condenser. This condenser is used to avoid disturbing the volt-
age constants of the mixer by the grounding of the grid through
the signal generator attenuator network.

Aligning Atwater Kent Receivers

The i-f. alignment of a great many Atwater Kent superhetero-
dynes requires that several special balancing units be used, be-
cause the primary and secondary of the transformers in these
models are overcoupled to obtain a broader frequency band-pass.
 RF...SONANCE AND ALIGNMENT 59

Improper alignment may result if the regular procedure is fol-

lowed. The necessary units, which are shown in Fig. 32, are very
easily constructed. Two of the type "A" units are required. The
type "B" units are used on earlier models.
The alignment procedure is as follows: Couple the signal gen-
erator to the first detector through the detector coupling unit
described in a preceding paragraph.
R .OSMF
Fig. 32. The value ol R

1
for the type "A" unit is
40,000 ohms and R for
type "B" is 20,000 ohms.
The latter type is em-
ployed in earlier models.

Place the balancing unit across the primary of the last i-f. transformer
and peak the secondary for maximum output. Remove the balancing
unit and place it across the secondary winding of the same transformer.
Adjust the primary trimmer for maximum output. In the same manner,
adjust the remaining i-f. transformers for maximum output. In case of
instability while peaking the trimmers of the last i-f. transformer, place an
extra balancing unit across the secondary winding of the next to the last
i-f. transformer. Repeat the alignment operation in order to check the
trimmer adjustments. When the last trimmer has been peaked, remove the
balancing unit and seal the trimmers.

Balancing Unit for General Use

The use of a balancing unit of this type is not limited to At-
water Kent receivers. It is useful when an i-f. transformer, which
has closely coupled windings, is being aligned. Of course, in all
these cases the visual method of alignment is by far superior to
other methods, both from the viewpoint of the great accuracy
achieved and the saving in time.
However, where the cathode-ray equipment is not available,
we suggest the following method of procedure: The i-f. signal is
fed into the first detector in the usual manner. Alignment of the
last i-f. transformer is the first operation. A .01-mf. condenser in
series with a 10,000 ohm resistor is shunted from the grid termi-
nal of the second detector to ground. If a diode detector is used,
the balancing unit is shunted from the diode anode to ground.
The damping action of this unit on the secondary tuned circuit
60 AN HOUR A DAY WITH RIDER

of the transformer now makes it possible to peak the primary

circuit at the i-f. frequency. It will be necessary to increase the
signal generator output in order to get a readable deflection on
the output indicator. After the primary is aligned, the balancing
unit is removed and the secondary trimmer adjusted for maxi-
mum output. It is not necessary to shunt the primary winding
while peaking the secondary trimmer. The same procedure is
carried out for the remaining i-f. transformers. In each case the
balancing unit is connected across the respective secondaries.
This method is convenient in that it is unnecessary to make any
connection underneath the chassis since the balancing unit is
shunted from the grid terminal to ground.

Aligning Overcoupled I-F. Transformers with Output Meter

If you recall, we stated that overcoupled i-f. transformers
had two peaks. Alignment of such systems or such transformers
with an output meter is not the simplest matter, but the occasion
does arise when such operations are required, consequently the
following should be of some value: As a rule, these transformers,
when overcoupled, are arranged to have a band-pass of about 7
to 8 kc. each side of the peak frequency. Therefore, when align-
ing, the minimum indication will be obtained at the peak fre-
quency and two maximum indications will be obtained-one each
side of the peak frequency. If the band-pass is 7 kc. each side
of the rated i-f. peak, which we will assume to be 260 kc., then
a maximum indication will be obtained at 253 kc. and another
maximum will be found at 267 kc. When adjusting such a tran,s-
former, the signal generator should be tuned through this band.
It might not be a bad idea to tune the signal generator through
a band of at least 10 kc. each side of the rated peak and to ad-
just the unit so that the meter indication is the same for both
peaks. By this we mean that the amplitude of the peaks should
be the same. This is not done as easily as it sounds and is a
tedious operation. However, since it is essential-it must be
done. When adjusting such overcoupled transformers, it is es-
sential that the fidelity or selectivity control be in the "maximum
fidelity" position.
 RESONANCE AND ALIGNMENT 61

Neutralization of I-F. Amplifiers

The procedure in neutralizing i-f. amplifiers is similar to that
described in connection with the neutralization of TRF re-
ceivers. A dummy tube of the same type as that used in the i-f.
stages is required. One heater or filament prong must be cut off
so that the tube will not be active. Neutralization is, of course,
carried out at the intermediate frequency. The signal generator
is fed into the first detector in the normal manner, and the i-f.
amplifier is aligned as usual. After alignment has been com-
pleted, the receiver is neutralized. The tube in the stage being
neutralized is removed and replaced with the dummy tube. The
signal generator output is increased until a reading is obtained
on the output indicator. The neutralizing trimmer associated
with the stage is now adjusted for minimum output. The same
procedure is repeated for the remaining stages. It is advisable
to repeat the alignment, as there is some reaction between the
alignment adjustments and the neutralizing adjustments. The
i-f. amplifier is now neutralized and aligned.

Regenerative I-F. Amplifiers

The alignment of i-f. amplifiers, which incorporate regenera-
tion to increase sensitivity and selectivity, requires special atten-
tion. As an example of the procedure to be followed in such
cases, we will refer to the alignment of the Atwater Kent 944,
which is shown in Fig. 33.
The signal generator is connected to the first detector, preferably
through the coupling resistor previously described. A sensitive output in-
dicator must be used, because the final alignment must be made with a.
weak signal. The regeneration control condenser A5, which controls the
amount of feedback, should be set near minimum capacity and the i-f.
trimmers, A-3 and A-4, peaked for maximum output. As the set is
brought into alignment, the signal generator output should be decreased,
so as to use the smallest signal strength consistent with a. readable deflec-
tion. The regeneration control should now be advanced, i.e., the trimmer
A-5 is turned clockwise until a squeal is heard, indicating oscillation. The
trimmer is then backed off until the audio squeal just disappears. With
the regeneration control in this position, the i-f. trimmers, A-3 and A-4,
are again peaked for maximum output.
62 AN HoUR A DAY WITH RIDER

The important things to note in the above procedure are that

the final adjustment of the i-f. trimmers is made with a very weak
signal and with the amplifier fairly close to the edge of oscilla-
tion.
.
z ~1----------------
Cil
I
0
102

R2
CACCN 6. MD
JJOOn

-D'JI-
Courtesy Atwater Kent Mfg. Co,
Fig. 33. Regeneration, wbicb is introduced to increase sensitivity
and selectivity, is controlled by condenser A-5. Condensers A-3 and
A-4 are the i-1. trimmers.
The information given herein concerning Atwater Kent re-
ceivers is, in general, applicable to all other superheterodyne re-
ceivers wherein regeneration is employed in the i-f. amplifier.
You will find upon examination of circuits of such receivers as
shown in "Rider's Manuals," that the manner of adjustment as
herein described is applicable.

Staggering
A method much in vogue for broadening the frequency band-
pass of i-f. amplifiers is that of staggering or detuning the i-f.
transformers about the peak frequency. This method of broad-
ening the i-f. amplifier is to be recommended only where the set
has more than ample sensitivity and the high-frequency response
 RESONANCE AND ALIGNMENT 63
is poor because of excessive selectivity in the i-f. amplifier. Also
when proper alignment, as specified by the receiver manufacturer,
requires that the transformers be staggered.
It may sometimes happen that a receiver may show symp-
toms of excessive selectivity as a result of regeneration. If this
appears to be the case, it is essential to eliminate the regenera-
tion before aligning. When you are satisfied that regeneration is
not responsible for the excessive selectivity, then the condition
can be remedied by staggering properly. We recommend strongly
that a visual method of alignment with cathode-ray equipment
be used to accomplish the broadening of the selectivity response,
but if the equipment is not at hand, the procedure is as follows:
The i-f. amplifier is aligned in the usual manner for maximum
selectivity. Where the i-f. amplifier incorporates but two i-f.
transformers, staggering should, in general, be unnecessary.
However, if staggering is desired, when two transformers are
used, set the signal generator to a frequency which is about 3 kc.
higher than the i-f. peak. Now peak the first i-f. transformer so

Figs. 34A, left, and 34B. Tbe left oscillogram is tbe resonance curve
of a staggered i-f. amplilier. Note tbe band-width and amplitude and
compare with the curve of Fig. 34B, which resulted when the trans-
formers were peaked at the same frequency for ma:rimum sensi-
tivity and selectivity.
as to get maximum output, leaving the second transformer un-
touched. Set the signal generator to a frequency which is lower
than the i-f. peak in the receiver by 3 kc. and peak the second
transformer for maximum output at this frequency.
What you have done so far is to peak the first i-f. transformer
3 kc. higher than the i-f. peak, and the second transformer 3 kc.
64 AN HOUR A DAY WITH RIDER

lower than the i-f. peak. The overall response should now be
checked by slowly varying the frequency of the signal generator
over a band of frequencies of about 10 kc. each side of the rated
peak frequency of the i-f. amplifier. The type of resonance curve
created by such staggering is similar to that shown in Fig. 34A.
This curve is similar to the single-peak curve for optimum
coupling of a two-winding transformer, such as is shown in Fig.
13D. A comparison of the effect of staggering upon band width
and amplitude can be made by comparing Fig. 34A with Fig. 34B,
which shows the resonance curve for the system when both trans-
formers are peaked at the same frequency for maximum selec-
tivity and amplitude.
Generally speaking, the need for staggering occurs when there
are three i-f. transformers of the sharply tuned variety. In this
case it will be sufficient to stagger the last two i-f. transformers
by the method just outlined and to peak the first i-f. transformer
at the rated frequency.
As a final precaution, we wish to emphasize that the need for
the staggering process just described seldom occurs in practice.
Staggering is fine-up to a certain point, but in many cases the
limitations imposed in the form of reduced sensitivity are serious
handicaps. The reduction in amplitude, which in a sense means
sensitivity, is evident in Figs. 34A and 34B. A further important
item is that the staggering adjustment made it essentially a fixed
one and cannot be changed at the convenience of the operator to
suit noise conditions and adjacent channel interference. This
consideration alone places a distinct limit upon the amount of
staggering which can be tolerated. The 3-kc. staggering, pre-
viously mentioned, is a reasonable limit. If the staggered peaks
are further apart, there will be a gradual approach to a resonance
curve which has two distinct peaks, such as would occur in the
over-coupled transformer and there is a very wide band pass,
which would naturally result in reduced selectivity. Accompany-
ing this reduction in selectivity is a very marked decrease in
sensitivity; so much so that it is not practical to attempt to de-
velop a double peak resonance curve by staggering the trans-
former peaks.
It might be well at this time if we again refer to Fig. 34A and
state that when normal staggering of the i-f. peaks is employed,
 RESONANCE AND ALIGNMENT 65
the final peak of the i-f. amplifier as a unit occurs at the original
rated peak frequency. In other words, if, in a system which is
peaked normally at 260 kc., one transformer is staggered and
peaked at 257 kc. and the other transformer is peaked at 263 kc.,
the resultant resonance curve will show broad response at the
top of the curve but there will still be a peak at the mean of
these two frequencies, or 260 kc. If the two transformers are
peaked at widely different frequencies, a resonance curve similar
to that shown in Fig. 13-I will result, with a very great reduction
in amplitude. Instead of a peak at the mean frequency, there is
a very definite dip. Such operation is, of course, out of the
question.

Dual Band Receivers with a Single Oscillator Range

There are two systems for providing dual band coverage, without
switching in the oscillator circuit, in use in the current production of the
smaller receivers in which simplicity and economy of parts are important
factors. The essential characteristic of this type of receiver is that the
oscillator covers but a single band of fundamental frequencies, while the
tuned detector circuit incorporates a two-position switch for the two bands.
We shall first discuss that type of receiver in which use is made of the
second harmonic of the oscillator's fundamental range to provide the het-
erodyning frequency for the short-wave band. The RCA Model T 5-2 is
an example of this type of receiver. The range covered on the upper band
is from 1600 kc. to 3500 kc. and this is obtained by using the second har-
monic of the oscillator's fundamental range, which is from 1000 kc. to
2180 kc. In other words, on the upper band the range of oscillator fre-
quencies is twice that of the range on the broadcast band, or from 2000 kc.
to 4360 kc.
In contrast to the method of operation just described, the Stewart-
Warner R-142A chassis is representative of receivers, which have a circuit
layout similar to that described above, but. which do not use harmonics.
Instead on the second band the oscillator frequency is below the signal
frequency rather than above (as it is on the broadcast band) and in this
manner the frequency range of the receiver is extended without any switch-
ing in the oscillator circuit. It may be noted that the second method does
not provide as wide a frequency range as does the first method which
employs harmonics.
Alignment of these receivers is in keeping with the simplicity of the
circuit and no adjustments are required for the short-wave range. That is,
if the receiver is aligned for the broadcast band it will be in alignment for
the short-wave band.
 Chapter V
OSCILLATOR ALIGNMENT
As PREVIOUSLY stated, the function of the oscillator is to generate
a signal which differs in frequency from the signal received by an
amount equal to the i-f. peak. This oscillator signal is mixed
with the received signal and as a result of the operation of the
mixer or first detector, the i-f. signal is developed. A far more
elaborate explanation of the function of the oscillator will be
found in Rider's "Servicing Superheterodynes."
Since we are concerned with alignment, let us see why align-
ment of the oscillator system in a superheterodyne is an impor-
tant function.
Let us start with the premise, which happens to be an actual
fact in all normally operating receivers, that the only frequency
which can get through the i-f. amplifier is the intermediate fre-
quency. We shall assume that, for the sake of illustration, this
frequency is 450 kc. Let us further assume that the receiver is
tuned so as to receive a signal of 10,450 kc. According to what
has been said, namely, that the oscillator frequency is the differ-
ence between the received signal frequency and the intermediate
frequency, the required oscillator frequency would then be
10,450 + 450, equal to 10,900 kc., or 10,450- 450, equal to
10,000 kc. It is evident that there are two oscillator frequencies
or heterodyning frequencies, which can beat with the incoming
signal and produce the required intermediate frequency. How-
ever, it is customary in modern radio receiver design to adjust the
oscillator tracking so that it is always higher than the received
signal frequency by the value of the intermediate frequency.
Consequently, the proper frequency for this oscillator, in order
to receive the 10,450 kc. signal, would be 10,900 kc.
66
 RESONANCE AND ALIGNMENT 67
In accordance with what has been said, it is also evident that if some
other signal, which was greater than the oscillator frequency by 450 kc.,
would find its way into the mixer tube, it also would result in an inter-
mediate-frequency signal of 450 kc. In other words, with the oscillator
generating a 10,900-kc. signal, it is possible to receive a 10,450-kc. signal
and also an 11,350-kc. signal, when the intermediate-frequency amplifier
is peaked at 450 kc. Incidentally, that interfering signal, which can be
received when the oscillator is operating properly and heterodyning the
required signal, is known as the image signal. In the example cited,
the 11,350-kc. interfering signal is the image for the 10,450-kc. signal. It
is the function of the radio-frequency and mixer tuned circuits to reject the
image signal and all other interfering signals. Image frequency elimina-
tion is discussed later.
As stated, it is up to the r-f. selectivity to determine whether
one, both, or no signals, capable of beating with the oscillator to
form the intermediate frequency, will reach the second detector
with sufficient strength to cause an audible signal. As a general
rule, the receivers are so constructed that only one signal will get
through-that which is lower than the oscillator frequency-in
this case the 10,450-kc. signal. The possible passage of other
signals as a result of harmonic relation is beyond the scope of
this book, but is discussed in detail in Rider's "Servicing Super-
heterodynes." At the same time, however, we might take this
occasion to mention that since a certain condition is desired in
the receiver, the matter of oscillator alignment becomes one of
importance in the effort to make certain that the oscillator fre-
quency is higher than the received signal frequency by the cor-
rect amount.

Oscillator Tracking
In the previous paragraph we stated that the oscillator fre-
quency is higher than the received signal frequency by an amount
equal to the intermediate frequency. This condition is true for
every setting of the dial. For example, in a receiver with an in-
termediate frequency of 450 kc. and tuned to receive a 600-kc.
signal, the oscillator frequency is 1050 kc. In the middle of the
band, when tuned to receive a 1000-kc. signal, the oscillator fre-
quency is 1450 kc. At the end of the band, when tuned to receive
a 1500-kc. signal, the oscillator frequency is 1950 kc. This main-
tenance of the c-scillator frequency, so that it is constantly higher
68 AN HOUR A DAY WITH RIDER

than the signal being received by a predetermined amount, is re-

f erred to as oscillator tracking.
It might be well at this time to make mention that while the above is
true in practically all cases, there may be one or two exceptions wherein the
harmonic of the fundamental oscillator frequency is used to heterodyne a
short-wave signal. In other words, the second harmonic of the 1950 kc.
signal generated by the oscillator, which is equal to 3900 kc., would be used
to beat against or mix with a 3450-kc. incoming signal, so as to generate
the required 450-kc. intermediate frequency. It might also be well to state
that in those cases where the oscillator frequency is maintained higher
than the received signal by a constant amount, that difference exists over
the entire band, inclusive of the short-wave bands.

There are two methods in common use for accomplishing os-

cillator tracking as previously described. The first method
makes use of a special oscillator tracking section of the ganged
condenser, wherein the shape of the plates is so designed that the
required variation of the oscillator frequency is maintained. This
method requires no further comment in that the alignment of the
oscillator is automatically taken care of and can only be changed
by bending the end plates of the oscillator condenser section.
This statement assumes that these plates are cut for the purpose.
The second and more widely used method for making the os-
cillator track, is through the use of two condensers, the "padder"
at the low-frequency end of the band and the "trimmer" at the
high-frequency end. These terms, when applied to an oscillator
system, indicate the function of the tracking condensers. Basic-
ally, every oscillator used in receivers incorporates a tuned circuit
by means of which the frequency of oscillation is controlled.
Referring to a typical oscillator schematic in Fig. 35-A, we shall
first discuss the operation of the shunt trimmer. This trimmer,
C2, provides the oscillator tracking adjustment over the high-
frequency end of the band. At this end, the variable tuning con-
denser Cl is completely unmeshed and the capacity in the tuned
circuit is largely made up of the trimmer capacity C2. It is for
this reason that C2 is called the high-frequency oscillator trim-
mer and exercises a critical control over the oscillator frequency
at the high-frequency end of the band. At the low-frequency
end, however, Cl is completely meshed and, its capacity being
about 350 mmf., the capacity of the trimmer condenser C2 has
 RESONANCE AND ALIGNMENT 69

relatively little effect in changing the total capacity in the circuit

and hence in changing the frequency.

Fig. 35A. In this typical os-

ci11ator circuit, condenser
C2 is the osci11ator trimmer
and condenser C3 is the os-
cillator padder. Condenser
C2 provides the osci11ator
tracking adjustment over the
high-frequency end of the
band and C3 over the low-
frequency end.

In the case of the low-frequency series tracking condenser,

called the oscillator padding condenser, conditions are different.
At the high-frequency end of the band, the capacity of this con-
denser is sufficiently great so that it acts as a bypass condenser.
For this reason, C3 has little control over the frequency at this
end; in fact, if it were removed from the circuit, the frequency
would remain about the same. However, as the frequency is de-
creased, the capacity of the tuning condenser becomes compa-
rable to that of the padder and, therefore, C3 has greater control
over the frequency of oscillation.
So much for the theory underlying the tracking of the oscilla-
tor system with the balance of the receiver, and the function of
the "padder" and "trimmer." In view of the fact that the align-
ment operations or tracking operations in the oscillator system
are very closely tied in with alignment of the r-f. and particularly
the mixer or first detector systems, we feel that it would be best
to discuss the mechanical operations of oscillator alignment in
connection with r-f. and detector alignment. Accordingly the
process of oscillator alignment is discussed in the next chapter.
 Chapter VI
R-F. AND DETECTOR ALIGNMENT
WE HAVE already considered the alignment of i-f. amplifier cir-
cuits. The next step in the alignment process is the adjustment
of the radio-frequency portion of the receiver, consisting of the
detector and the r-f. tuned circuits and the alignment of the os-
cillator.

Dummy Antenna
A dummy antenna is recommended for proper alignment of
the input circuits. The standard dummy antenna, which has
been adopted by the I.R.E., has the following characteristics:
0=200 mmf., L=20 microhenrys, and R=25 ohms. In the
case of the signal generators of the type used for service work,
their output impedance is unknown, and furthermore, it varies
widely with the setting of the attenuator. For this reason noth-
ing is gained b~ using the standard antenna, unless it is used in
conjunction with a precision signal generator of known output
impedance characteristics.
For general use with the average service signal generator, we
recommend that the unit shown in Fig. 27 be used as the dummy
antenna. It will operate satisfactorily over the short-wave and
broadcast bands.

R-F. and First Detector Alignment

Inasmuch as the alignment of the r-f. end of the receiver is
tied in with the alignment of the oscillator, it will simplify the
explanation to go over the complete oscillator and r-f. alignment
procedure for a typical receiver circuit. These parts of a typi-
cal receiver are shown in Fig. 35-B. The trimmers which are dis-
cussed, appear in the schematic.
The first step is to connect up the signal generator and output
70
 RESONANCE AND ALIGNMENT 71

indicator; the former through the dummy antenna, shown in Fig.

27. We shall assume that the alignment is for the broadcast
band and that the two alignment frequencies are 1400 kc. and
600 kc., the former being the adjustment at the high-frequency
end of the band and the latter at the low-frequency end.
Having checked the position of the dial according to the refer-
ence line (see Tuned R-F. Alignment) to insure that it is cor-
rectly located on the condenser shaft, both signal generator and
:0£7

Fig. 35B. In this typical superheterodyne circuit, Cl is the r-1. trim-

mer, C2 is the detector trimmer, C3, the oscillator series padder and
C4 the oscillator shunt trimmer. Their respective adjustments are
explained in the accompanying text.
receiver are tuned to the high-frequency calibration point, 1400
kc. The oscillator shunt trimmer, C4, is adjusted for maximum
output. Without disturbing the position of the tuning condenser
or the setting of the signal generator, the detector trimmer, C2, is
adjusted for maximum output. In the same way, the r-f. trimmer,
Cl, is also adjusted for maximum output. We repeat-these
three trimmers are adjusted for maximum output without dis-
turbing the setting of the signal generator or the tuning con-
trol of the receiver. If the output indication increases appre-
ciably, the output of the signal generator should be cut down so
as to keep the setting upon the indicator at about middle scale.
This completes the r-f. and detector adjustments at the high-
frequency end of the band. The next step is alignment of the
oscillator at the low-frequency end of the broadcast band.
72 AN HOUR A DAY WITH RIDER

Low-Frequency Oscillator Alignment

Set the signal generator at 600 kc., and tune the receiver to the neigh-
borhood of 600 kc. Do not tune the receiver to exactly 600 kc., but rather
to that point in the vicinity which gives the maximum output. This set-
ting will not, as a rule, coincide with 600 kc. on the dial. The low-
frequency adjustment is then effected by alternately readjusting the
trimmer, C3, and the tuning condenser for maximum output. This opera-
tion is commonly known as rocking. It consists simply in finding that
combination of oscillator trimmer adjustment and tuning condenser posi-
tion which gives the maximum output. This adjustment is final, regard-
less of whether the dial reads exactly 600 kc. or slightly off 600 kc.
The following will explain why this rocking process is neces-
sary: In aligning the receiver at the low-frequency end, only one
adjustment is generally provided, namely, the series oscillator
padder. There is no trimmer adjustment to bring the detector
and r-f. tuned circuits into resonance. Remembering that the
greater part of the selectivity and sensitivity of a superheterodyne
is in the i-f. amplifier, it will be evident that the setting of the
tuning condenser is determined largely by the fact that the oscil-
lator frequency must be higher than the signal frequency by an
amount equal to the i-f. frequency. To take a numerical ex-
ample, (i-f. peak equal to 450 kc.), it may happen that maximum
output is obtained with the oscillator tuned to 1055 kc. and the
first detector and r-f. circuits tuned to 590 kc. instead of to 600
kc., the signal frequency. By rocking the condenser shaft, a new
setting can be found which tunes the r-f. circuits to exactly 600
kc. and the oscillator to 1050 kc. The latter combination, of
course, will give better selectivity and sensitivity.
In view of the fact that a certain amount of interaction exists
between the adjustments at the low-frequency end of the band
and those at the high-frequency end, it is advisable to repeat all
the adjustments at the high-frequency end, that is, to re-peak
the trimmers C3, C2 and Cl, after having made the 600-kc. ad-
justment.
If the receiver is a multi-band job, then the general alignment pro-
cedure for each band follows along the same lines as that just described.
However, there are some modifications in the procedure and these differ-
ences will be taken up in due order. One of the differences is that in
some modern multi-band receivers, the alignment frequencies on the
broadcast band are 580 kc. and between 1600 kc. and 1700 kc.
 RESONANCE AND ALIGNMENT 73

Rocking Necessary for High-Frequency Detector Alignment

One of the essential differences in alignment of the first de-
tector at the high frequencies and over the broadcast band is
that there is an interaction between the oscillator and detector
tuned circuits at the high frequencies. This interaction between
the oscillator and detector circuits, especially prominent when the
pentagrid converter is used, leads to an interlocking action be-
tween the detector and oscillator trimmer adjustments. Peaking
the detector trimmer after the oscillator trimmer has been ad-
justed for maximum output at the calibration frequency, changes
the oscillator frequency and impairs overall performance. The
remedy is to find that combination of oscillator and detector
trimmer adjustment, which tunes the detector circuit to resonance
with the incoming signal, and at the same time provides an oscil-
lator frequency, which is higher than the received signal fre-
quency by an amount equal to the intermediate frequency. This
is accomplished by continuously shifting or rocking the tuning
condenser backward and forward through the peak and simul-
taneously adjusting the detector circuit for maximum output.
If considerable interaction exists between the two circuits, it
will be found that the optimum adjustment has appreciably dis-
turbed the calibration. To remedy this, adjust the oscillator
trimmer for maximum output on calibration and repeat the rock-
ing process. It will be found that this will bring the set more
nearly into correct calibration. Generally it will be unnecessary
to repeat the rocking process, as the amount of interaction is not
as a rule sufficient to disturb the calibration seriously. It is not
necessary to rock the condenser gang while aligning the r-f. stage.

Insufficient Attenuation at Higher Frequencies

It may happen that when aligning a sensitive receiver at the
higher frequencies, it is impossible to attenuate the signal input
sufficiently to work below the AVO level. In these cases the
signal generator is not connected to the receiver but is placed
some distance from it. A 400-ohm carbon resistor is shunted
from the antenna post of the receiver to ground, and a short piece
of wire is connected to the antenna post and is used as a pick-up
lead. The signal generator and receiver, of course, should be
grounded to prevent body capacity effects.
74 AN Hmm A DAY WITH RIDER

R-F. Compensating Condenser Adjustment

Some of the early superheterodyne receivers were equipped with an r-f.
compensating condenser. The adjustment is generally made near the low-
frequency end of the band. The trimmer is rotated until the receiver
goes into oscillation and it is then backed off until the oscillation or squeal
stops. It is important that the receiver be checked for stability through-
out the band. Use a fairly strong signal input.

1-F. Wave Trap Adjustment

The function of the i-f. wave trap is to prevent interfering
signals at the intermediate frequency from reaching the i-f. am-
plifier. The wave trap generally takes the form of a tuned cir-
cuit resonated to the intermediate frequency. Two common
types are shown herewith. Fig. 36A illustrates the parallel
resonant circuit tuned to the intermediate frequency and Fig. 36B

ANT.
COIL

Figs. 36A, left, and 36B. Either type of trap circuit, when resonated
to the intermediate frequency, prevents signals at that frequency
from entering the i-f. ampli.ier.
shows the series resonant circuit tuned to the intermediate fre-
quency. In each case the procedure is to align the i-f. amplifier
and the oscillator circuits in the usual manner. Before aligning
the r-f. circuits, the signal generator is connected to the antenna
and ground posts of the receiver and set at the intermediate fre-
quency. The trap trimmer is adjusted for minimum output on
the indicator. The output of the signal generator is advanced
to maximum so that the trimmer can be set accurately. While
the trimmer is being adjusted, the receiver is preferably tuned to
 RESONANCE AND ALIGNMENT 75

the low-frequency end of the broadcast band, about 550 kc., as

this setting is most susceptible to interference at the intermediate
frequency.
After the trimmer has been adjusted for minimum output, the
r-f. circuits are peaked in the usual manner. This procedure is
suggested because of possible interaction between the r-f. circuit
alignment and the wave trap. It is highly important that the
signal generator and output lead be carefully shielded to prevent
stray coupling directly into the i-f. amplifier.

Image Suppression Circuits

In the early Atwater Kent superheterodynes, particularly in
the 70, 72, 74 and 76 series, where no r-f. amplification is em-
ployed, a special circuit is used for image rejection. The circuit

#'3
v.c.

Fig. 37. The image suppression circuit, No. 4, is maintained at a

frequency that is higher than the receiver dial setting by twice
the value of the intermediate frequency. This circuit is adjusted
by the double-spot trimmer.
of this double spot system, as it is called, is shown in Fig. 37. The
alignment of the image rejection circuit, which effectively acts as
a short circuit between grid and ground of the first detector at the
image frequency, requires that a special pi'Ocedure be followed.
This is outlined in the following paragraph.
The signal generator is connected to the antenna. and ground posts of
the receiver. With the receiver tuned to 1500 kc. and the signal generator
adjusted to this frequency and with normal output the r-f. preselector
76 AN HOUR A DAY WITH RIDER

trimmers are peaked for maximum receiver output. The receiver is now
tuned to 1240 kc. The frequency of the signal generator is not
changed. With the signal generator set at 1500 kc. and for maximum out-
put, the receiver is carefully tuned in the neighborhood of 1240 kc. The
double spot trimmer is now adjusted for minimum receiver output. It
may not be possible to eliminate the image response completely. This
will depend upon the strength of the 1500-kc. signal available. At any
rate, the double spot trimmer is adjusted for minimum receiver output.
The receiver should now be retuned to 1500 kc., the signal generator out-
put decreased to normal, and trimmer No. 3 readjusted for maximum re-
ceiver output. The receiver is tuned to 1240 kc. again and the adjustment
of the double spot trimmer for minimum receiver output repeated. This
procedure should be repeated until further adjustment of trimmer No. 3
does not increase the output of the receiver and further adjustment of the
double-spot trimmer does not reduce the output of the receiver at 1240
kc. to a greater extent.

There are in use some continuously tuned image suppression

circuits. The function of these circuits is to minimize image inter-
ference by preventing the passage of the image signal to the first
detector. Consequently, the image suppression circuit is tracked
with the other tuned circuits in the receiver and is always main-
tained at a frequency adjustment which is higher than the re-
ceiver dial setting by twice the intermediate frequency. Conse-
quently, when such image suppression circuits are to be adjusted
for a given dial setting of the receiver, the signal generator must
be tuned to a frequency higher than the dial reading by an
amount equal to twice the intermediate frequency and the circuit
is aligned for minimum response.
For example, to adjust such a circuit in a receiver, which has
an i-f. peak of 175 kc., the receiver is tuned to, say, 1200 kc., and
the signal generator is tuned to the image frequency, which is
1550 kc. The image circuit trimmer is now adjusted for mini-
mum output, since we desire to eliminate this image signal. It is
important to remember that since the image suppression circuits
are generally tied in with the other tuned circuits, the adjustment
of the image suppression circuits must be followed by realignment
of the r-f. circuits, as in the case of the Atwater Kent double-spot
system.
In receivers which employ an oscmator frequency higher than the signal frequency.
the image frequency is equal to the signal frequency plm twice the intermediate
frequency. In receivers which emplov an oacillator freauency lower than the signal fre-
quency,, the imaize frequency is equal to the signal frequency minm twice the inter-
me,11ate frequency.
 RESONANCE AND ALIGNMENT 77

Double Conversion Systems

A number of receivers have been manufactured in which the
superheterodyne principle is employed twice in succession.
Receivers, which employ this principle in a single unit, are known
as double superheterodynes, of which the Stewart Warner 105
series is an example. In addition, any superheterodyne such as
one originally intended for use on the broadcast band, and which
is used in conjunction with a short-wave converter for short wave
reception, is another example of a double superheterodyne or a
double conversion system. The primary difference between these
two types of double conversion systems is that the former is a
single unit embracing all of the elements, whereas the latter con-
sists of two distinct units, namely, the converter as one and the
receiver as the other.
The block diagram in Fig. 38 is an example of the general lay-
out in such a double conversion receiver. To illustrate the opera-

Fig. 38. Tbe frequencies to wbicb tbe various circuits ol tbis

double conversion superheterodyne are tuned, are designated on
the diagram. Note especially which units ol this set are li1eed
tuned, as e,cplained in the accompanying te1et.

tion of the receiver, we shall trace the path of an IS-megacycle

(18,000 kc.) signal through the receiver. This will at the same
time illustrate the frequency to which the various circuits are
tuned, consequently the frequency at which the circuits should be
aligned. It is, of course, possible that other alignment frequen-
cies may be specified, but the figures given will serve as suitable
examples. To begin with, the received IS-megacycle signal is
impressed on the r-f. amplifier and after being amplified, is fed to
the short-wave detector or the high-frequency mixer. In some
cases the r-f. amplifier is not present, so that the received high-
78 AN HOUR A DAY WITH RIDER

frequency signal is fed directly into the high-frequency or short-

wave detector. We assume that the design of the receiver is such
that the first intermediate frequency produced is 1000 kc. Con-
sequently the high-frequency oscillator will generate a 19-mega-
cycle (19,000 kc.) signal, which is fed into the mixer, wherein, as
a result of the operation of the tube, the difference frequency of
1000 kc. is produced and fed into the high-frequency intermediate
amplifier. This 1000-kc. signal constitutes the high intermediate-
frequency signal. Thus is completed the first conversion.
After due amplification, this high intermediate-frequency sig-
nal is fed into the second mixer or broadcast detector. The
design of the receiver is assumed to be such that the low inter-
mediate frequency in the broadcast section is 175 kc. In order
that this signal be developed, the low-frequency oscillator gener-
ates a voltage which is 175 kc. higher than the signal fed into the
broadcast detector. This means that the oscillator signal is 1175
kc. As a result of the operation of the broadcast detector, the
175-kc. intermediate frequency signal is developed and fed into
the low intermediate-frequency amplifier and, in the usual man-
ner, reaches the demodulator tube, wherein the signal is demodu-
lated and the audio voltage is fed into the audio amplifier.
It is significant to note that in a receiver of this type only the r-f.,
high-frequency detector and high-frequency oscillator are variable tuned.
The high-frequency intermediate amplifier, the broadcast detector and the
low-frequency oscillator are fixed tuned to frequencies which are inde-
pendent of the signal being received. This becomes evident upon analysis
of the circuit, since the frequency relation between the received signal and
the high-frequency oscillator is always such that the difference frequency
of 1000 kc. is developed. Since the input to the high-frequency interme-
diate amplifier is a fixed frequency, the input to the broadcast detector is
likewise of fixed frequency. Since the low-frequency intermediate ampli-
fier is likewise a fixed frequency, irrespective of the frequency of the
original signal received, the low-frequency oscillator likewise can be a
fixed frequency.

As far as alignment is concerned, we can divide this double

conversion system into two separate sections and handle them as
if they were two separate superheterodyne receivers connected in
tandem or series. For example, that part of the circuit to the
right of the dotted line constitutes a complete superheterodyne
receiver with its input circuit tuned to 1000 kc. and its i-f. ampli-
 RESONANCE AND ALIGNMENT 79

ficr tuned to 175 kc. It is possible to view this system as being

an r-f. amplifier fixed tuned to 1000 kc., and an oscillator fixed
tuned to 1175 kc. Alignment would then be carried out at 1000
kc. in the input circuit of the high intermediate-frequency ampli-
fier and the broadcast detector, and alignment of the low-fre-
quency oscillator would take place at 1175 kc. In turn, alignment
of the low-frequency intermediate amplifier would take place at
175 kc. The order of alignment would be in conformity with
what has already been said in connection with the conventional
superheterodyne receiver.
Let us now consider this system to the left of the dotted line.
In accordance with the frequencies mentioned, the high-frequency
r-f. amplifier, the high-frequency or short-wave detector and the
high-frequency oscillator would be aligned over the normal tun-
ing band-bearing in mind that the difference frequency out of
the high-frequency detector is 1000 kc. The alignment procedure
here is similar to that described for the ordinary superheterodyne.

Converter Alignment
We want to point out that the circuit to the left of the dotted
line in Fig. 38 is the equivalent of a normal converter system,
when it is contained in a separate unit distinct from the rest of
the circuit. From the viewpoint of alignment, it is aligned in
conventional manner. If, for example, this converter were used
with a tuned radio-frequency receiver, then the complete com-
bination is an ordinary s-uperheterodyne receiver, wherein the
converter supplies the ordinary mixer and oscillator, and the
TRF receiver supplies the intermediate-frequency amplifier and
demodulator.
In some instances, such converter systems include a wave trap
in series with the antenna circuit, or at least in the antenna cir-
cuit. This wave trap is tuned to the output frequency of the
converter, which in Fig. 38, would be 1000 kc. The reason for the
trap is to eliminate interference which may arise because the
1000-kc. amplifier circuit is within the broadcast band. In some
instances, such interference is picked up by the lead which con-
nects the high-frequency or short-wave detector or converter
detector, to the high-frequency intermediate amplifier.
80 AN HOUR A DAY 'WITH RIDER

Beat Oscillator Alignment for C-W. Reception

There are some short-wave superheterodyne receivers which
are equipped with a beat oscillator to be used for C-W. reception.
The discussion to follow is separate and distinct from that relat-
ing to the presence of a beat oscillator as a carrier indicator.
Referring to the C-W. beat oscillator, the alignment of this
oscillator is carried out by first aligning the receiver in normal
manner. After the receiver has been thoroughly aligned, so that
it is in perfect order for the reception of modulated waves, then
an unmodulated carrier of the rated intermediate frequency is fed
into the intermediate-frequency amplifier. The beat-frequency
oscillator is then turned on and tuned to 1000 cycles higher than
the rated intermediate frequency. In other words, if the inter-
mediate frequency of the mixer is 456 kc., the beat oscillator is
tuned to 457 kc., in order to develop a 1000,-cycle note in the
output. In some instances the beat oscillator is of the variable
tuned type, so as to enable a choice of output audio frequencies
for C-W. reception. In this case, it is best to adjust the beat-
frequency oscillator so that its frequency is either about 1000
cycles above or below the i-f. peak of the receiver. In this way it
is possible to reduce the interference by shifting from one side of
the i-f. peak to the other side at which the interference may be
lower. The reason for the procedure indicated above is to reduce
the strength of the audio image signal.

Adjusting 10-KC. Audio Filters

It is possible that this item belongs among audio-frequency
subjects, yet we feel that it should be mentioned at this time,
because, if such a filter is incorporated in a receiver, it is usually
referred to when the subject of alignment is discussed. As it
happens, these filter networks seldom require readjustment; how-
ever, in the event that they do, the following should be of some
value.
These filters, located in the plate circuit of the demodulator
tube, or in the audio system, are usually arranged to cut-off at 10
kc. See Fig. 39. Their adjustment requires that 10 kc. or 10,000
cycles be available for checking. This signal can be obtained in
 RESONANCE AND ALIGNMENT 81

two ways. Naturally the most convenient method is the use of a

variable audio oscillator. However, if such a unit is not avail-
able, the following method can be applied:
Set the receiver to its lowest broadcast frequency position. Let us as-
sume this is 540 kc. Now insert a 100,000-ohm resistor between the plate
of the mixer tube and the plate-voltage supply lead at the plate terminal
of the socket. Then connect a .01-mf. condenser between the plate termi-
nal of the mixer tube and the plate terminal of the demodulator, or to
that terminal to which the high side of the audio filter is connected. The
next step is to establish the setting of the receiver oscillator when the re-

Fig. 39. When adjusting a 10-

kc. audio fi.Jter circuit a 100,000-
ohm resistor is connected in .o,
series with the mixer plate and
MF ro
L....._ OEMOOI/LATl:JR
the B supply and a .01-ml. con- . - - PLAT£ OR
denser between the plate and Hl6H SIPE OF
the points indicated on the A.F FILTER
right.
MIXER

ceiver is tuned to 540 kc. It might be that the lowest broadcast-frequency

position on this receiver is 550 kc. instead of 540 kc. This is not an item
of moment. Whatever this setting may be, establish the frequency of the
receiver oscillator. The frequency of the receiver oscillator for any setting
of the tuning dial, is equal to the setting of the dial plus the i-f. peak.
Thus, if the i-f. peak in the receiver, we are using as an illustration, is 260
kc., the setting of the oscillator, when the receiver is tuned to 540 kc., is
800 kc. The signal generator is now placed in operation and arranged to
feed an unmodulated carrier into the receiver. Adjust the signal generator
to zero beat with the receiver oscillator. This means that the signal gen-
erator is tuned to 800 kc. Any difference in tuning between the receiver
oscillator and the signal generator will result in an audio beat. The
coupling condenser previously mentioned is inserted so as to feed the out-
put of the mixer tube directly to the second detector or demodulator plate.
After the zero beat setting has been established, increase the frequency of
the i,ignal generator 10 kc. This will develop the audio beat of 10 kc.
Now adjust the audio filter for minimum output, which means cut-off at
10 kc.

Determining Unknown I-F. Peaks

In general it can safely be assumed that the i-f. peak of the
receiver lies somewhere between 100 kc. and 550 kc. The pro-
82 AN HouR A DAY WITH RIDER

cedure is to connect the signal generator to the grid of the last

i-f. tube. This connection should be made in the manner used for
i-f. alignment and the oscillator section of the tuning condenser
should be shorted. Starting at 550 kc., the signal generator fre-
quency is decreased until the output meter shows a reading. The
speaker is preferably left connected while this operation is car-
ried out, so that the audio note will be heard as the peak is passed.
The frequency at which the note is first heard is probably the
intermediate frequency. To check that it is not a subharmonic
of the intermediate frequency, the signal generator should be set
to twice the frequency at which the note is heard; if no signal is
heard at this point, then the first frequency is the i-f. peak. As a
further check, it is suggested that the signal generator be set to
half the i-f. and the signal should be heard under these conditions.
A concrete example will simplify the above explanation. Sup-
pose that beginning with signal generator frequency set at 550
kc., the frequency is decreased slowly and that when 430 kc. is
reached the signal is heard in the speaker. The signal generator
is set at twice 430 kc. or 860 kc. and at this setting no signal
should be heard. With the signal generator set at one half 430
kc. or 215 kc., the signal should be heard. If the above conditions
are fulfilled then the approximate i-f. peak is 430 kc.

Use of Signal Generator Harmonics

It is possible to use harmonics of the available fundamental
frequencies to effect alignmant, provided proper care is exercised
to avoid confusing the order of the harmonics. In the first place,
it should be clear that when an oscillator is generating a certain
frequency, it is at the same time producing a whole train of har-
monic frequencies. These harmonics are frequencies which are
integral multiples of the fundamental. An example will make this
clear. Suppose that the oscillator is set at 1000 kc. Then the
signal generator is producing not only 1000 kc., but is generating
also 2000 kc., 3000 kc., 4000 kc., 5000 kc., and so on. It should be
understood that the intensity of the harmonics diminishes rapidly
and in general the higher the order of the harmonic, the weaker
is the amplitude of the harmonic voltage.
What will follow is of general interest in the event that the
 RESONANCE AND ALIGNMENT 83

range of the signal generator is limited and it is necessary to

employ harmonics of the fundamental without definite calibra-
tion of these harmonics. Of course, if the signal generator is
calibrated throughout its range, inclusive of the usable harmonics,
then the fact that harmonics are employed is of no consequence.
We are primarily interested in the extent to which harmonics can
be used in alignment work. For example, can the 25th harmonic
of 1000 kc. signal be used to align a receiver at 25,000 kc.? The
answer is no. It must be remembered that a 24,000-kc. and
26,000-kc. signal are present as well as the 25,000-kc. signal and
it is very possible that the receiver will be aligned at the wrong
frequency, say, 24,000 kc. instead of the correct 25,000 kc. The
possibility of image confusion in superheterodynes adds to the
difficulties inherent in the use of high order harmonics, as can
readily be seen.
We have just cited an instance in which it would be inadvis-
able to use a harmonic to effect alignment. We now wish to show
how a harmonic can be used to advantage where the signal gen-
erator has a limited frequency range. Suppose that the signal
generator available has a maximum frequency range of 10,000 kc.
and it is desired to align a receiver at 18 me. The alignment is
carried out by setting the signal generator at 9 me. The second
harmonic will now be 18 me., which is the desired frequency. The
possible confusion of the other harmonics does not exist in this
case, because the two adjacent frequencies, which might be con-
fused, are 9 me. and 27 me. These are so widely separated from
the alignment frequency that the possibility of confusion is neg-
ligible. As a matter of fact, there is perhaps an advantage in
using the second harmonic in this case, since there is less reaction
between the signal generator and the receiver when a harmonic
of the oscillator is being picked off.
As the antenna coil is aligned, there will be very little tend-
ency for the frequency of the signal generator to be changed.
In addition, where it is impossible to attenuate the signal suffi-
ciently at the higher frequencies, it is desirable to use the second
or third harmonic of the signal generator, since this will provide
the desired attenuation. For example, if the alignment is being
made at 20 me. and the attenuator does not cut down the signal
to the desired value, then the signal generator can be set at 20
84 AN HouR A DAY WITH RIDER

mc./3 or at 6667 kc., and it will then be possible to attenuate the

signal to the required value.
As a general rule, harmonics can be safely used up to about
the third or fourth without much possibility of confusion. How-
ever, we have tried to show that the use of higher order harmonics
requires that special care be exercised; we do not recommend
that they be used for alignment work except by those experienced
in the methods of checking to insure that the receiver is being
aligned to the correct harmonic.

Visual Alignment
It is beyond the scope of this book to describe completely the
theory and practice of visual alignment. However, we feel that a
certain amount of this data is necessary because visual alignment
is an oi:,eration which is growing in popularity. Furthermore,
since we cannot take for granted that you are familiar with the
fundamental operations of visual alignment methods which
employ the cathode-ray oscillograph, a brief outline of the vari-
ous functions is given herewith. For more extensive details con-
cerning the cathode-ray oscillograph as applied to alignment, we
suggest that you read Rider's "The Cathode-Ray Tube At Work."
In brief, the operation of visual alignment processes is as
follows: Whereas the signal generator, referred to in previous
chapters in connection with the conventional form of alignment,
generates a modulated signal of a single frequency, visual align-
ment employing the cathode-ray oscillograph utilizes a signal
generator which is frequency-modulated over a certain band of
frequencies. By frequency-modulated we mean that the output
of the signal generator automatically varies in frequency over a
band of frequencies about the i-f. alignment frequency. A
numerical example will clarify this. If the alignment frequency
of the i-f. amplifier is 260 kc., the frequency-modulated signal
generator produces a continuously varying band of frequencies
between 250 kc. and 270 kc. In other words, the device auto-
matically varies the frequency of the output over this 20-kc.
band. At one instant the frequency of the output of the signal
generator is 250 kc. At the next instant it is 251 kc. At the next
instant it is 252 kc., and so forth until 270 kc. is reached, at which
 RESONANCE AND ALIGNMENT 85
time the frequency starts decreasing to 269 kc., 268 kc., 267 kc.,
and so forth until the original 250 kc. is reached. Then the same
process is repeated over and over again.
The rate at which this change in frequency takes place
depends upon the mechanical design of the signal generator. The
band of frequencies covered, that is, whether the spread is 20 kc.
wide, 30 kc. wide or even 10 kc. wide, also depends upon the
design of the system. As a rule, it can be varied by the person
operating the device. The carrier signal generated by the signal
generator at any one instant is unmodulated. This is in contrast
to the usual signal generator, which develops an output carrier
that is modulated. The reference to the fact that the band of
frequencies generated in this frequency-modulated signal gener-
ator varies about the i-f. alignment frequency, is explained above.
The fact that the output varies both sides of the rated frequency
of the i-f. amplifier is described by the statement that the fre-
quency varies continuously over a band of frequencies about the
i-f. alignment frequency.
This frequency-modulated signal is fed into the receiver under align-
ment, just as if it were a constant frequency signal. After rectification, a.
voltage appears in the demodulator circuit of the receiver which at any
given instant is proportional to the response of the circuits to the frequency
which is at that instant passing through the circuit. In other words, if
the signal is being fed through the i-f. circuit, then the voltage at the de-
tector after rectification is proportional to the response of the i-f. amplifier.
If the signal is fed into the antenna circuit, then the voltage appearing in
the detector circuit after rectification is proportional to the response of all
of the tuned circuits in the receiver through which the signal was passed.
This voltage is applied to the vertical plates of the cathode-ray oscillo-
graph and thus the vertical deflection of the cathode-ray beam is propor-
tional to the magnitude of the signal which reaches the detector. Expressed
in another manner, the vertical deflection upon the oscillograph beam is
indicative of the response of the various circuits through which the signal
passes to the demodulator.

A sweep voltage is generated in the oscillograph by a separate

part of the oscillograph unit and the function of this sweep volt-
age is to move the cathode-ray beam in the horizontal direction
across the screen. This sweep voltage is synchronized with the
frequency-modulated signal. By this is meant that the horizontal
displacement of the cathode-ray beam takes place at a certain
86 AN HOUR A DAY WITH RIDER

definite rate and phase with respect to the frequency generated

by the signal generator. Synchronizing the oscillograph sweep
voltage with the frequency-modulated oscillator makes it pos-
sible to trace out upon the oscillograph screen the selectivity
response of the circuits being tested. The horizontal motion of
the cathode-ray beam is proportional to the frequency and the
vertical deflection is proportional to the receiver response at the
frequency in question.
The cathode-ray oscillograph, its sweep voltage and the fre-
quency-modulated signal generator makes it possible to see the
type of curve which would be obtained if the regular type of sig-
nal generator were used and the output meter indication were
charted, as the frequency output of the signal generator was
manually changed over a band of frequencies 10 or 20 kc. each
side of the rated i-f. peak. Once again we say that this is a very
brief explanation of the manner in which visual alignment is
accomplished. While it is true that actual application is a
simple matter, a full explanation would require more space than
can possibly be devoted in this volume. Again we refer to the
previously mentioned book, "The Cathode-Ray Tube At Work."
Perhaps the most useful application of the visual alignment
method is the alignment of the wide band-pass i-f. amplifiers
found in a great many of the new receivers, which have response
curves such as shown in Figs. 13E to 131. It should, of course, be
understood that visual alignment is but one function of the
cathode-ray oscillograph and that its development is not founded
upon this one function. It is also important to understand that
the advantage found in visual alignment is that one can actually
see the response curve and thereby develop far more accurate
results.
When aligning i-f. amplifiers by means of the visual method, it is of
utmost importance that each stage be aligned individually, beginning at
the last i-f. stage. By the last i-f. stage we mean the one nearest the
demodulator tube. Because this operation is so important, we feel that it
will not be amiss to go into some detail with reference to this procedure.
The vertical deflection plates of the oscillograph are connected across the
demodulator load. In a diode type of a demodulator, this would be the
diode load resistor. In a triode type of demodulator, the cathode-ray
 RESONANCE AND ALIGNMENT 87
oscillograph would be connected across the high side of the plate load and
ground. The synchronizing pulse terminals on the oscillograph are con-
nected to the synchronizing pulse terminals on the frequency-modulated
signal generator. The output terminals of the frequency-modulated signal
generator are connected in the usual manner; that is, the ground terminal
is connected to the ground or chassis and the high side is connected to the
grid of the last i-f. tube. The grid lead, which is removed from the last
i-f. tube, should not be left free; instead it should be returned to the
grid through a resistor of 25,000 ohms. Care should be taken that the
"high" lead from the signal generator is fully shielded up to the grid cap
and that the shield is grounded to the receiver chassis. If instability is
encountered when aligning the last i-f. stage of a sensitive receiver, then.
the first i-f. tube should be removed. This precaution will seldom be re,.
quired, but we mention it nevertheless. When the alignment of the last
i-f. transformer is completed, the signal generator is connected to the grid
of the preceding i-f. tube in the exact manner already described. Natu-
rally, the resistor previously inserted into the grid circuit of th.e i-f. tube will
be moved from that tube to the preceding tube-to which the signal
generator now is connected. lTTtimately, the signal generator is connected
to the :first detector tube control grid.

As far as the response is concerned, that is, the type of reso-

nance curve which should appear upon the screen, that depends
upon the type of system being aligned. An examination of the
circuit is essential and full comprehension of the type of resonance
curve to be expected from certain systems will naturally guide the
adjustments. At the same time, reference to service literature
concerning the receiver being worked upon will also help, because
such data often contains specific reference to the type of reso-
nance curve developed by the system. One primary point of
importance in connection with i-f. amplifier response curves is
that normal operation of the system calls for a symmetrical
resonance curve. Another item of importance is that the initial
alignment of wide band-pass systems requires that the circuit be
first aligned for maximum selectivity and then again aligned for
wide band-pass.
Several "don'ts" which must be borne in mind during such
visual alignment are of the following nature. 1, be certain that
the input to the intermediate-frequency amplifier does not over-
load the tubes. The effect of such overload is to broaden the
response beyond the normal point and the effect of overload is
88 AN HouR A DAY WITH RIDER

indicated by a flat top, such as is shown in Fig. 40. 2, make

certain that the i-f. amplifier is free from regeneration. The
presence of regeneration will sharpen the selectivity curve beyond
the normal point, an example of which is shown in Fig. 41. If
the regeneration is sufficient so that oscillation actually exists,
the response curve which appears will resemble that shown in
Fig. 42.

Figs. 40, left, 41, middle, and 42. The Rat-topped curve of Fig. 40 is
the result of too large an input to the i-f. amplifier and a conse-
quent overloading of the tubes. A sharpening of the selectivity
curve, Fig. 41, results when regeneration is present and when it is
such that osciIIation appears, the response curve of Fig. 42 results.

The response curves illustrated in Figs. 40, 41 and 42 were

made with the visual alignment system which develops a single
image. Such curves are not symmetrical and if they were taken
with the type of visual alignment system which develops a double
image, the pattern would be of the double image character illus-
trated in Fig. 14A.

Visual Alignment at 600 kc.

There has been some confusion as to the proper procedure to
be followed in effecting the alignment of the series oscillator
trimmer at the low-frequency end of a band, say at 600 kc. To
clear up this matter, we shall go over the procedure in some
detail. To take a concrete illustration, we shall assume that the
intermediate frequency is 450 kc.
The first step, after aligning the i-f. amplifier, is to align the r-f.,
detector, and oscillator shunt trimmers in the conventional way at the
high-frequency end of the broadcast band, say 1400 kc. With this com-
 RESONANCE AND ALIGNMENT 89
pleted, the signal generator is set at 600 kc. and connected to the receiver
antenna post. It should be understood that the frequency-modulated signal
generator is producing not only 600 kc., but a band of frequencies ranging
from say 585 to 615 kc. The receiver is tuned to 600 kc. and the resonance
curve appears on the screen. From this point on.. we shall consider first the
procedure when the single image system of frequency modulation is used.
In this case there will be just a single trace, the peak of which
may or may not be in the center of the trace. The adjustment of
the series oscillator trimmer should then be made so that the
resonance curve has the greatest height, regardless of whether
this maximum peak occurs in the middle of the trace. This is
highly important and even though it may be necessary to change
the receiver tuning slightly, the procedure is to adjust the trim-
mer for the greatest peak height. The significance of the peak
being off center is that the calibration of the receiver is off at
600 kc. If the oscillator trimmer is adjusted so that the peak is
in the center of the trace when the receiver and signal generator
are tuned to 600 kc., then the sensitivity and selectivity of the
receiver are sacrificed for the sake of an improvement in the
calibration of the receiver. This is certainly an undesirable con-
dition. Fig. 43 shows the incorrect adjustment, which results

Figs. 43, left, 44, middle, and 4S. Wben aligning at 600 kc., tbe peak
should have maximum amplitude, regardless of its position on the
trace. The oscillogram of Fig. 43 is incorrect, as the amplitude is
too small when compared with that of Fig. 44, even though the curve
is oil center. The curve was centered, Fig. 4S, by changing the
receiver tuning from 600 kc. to 59S kc.
when the peak is centered, whereas Fig. 44 shows the improve-
ment in response which resulted when the series oscillator trimmer
was adjusted for maximum height, in spite of the fact that the
peak happened to occur off the center of the trace. To bring the
peak back to the center of the trace, the receiver tuning can be
90 AN HOUR A DAY WITH RIDER

changed and the amount by which it must be changed to bring

the peak to the center indicates how far off the receiver calibra-
tion is. Referring to Fig. 45, the peak was brought to the
center by changing the receiver tuning from 600 kc. to 595 kc.
This means that the receiver calibration at 600 kc. is off by 5 kc.
It should be clearly understood that the optimum adjustment is
attained when the r-f. and detector stages are tuned to the inoom-
ing signal and the oscillator frequency is higher than the signal
frequency by the amount of the intermediate frequency. In this
case, the r-f. and detector stages are tuned to 600 kc. and the
oscillator frequency is 1050 kc.
The procedure to be followed when the double image system
is used requires further explanation. In general, a double trace
will appear on the screen when the receiver and the signal gener-
ator are tuned to 600 kc. Now the important point is this: in
contrast to the usual procedure, wherein the trimmer adjustments
are made so as to bring the two curves into coincidence, in this
case the series oscillator trimmer is adjusted for maximum output

Figs. 46, left, 47, middle, and 48. When a double-image system is
used, a double trace will generally appear when receiver and signal
generator are tuned to 600 kc. If the trimmers are so adjusted that
the curves coincide, Fig. 46, but the amplitude is too small, then
they should be readjusted until the curves attain maximum ampli-
tude, even though they do not coincide, Fig. 47. These can be
brought together, Fig. 48, by changing the receiver tuning.

or height, regardless of whether this may or may not bring the

two curves together. Fig. 46 shows the incorrect adjustment
made so that the two curves are brought into coincidence. The
improvement in sensitivity, when the series oscillator trimmer is
adjusted so that the peak height of the curves is a maximum, is
shown in Fig. 47. Note that while the curves no longer coincide,
 RESONANCE AND ALIGNMENT 91

at the same time the gain and selectivity of the receiver have been
appreciably increased. The curves, of course, can be brought
together by retuning the receiver. Again the amount by which
it is necessary to change the receiver tuning is a measure of the
extent to which the calibration is off. The appearance of the
trace when the curves are brought together is shown in Fig. 48.

Frequency Range of Visual Alignment

There is nothing gained in using visual alignment for frequen-
cies above the broadcast band. However, the oscillograph con-
nections to the receiver may be left undisturbed, the frequency
modulator disconnected and an ordinary modulated signal fed
into the receiver. In this case the oscillograph functions simply
as an output meter as previously explained and if AVO is used,
then the signal input must be kept low.