‘O’ Level

Physics

Power
Bank!
Version 2.0
Definitions in Physics 6091 O‐Level Syllabus

Topics Definition
Measurements A physical quantity is one that can be measured and consists of a
numerical magnitude and a unit.
Each complete to-and-fro motion of an object is one oscillation.
The Period T of a pendulum is the time taken for a complete oscillation.
Kinematics Scalar quantities are physical quantities that have magnitude only.
Vector quantities are physical quantities that possess both magnitude
and direction.
Speed is the distance moved per unit time.
Displacement is distance travelled in a specified direction.
Average speed is total distance travelled over total time.
Velocity is the rate of change of displacement.
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity.
Uniform Acceleration is the constant rate of change of velocity.
Free fall is when an object falls and experiences only the gravitational
force.
Dynamics A force is a push or a pull that one object exerts on another.
Newton’s 1st Law of motion states that every object will continue in its
state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line unless a resultant force
acts on it. {note : This is also known as Law of Inertia}
Newton’s 2nd Law of motion states that when a resultant force acts on
an object of constant mass, the object will accelerate and move in the
direction of the resultant force. The product of the mass and
acceleration of the object is equal to the resultant force.
One Newton (1 N) is defined as the force that will produce an
acceleration of 1 m s-2 on a mass of 1 kg.
Newton’s 3rd Law of Motion states that for every action, there is an
equal and opposite reaction.
Friction is a force that opposes sliding motion between two surfaces in
contact.
Mass, Weight, Mass is a measure of the amount of matter or substance in an object.
Density Density is the mass per unit volume of a substance.
Weight is the gravitational force acting on a mass.
Gravitational field is a region in which a mass experiences a force due
to gravitational attraction.
Gravitational field strength is defined as the gravitational force acting
per unit mass on an object. {eg. g =10N/kg}
Topics Definition
Inertia of an object refers to the reluctance of the object to change its
state of rest or motion due to its mass.

Turning effect of Moment of a force is the product of force and the perpendicular
Force distance from the pivot to the line of action of the force.
Principle of moments states that when a body is in equilibrium, the
sum of clockwise moments about a pivot is equal to the sum of
anticlockwise moments about the same pivot.
The centre of gravity of an object is defined as the point through which
its whole weight appears to act.
Stability refers to the ability of an object to return to its original
position after it is slightly displaced.
Energy, Work and Energy is the capacity to do work.
Power Principle of conservation of energy states that energy can neither be
created nor destroyed. It can be converted from one form to another or
transferred from one body to another. Total energy in an isolated
system remains constant.
Work done by a constant force on an object is given by the product of
the force and the distance moved by the object in the direction of the
force.
One Joule is the amount of work done by a force of 1 N which moves an
object through a distance of 1 m in the direction of the force.
Gravitational potential energy is the energy which a body possesses
because of its position relative to the ground.
Kinetic energy is the energy a body possessed due to its motion.
Power is the rate of work done or rate of energy converted.
Efficiency is the ratio of useful energy (or power) output over the total
energy (or power) input and is usually expressed as a percentage.
One watt is defined as the rate of work done or energy conversion of
one joule per second.
Renewable Energy is defined as energy from sources that can be
replenished naturally.
Pressure Pressure is defined as force per unit area.
Atmospheric pressure is the weight of a layer of air that acts on the
Earth per unit area.
Temperature When two bodies are in thermal contact and there is no net flow of
heat between them, they are said to be in thermal equilibrium.
Temperature is a measure of the degree of hotness or coldness of a
body.
Heat refers to the amount of thermal energy that is being transferred
from a hotter to a colder region.
Topics Definition
Thermometric property is a measurable physical property that varies
continuously and linearly with temperature.
Ice point is the temperature of pure melting ice at one atmospheric
pressure and is assigned a value of 00C.
Steam point is the temperature of steam from water boiling at one
atmospheric pressure assigned a value of 1000C.
Kinetic Model of Tiny particles in continuous motion is known as the kinetic model of
Matter matter.
Brownian motion is the random motion of particles suspended in a
fluid.
Heat Transfer Heat refers to the amount of thermal energy that is transferred from a
hotter to a colder region.
Conduction is the process of thermal energy being transferred through
a medium from one particle to another without any flow of the medium.
Convection is the transfer of thermal energy by means of convection
currents in a fluid (liquid or gas), due to a difference in density.
Radiation is the transfer of thermal energy in the form of
electromagnetic waves such as infrared radiation without the aid of a
medium.
Thermal Internal Energy consists of kinetic energy (due to the motion of
Properties of particles) and potential energy (due to the intermolecular forces)
Matter present in the molecules of a substance.
Heat capacity C, is the amount of thermal energy required to raise the
temperature of a body by 1 K or 1°C. (unit : J/K)
Specific heat capacity, c, is the amount of thermal energy required to
raise the temperature of unit mass of a material by 1 K or 1°C (J/kg ° C)
Latent heat is the energy released or absorbed during a change of state,
without a change in temperature. (unit : J)
Latent heat of fusion, Lf of a solid is the amount of thermal energy
required to change it from solid to liquid state, or vice versa, without
any change in temperature. (unit : J)
Specific latent heat of fusion lf of a solid is the amount of thermal
energy required to change a unit mass of the solid to liquid, or vice
versa, without a change in temperature. (unit : J/kg)
Latent heat of vaporization, Lv, of a substance is the thermal energy
required to change it from liquid to vapour state, or vice versa, without
any change in temperature. (unit : J)
Specific latent heat of vaporization, lv of a substance is the thermal
energy required to change unit mass of a substance from liquid to
vapour state, or vice versa, without any change in temperature
(unit : J/kg)
Topics Definition
Condensation is a change of state of a substance from gas to liquid and
energy is released.
Boiling is a process whereby a liquid changes to gas at constant
temperature (its boiling point)
Evaporation is a change of state of a substance from liquid to gas
below boiling point.
Freezing is a change of state when a substance changes from liquid to
soild without any change in temperature.
Melting is a change of state when a solid changes to a liquid upon
heating at a constant temperature.
Light First law of reflection states that the incident ray, the reflected ray and
the normal at the point of incidence all lie in the same plane.
Second law of reflection states that the angle of incidence is equal to
the angle of reflection.
Angle of incidence is the angle between an incident ray and the normal
at the point of incidence.
Angle of reflection is the angle between a reflected ray and the normal
at the point of incidence.
Angle of refraction is the angle between a refracted ray and the normal
at the point of incidence.
Refractive Index is the ratio of speed of light in vacuum or air to the
speed of light in the denser medium.
An optically denser medium slows down the speed of light when it
enters from a less optically dense medium.
The first Law of refraction states that the incident ray, the refracted
ray and the normal all lie in the same plane at the point of incidence.
The second law of refraction states that, for two given media, the ratio
of the sine of the angle of incidence i to the sine of the angle of refraction
r is a constant.
Critical Angle, c is defined as the angle of incidence in the optically
denser medium for which the angle of refraction in the less dense
medium is 90°.
Total Internal Reflection takes place only when a ray of light travels
from an optically denser to optically less dense medium with an angle of
incidence greater than the critical angle. The light is totally and
internally reflected.
Focal length is the distance between the optical centre and the
principal focus of a lens.
Focal plane is a flat surface perpendicular to the principal axis which
passes through the principal focus.
Optical centre is the point midway between the lens’ surfaces on its
principal axis. (light rays passing through the optical centre are not
Topics Definition
refracted)
Principal axis is the horizontal line passing symmetrically through the
optical centre of the lens.
Principal focus is the point at which all rays parallel to the principal
axis converge to (or diverge) after refraction by the lens.
Real image is an image formed by a lens that can be captured on a
screen. It is formed by the actual intersection of light rays.
Virtual image is an image formed by a lens/mirror that cannot be
captured on a screen. It is NOT formed by the actual intersection of light
rays.
Normal is a line that is perpendicular to the reflecting or refracting
surface at the point of incidence.
General Wave The source of a wave is a vibration or oscillation.
Properties A wave is a disturbance in a medium that carries energy without a net
movement of particles.
Transverse waves are waves that travel in a direction perpendicular to
the direction of vibration.
Longitudinal waves are waves that travel in a direction parallel to the
direction of vibration.
Crests and troughs are the highest and lowest points of a transverse
wave.
Any two points in a wave are said to be in phase if they move in the
same direction and have the same speed and the same displacement
from the rest position.
Wavelength is the shortest distance between any two points in a wave
that are in phase, e.g. two successive crests or troughs or compression
or rarefaction.
Amplitude is the maximum displacement of a point of a wave from rest
position.
Frequency of a wave is the number of complete waves produced per
second.
Period is the time taken for one point on the wave to complete one
oscillation. This is also the time taken to produce one complete wave.
Wavefront is an imaginary line on a wave that joins all points that are
in the same phase.
Sound Sound is produced by vibrating sources placed in a medium which
produce regions of compression and rarefaction.
Longitudinal waves show areas of compression and rarefaction :
Compressions are regions of high pressure due to particles being close
together.
Topics Definition
Rarefactions are regions of low pressure due to particles being spread
further apart.
Echo is the reflected sound from a surface heard after an interval of
silence.
The maximum pressure change gives the amplitude of the sound
wave.
Sound with frequencies above the upper limit of the human range of
audibility (20 000 Hz) is known as ultrasound.

Sound with higher frequency will have a higher pitch.

Louder sounds have higher amplitude.
Static Electricity Electrostatics is the study of static electric charges.
Laws of charges states that like charges repel and unlike charges
attract.
Electrostatic induction is the process of charging a conductor without
any contact with the charging body.
An electric field is a region where an electric charge experiences an
electric force.
The direction of the field is defined as the direction of the force on a
small positive charge.
The strength of an electric field is indicated by how close the field
lines are to each other.
Current of An electric current is a measure of the rate of flow of electric charge.
Electricity 1 Amphere is the flow of 1 coulomb of charge per second.
Electromotive force (EMF) of an electrical source is defined as the
work done by the source in driving a unit charge around a complete
circuit.
The potential difference (p.d.) across a component in an electric
circuit is defined as the work done by the source to drive a unit charge
through the component.
Resistance of a metallic component is defined as the ratio of the
potential difference V across it to the current I flowing through it.
Ohm’s Law states that current passing through a metallic conductor is
directly proportional to the potential difference across its ends,
provided the physical conditions (e.g. temperature) are constant.
D.C. Circuits A series circuit is a connection where the components are connected
one after another in a single loop and there is only one path through
which electric current can flow.
A parallel circuit is a connection where there is more than one path
through which current can flow.
Topics Definition
A potential divider is a line of resistors connected in series. It is used
to provide a fraction of the voltage of a source to another part of the
circuit.
Transducers are electrical or electronic devices that convert energy
from one form to another.
Input transducers convert non-electrical energy to electrical energy.
Eg. microphone, Thermocouple, Thermistor and LDRs
Output transducers convert electrical energy to other forms of energy.
Eg. microphone, loudspeaker, LED, voltmeter and ammeter.

Thermistor is a device whose resistance varies with temperature.

Light‐dependent resistor is a device whose resistance varies with

amount of light shining on it.

Practical Alternating current is an electric current that periodically reverses its

Electricity direction and changes its magnitude in a circuit.
Live wire (brown) is usually at a high voltage like 240 V in Singapore.
Neutral wire (blue) is usually at zero voltage.
The earth wire (green and yellow) is a low-resistance wire which is
connected to the metal casing of the appliance. The other end of the
earth wire is connected to the earth so that any leakage of large current
will be directed to the ground.
Circuit breakers are safety devices that can switch off the electrical
supply in a circuit when there is an overflow of current.
A fuse is a safety device included in an electrical circuit to prevent
excessive current flow by breaking the circuit.
Double insulation is a safety feature in electrical appliances. They
normally use two-pin plug (only live and neutral wire). The electric
cable is insulated from the internal components of the appliance and the
internal components are also insulated from the external casing
(normally plastic).
Magnetism Law of magnetism states that:
Like poles repel, unlike poles attract.
Magnetic Induction is the process whereby an object made of a
magnetic material becomes a magnet when it is near or in contact with
a magnet.
A group of atomic magnets pointing in the same direction is called a
magnetic domain.
A magnetic field is a region in which a magnetic object, placed within
the influence of the field, experiences a magnetic force.
Magnetic materials (e.g. iron) which are easily magnetized but do not
retain their magnetism are called soft magnetic materials.
Topics Definition
Magnetic materials (e.g. steel) which are harder to magnetize but retain
their magnetism are called hard magnetic materials.
Electromagnetism Motor Effect is produced when a current carrying conductor is placed
in a magnetic field.
A D.C. Motor is a device that converts electrical energy to mechanical
energy.

PHYSICS FORMULA

Topics Formula Symbols /

Units /
Remarks
Measurements  Period of pendulum

l T: Period of pendulum (s)

T  2 l: length of pendulum (m)
g
g: gravitational field strength (N/kg)

Kinematics  Average Speed Unit: m/s

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
∆
 Average Velocity, 𝑣
∆

∆𝑥: total displacement,

∆𝑡: total time
 Acceleration , 𝑎 Unit: m/s2
∆

v: final velocity
u: initial velocity
∆𝑡: total time

 Gradient of distance-time graph = speed

 Gradient of displacement-time graph = velocity

d
Gradient 
t
 speed/velocity of object

d  change in distance
t  change in time
 Topics Formula Symbols /
Units /
Remarks

 Gradient of speed/velocity - time graph = acceleration Unit: m/s2

v
Gradient 
t
 acceleration

v  change in speed/velocity
t  change in time

 Area under the speed-time graph = total distance

travelled
 Area under the velocity-time graph = total displacement
travelled

Area under graph  distance travelled

 area of triangle
1
  t1  v1
2

Dynamics Newton’s Second Law, 𝐹 𝑚𝑎 Unit: N

Mass, Weight,  Weight, 𝑊 𝑚𝑔 N

Density
 Density, 𝜌 kg/m3

Turning effect  Moment of force

of Force 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐹 𝑑 Nm
d = ⊥ distance from line of action of force to pivot

 Principle of Moment
𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠

Energy, Work  Work Done J

and Power 𝑊𝐷 𝐹 𝑑
d: distance travelled in the direction of force

 Power W
𝐸 𝑾𝑫
𝑷
𝑡 𝒕

 Gravitational Potential Energy J

𝑬𝑷 𝒎𝒈𝒉
 Topics Formula Symbols /
Units /
Remarks

 Kinetic energy J
𝟏
𝑬𝑲 𝒎𝒗𝟐
𝟐
% (no
𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒇𝒖𝒍 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 unit)
 Efficiency, 𝐸 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓

Pressure 𝑭 Pa, N/m2

Pressure, 𝑷
𝑨

 Pressure of liquid column

𝑷 𝒉𝝆𝒈

 For Hydraulic jack

𝑭𝒙 𝑭𝒚
𝑨𝒙 𝑨𝒚

Or work done at piston A = work done at piston B

Fx X dx = Fy x dy

Or Vol change at piston A = Vol change at piston B.

Ax x dx = Ay x dy

Temperature  Calculating temperature for thermometer based on length Valid for

expansion 100 parts.
𝜃℃ x 100 Need to
modify if
interval is
not 100
 For thermocouple, parts
𝜺 𝒌∆𝜽
𝜀 – emf
 Topics Formula Symbols /
Units /
Remarks
Thermal  Heat Capacity : Q = C x ∆θ J/°C, J/K
Properties of
Matter  Heat Capacity and specific Heat Capacity
C=mxc J/kg°C,
J/kgK
 Specific Heat Capacity : Q = m x c x ∆θ

 Specific Latent heat of fusion

𝐸 𝑚𝒍𝒇
J/kg
 Specific Latent heat of vaporization
𝐸 𝑚𝒍𝒗
J/kg

 Wave velocity, 𝒗 𝒇𝝀 v – m/s

General Wave f – Hz
Properties  Wave frequency, 𝒇
𝟏 𝜆-m
𝑻 T-s

Light  Refractive index c – speed

𝒄 of light 3.0
𝜼
𝒗 x 108 m/s

 Snell’s Law (refraction) v – speed

𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊 of light
𝜼
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓 from air to
medium
𝟏
 Critical Angle, 𝜼 ONLY
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝑪

Current of  Current 𝐼 A
Electricity
 Voltage 𝑉 V

 Ohm’s Law 𝑅 Ω

 Resistance of a wire
𝑙 ρ – Ωm
𝑅 𝜌 l–m
𝐴 A – m2
D.C. Circuits Resistance in series
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
 Voltage is shared among all the components
 Same current flows through all the components
 Topics Formula Symbols /
Units /
Remarks
Resistance in parallel
1 1 1 1
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅

 Voltage is the same for parallel resistors

 Sum of current flowing through each component
equals to the current flowing through the source.

Practical 𝑽𝟐
Electricity 𝑷 𝑽𝑰, 𝑷 𝑰𝟐 𝑹, 𝑷
𝑹
Electrical Energy
𝑬 𝑷𝒕
𝑬 𝑽𝑰𝒕
MUST KNOW KEY CONCEPTS/IDEAS/FACTS IN PHYSICS 6091

Topics Key Concepts/ Ideas

Measurements

Diameter of atom : 10‐10 m

Average width of human hair : 1.0 x 10‐4 m
Average radius of earth : 6.3 x 106 m
Topics Key Concepts/ Ideas
Topics Key Concepts/ Ideas
Zero error and vernier calipers

Zero error and micrometer

Positive zero error: zero marking on thimble scale is below the datum line (zero
mark on main scale can be seen)
Negative zero error: zero marking on thimble scale is above the datum line
(zero mark on main scale cannot be seen)
 Topics Key Concepts/ Ideas
Kinematics Graphs of motion
Topics Key Concepts/ Ideas
Area under velocity‐time graph

Object thrown up

An example of motion with and without air resistance

 Topics Key Concepts/ Ideas
Parachutist vel‐time graph

Terminal velocity occurs when the weight is equal to the air resistance,
resulting in zero net force.
Dynamics Free body force diagram

Newton’s first Law

Topics Key Concepts/ Ideas
Effect of Balanced and Unbalanced Forces on Motion

Newton’s Third Law

 Topics Key Concepts/ Ideas
Vector Diagrams

Mass, Weight, Difference between Mass and Weight

Density

Mass Weight
 The amount of matter in a body  Due to the pull of gravity on a
body
 Has only magnitude, i.e. a scalar  Has both magnitude and
direction, i.e. a vector
 Measured in kilograms (kg)  Measured in newtons (N)
 Constant regardless of the  Varies according to the
gravitational field strength gravitational field strength
 Usually measured by a beam  Usually measured by a spring
balance or calibrated electronic or compression balance
balance

Conversion of density from kg / m3 to g / cm3 and vice versa:

1000 kg / m3 = 1.0 g / cm3
 Topics Key Concepts/ Ideas
Turning effect C.G. of an irregular figure
of Force

Stable Equilibrium Unstable Equilibrium Neutral Equilibrium

If cone is slightly If cone is slightly If cone is slightly

tilted: tilted: tilted:
 centre of gravity  centre of gravity  centre of gravity
rises before drops and unable remains at the
returning to its to return to its same height;
original height; original height;  moment of its
 the moment of its  moment of its weight is zero and
weight causes the weight causes the cone stays in the
cone to return to cone to topple position to which
its original it is displaced.
position
 Topics Key Concepts/ Ideas
Energy, Work An example on Conservation of Energy Calculation
and Power

Pressure Hydraulic Press

Topics Key Concepts/ Ideas
Reading a Barometer

Manometer

Manometer and two liquids

 Topics Key Concepts/ Ideas
Temperature Themometric properties

Calibrating thermometer

1. Mark ice point and steam point

2. Divide space in between into 100 equal parts

Kinetic Model Brownian motion set‐up

of Matter
Topics Key Concepts/ Ideas
P‐T relationship : (V constant)
The pressure p of a fixed mass of gas is directly proportional to its
temperature T(K) at constant volume. (P α T)

V‐T relationship : (P constant)

The volume V of a fixed mass of gas is directly proportional to its temperature
T(K) at constant pressure. (V α T)

Theory : temp increase…pressure increase…volume increase.. rate of collision

decrease… pressure decrease back to remain constant.
P‐V relationship : (T constant)
The pressure p of a fixed mass of gas is inversely proportional to its volume
V at constant temperature. (P α 1/V)
 Topics Key Concepts/ Ideas
Heat Transfer Experiment to prove water is a poor conductor

Experiment to demonstrate convection in gas.

Experiment to prove black is a better emitter

The higher the temperature

of an object relative to its
surrounding temperature,
the higher the rate of
emission of infrared
radiation.

Trapped air between

two panes of glass help
to reduce heat loss (rate
of emission of infrared
radiation)
 Topics Key Concepts/ Ideas

Thermal
Properties of
Matter

Evaporation causes cooling

 Topics Key Concepts/ Ideas

Factors affecting rate of evaporation

Reflection
Light

Refraction

Ray diagram for why objects appear

bent in water.

𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ
𝑛
𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ
Topics Key Concepts/ Ideas

Critical Angle and Total Internal Reflection (TIR)

O is the centre of the semicircular glass block.

Conditions for TIR

 Light travel from optically denser to optically less dense medium

 Angle of incidence is greater than critical angle.

Advantages of optical fibre

1. Greater bandwidth – can carry much more information over longer

distances than copper wires.
2. Less signal degradation – less signal loss than copper wires
3. Light weight – light weight, thin and more durable than copper wires
4. Data security – signals are difficult to tap.
5. Lower cost – cheaper to manufacture as compare to copper wires
Converging Lens Diverging Lens

Parallel rays (not parallel to the principal

axis) enter the lens and focus at focal
plane.
Topics Key Concepts/ Ideas

Possible scenarios when object placed at different positions.

Magnifying glass

Type of image produced:

1. Object is placed  F, then image will be virtual and upright.
2. Object is placed F, then image will be real and inverted.
3. Object is placed 2F, then image will be magnified.
4. Object is placed F, then image will be same size and same distance.
5. Object is placed 2F, then image will be diminsed.

If half of the lens is blocked, the image will still be sharp and whole but it will
become dimmer as lesser rays will converge on the image.

Projector ray diagram

 Topics Key Concepts/ Ideas

Displacement‐Distance graph
General Wave
Properties

The displacement of all particles from their rest positions at different distances
from the source of disturbance at a given instance is captured in a
displacement-distance graph.

Displacement‐Time graph

The displacement of a single particle over a period of time is shown above as

the displacement-time graph.

To determine the next position or direction of particle, draw the next wave in
the direction of the wave propagation.

P Direction of wave

Q
Topics Key Concepts/ Ideas
Ripple tank

Reflection of water waves

 No change in frequency, wavelength and speed of reflected wave.

Refraction of water waves

 When water waves travel from deep to shallow

(i) It bends towards the normal
(ii) Wavelength decrease and speed decrease
(iii) Frequency remains the same
 Speed of wave depends on the medium and depth
 Topics Key Concepts/ Ideas

wavefront

EM waves EM spectrum

red : 700 nm UV : 400 nm

Properties of EM waves
 They are transverse in nature.
 They can travel through a vacuum.
 They travel at the speed of light in vacuum, c = 3.0×108 m/s
 The obey the wave equation v = f x λ
 When an EMW travels from one medium to another (e.g. from air to
glass), its speed and wavelength change but frequency does not
change. Frequency depends only on the source of the wave.
 They can be reflected and retracted.

Uses of EM waves
(i) radio waves (e.g. radio and television communication)
(ii) microwaves ( e.g. microwave oven and satellite television ).
(iii) infra-red ( e.g. infra-red remote controllers and intruder alarms)
(iv) light (e.g. in optical-fibres for medical uses and telecommunications)
(v) ultra-violet (eg. sunbeds and sterilisation)
(vi) X-rays ( eg. radiological and screening baggage at airport)
(vii) gamma rays ( eg. medical treatment)
Effects of electromagnetic waves
 Exposure to ionising radiation (e.g. UV radiation, X-rays, rays) can damage
biological molecules (e.g. proteins and DNA) and lead to abnormal patterns
of cell division. This may cause cancers or developing foetus to become
deformed.
 Topics Key Concepts/ Ideas

Sound Sound travels via compression and rarefaction of air particles. The
displacement-distance graph is for all particles along the vibrating medium.

Speed of particle at the end of amplitude (max displacement) is zero.

Speed of particle at the original position (zero displacement) is maximum.

The displace-time graph of one particle in a sound wave.

Topics Key Concepts/ Ideas
Speed of sound

Measuring speed of sound using

direct method

Use of ultrasonic sound:

1. To clean objects like electronic components. The components to be
cleaned are kept in a cleaning solution and ultrasonic waves are sent into
the solution. Due to the high frequency, the dirt particles get detached
from the components.
2. To detect cracks in metal blocks. Ultrasonic waves are sent through the
metal blocks and if there are cracks, the waves are reflected back and the
cracks can be detected.
3. Used in ultra sound scanners for getting images of internal organs of the
human body.
4. To break small stones formed in the kidneys into fine grains so that they
are removed through the urine.
Use of Ultrasound to check crack

Amplitude and Pitch

 Topics Key Concepts/ Ideas
Static Electricity Electrostatic Charging by Friction
An electric phenomenon in which friction transfers electrons from one body
to another.

Charging two spheres by induction

A method of charging in which a conductor is charged without contact with
the charging body.
step 1 step 2 step 3 step 4

Electrons in A are repelled to the far

end of B. A has excess positive
charges, while B has excess negative

Charging single sphere by induction

step 1 step 2 step 3 step 4

Electric Field
 Topics Key Concepts/ Ideas
Photocopying using electrostatic charging

Current Short Circuit

Electricity
current flows through
alternative path of least
resistance and by-pass the
bulb.

I‐V graphs

 Resistance of filament bulb increases as current (temp) increase

(gradient of V‐I graph should increase)
 For diode, the current is taken to be zero or very close to zero when
connected with negative polarity.
 Topics Key Concepts/ Ideas
Factors affecting Resistance

(Resistivity)

D.C. Circuits Current and voltage relationship in series and parallel circuits
I

Connecting light bulbs in series or parallel

normal brightness less bright normal brightness

 𝐼  𝐼  𝐼

 𝑉 𝑉  𝐼
 Topics Key Concepts/ Ideas
Potential divider using fixed resistors

Vout is a fixed voltage

Potential divider using variable resistor

a. b.
R1
A
C

B
R2

 V can be increased by V can be varied by changing

increasing resistance of variable position of sliding contact C of
resistor R2 to increase the ratio the potentiometer to change
of R2 to (R1 + R2) or vice versa the ratio of RCB to RAB.
 R2 can be replaced with
thermistor or LDR (resistance
of thermistor decreases when
temperature increases and
resistance of LDR decreases
when light intensity increases) thermistor LDR

Practical Dangers of Electricity

Electricity • Two major dangers when using electricity are
• risk of fire
• overheating of cable due to excess heat (note: thin cables have
higher resistance and will produce more heat)
• damage insulation
• risk of an electric shock caused by
• touching a faulty appliances or exposed live wire due to damage
insulation
• touching wet electrical appliances
Topics Key Concepts/ Ideas
Simple household wiring

Plug wiring
Longer earth pin:
• Provides a return path for current before the live
pin engages.
• Helps in opening the safety shutters in wall socket,
making possible the insertion of other two pins.
Thicker earth pin:
• Thicker earth pin has a lower resistance. If there is
any leakage current, it provide a lower resistant
path for the current to ground rather than through
the person, preventing an electric shock.

Earth Leakage Circuit Breakers

The ELCB detects small current leakages from the live wire to the earth wire. When
this happens, the current in the live wire will be greater than the neutral wire,
causing the ELCB to ‘trip’.
Topics Key Concepts/ Ideas

Fuse and Earth wire

Remember to mention appliance will remain live if fuse or earth wire is

connected incorrectly and a fault occurs.

Double insulation
 Topics Key Concepts/ Ideas
Magnetism Magnetic materials : Steel, Iron, Cobalt and Nickle
Induced Magnetism

In magnetic induction, an opposite pole is always induced (ie. 2 unlike poles

facing each other is observed during magnetic.

Magnetising (Single stroke and Double stroke)

The pole induced at the end of the magnetized steel bar after stroking is of
opposite polarity to that of the stroking pole

Magnetising (Electrical method using direct current)

1. Place a steel bar inside a coil of wire (a solenoid).

2. Pass a direct current through the solenoid for a few seconds.
A strong magnetic field is produced on the solenoid and magnetises the
steel rod.

Determining the Poles of a Magnet

1. Right hand Grip Rule
Topics Key Concepts/ Ideas
2. Direction of the current at the ends of the solenoid

Demagnetising (Electrical method using an alternating current)

1. Place magnet in a solenoid and pass an alternating current through

the solenoid.
2. Withdraw the magnet slowly in an east-west direction further and
further away until it becomes demagnetised.

Magnetic Field Pattern

 Topics Key Concepts/ Ideas

Horseshoe Magnet

Field lines are drawn closer to represent

stronger fields and vice versa.

Magnetic Shielding

Field lines tend to pass through a magnetic substance rather than

through non-magnetic substances like the air.

Electromagnetism Magnetic field around a currnet carrying conductor

Topics Key Concepts/ Ideas
Magentic field around a single coil

Magnetic Field around a solenoid

• Magnetic field pattern similar to bar magnet.

• Magnetic field can be increased by increasing the current, the
number of turns of solenoid and placing a soft iron within the
solenoid.
Current carrying wire in a magnetic field produces a Force

Flemings Left Hand Rule

Topics Key Concepts/ Ideas

Origin of the Electromagnetic Force

The interaction of the magnetic field due to the permanent magnet and
the magnetic field due to the current carrying wire gives rise to a
magnetic force from a region of stronger magnetic field to weaker field.

Force of Two current carrying wire

wires attract wires repel

each other each other
Topics Key Concepts/ Ideas
DC Motor

 Carbon brush ensures there is contact always between the commutator

and the rotating coil.
 Split-ring commutator ensures the current direction reverses every
half a turn and hence the forces also reverse direction to keep the
coil(motor) rotating in the same continous direction

Graph of Moment acting on coil against time.

moment

 Moment is a maximum everytime coil is horizontal

(greatest perpendicular distance)
 Moment is zero everytime coil is vertical (zero perndicular distance)
 Topics Key Concepts/ Ideas
Charged particle is a magnetic field – use FLH Rule

Remember to reserve
current direction for
electron when using
FLR

NOT INCLUDED FOR 2021 GCE O LEVEL PHYSICS EXAMINATION (CLT)

Electromagnetic
Induction Electromagnetic Induction

• As the magnet moves towards and away from the solenoid, the
magnetic flux (or magnetic lines of force) linking the coils have
changed.
• By Faraday’s Law, this will cause an induced emf and hence an
induced current to flow.
• By Lenz’s Law, when the N pole of the magnet moves towards the
solenoid, a N pole is form at that end of the solenoid. The current
when view from that end will flow in an anti-clockwise direction.
• When the N pole of the magnet moves away from the solenoid, a S
pole is form at that end of the solenoid. The current when view from
that end will flow in a clockwise direction.
• Magnitude of induced e.m.f. (i.e current) could be increased by
increasing the number of turns in the solenoid, strength of the
magnet or speed at which the magnet moved with respect to the
solenoid.
Topics Key Concepts/ Ideas

AC Generator

 As the coil rotates in the magnetic field, the change in magnetic flux in
the coil induced an alternating e.m.f. between the two ends of the coil.
 The slip rings, in contact with the
carbon brushes, ensure that when
the coil rotates, the same end
of the coil is constantly in contact
with the same carbon brushes.
 The direction of induced current
flowing to the electrical load
changes every half revolution.
Topics Key Concepts/ Ideas

Graphical representation of induced emf

output voltage increased output voltage and frequency

by doubling the number of turns doubled by doubling the
of the coil frequency of rotation

Transformer

The transformer transfers electrical energy supplied from the primary coil
to the secondary coil by electromagnetic induction between the two coils.
• The alternating voltage sets up a continually changing magnetic field in
the laminated soft iron core.
• The laminated soft iron core that links the magnetic fields produced by
the primary coil to the secondary coil.
• The magnetic flux in secondary coil changes, inducing an e.m.f. VS in the
secondary coil and an induced current flows through the load.
Topics Key Concepts/ Ideas

Transmission of electrical energy

• High-voltage cables have significant resistance , especially when they are

hundred of kilometers long. Due to the resistance in the cables, some of
the energy is lost in the form of heat.
P = I2R (power loss in cable)
• To reduce power loss, power is transmitted at a high voltage and low
current by using a step-up transformer.

CRO

voltage

• Y-gain control – amplifies height of electron beam (volts per

division)
• Time base control – controls speed at which electron beam sweeps
across the screen (second per division)
• Y-shift or Y-offset – shifts entire trace vertically up or down
• X-shift – shifts entire trace horizontally left or right