Cathode Ray Tube

The primary output device in a graphical system is the video monitor. The main element of a
video monitor is the Cathode Ray Tube CRT, shown in the following illustration.
The operation of CRT is very simple −
 The electron gun emits a beam of electrons cathoderays.
 The electron beam passes through focusing and deflection systems that direct it
towards specified positions on the phosphor-coated screen.
 When the beam hits the screen, the phosphor emits a small spot of light at each
position contacted by the electron beam.
 It redraws the picture by directing the electron beam back over the same screen
points quickly.

There are two ways RandomscanandRasterscan by which we can display an object on the

screen.

Raster Scan
In a raster scan system, the electron beam is swept across the screen, one row at a time from
top to bottom. As the electron beam moves across each row, the beam intensity is turned on
and off to create a pattern of illuminated spots.
Picture definition is stored in memory area called the Refresh Buffer or Frame Buffer. This
memory area holds the set of intensity values for all the screen points. Stored intensity values
are then retrieved from the refresh buffer and “painted” on the screen one row scanline at a
time as shown in the following illustration.
Each screen point is referred to as a pixel pictureelement or pel. At the end of each scan line,
the electron beam returns to the left side of the screen to begin displaying the next scan line.
Random Scan VectorScan
In this technique, the electron beam is directed only to the part of the screen where the picture
is to be drawn rather than scanning from left to right and top to bottom as in raster scan. It is
also called vector display, stroke-writing display, or calligraphic display.
Picture definition is stored as a set of line-drawing commands in an area of memory referred
to as the refresh display file. To display a specified picture, the system cycles through the set
of commands in the display file, drawing each component line in turn. After all the line-
drawing commands are processed, the system cycles back to the first line command in the
list.
Random-scan displays are designed to draw all the component lines of a picture 30 to 60
times each second.

Application of Computer Graphics

Computer Graphics has numerous applications, some of which are listed below −
 Computer graphics user interfaces GUIs − A graphic, mouse-oriented
paradigm which allows the user to interact with a computer.
  Business presentation graphics − "A picture is worth a thousand words".
 Cartography − Drawing maps.
 Weather Maps − Real-time mapping, symbolic representations.
 Satellite Imaging − Geodesic images.
 Photo Enhancement − Sharpening blurred photos.
 Medical imaging − MRIs, CAT scans, etc. - Non-invasive internal
examination.
 Engineering drawings − mechanical, electrical, civil, etc. - Replacing the
blueprints of the past.
 Typography − The use of character images in publishing - replacing the hard
type of the past.
 Architecture − Construction plans, exterior sketches - replacing the blueprints
and hand drawings of the past.
 Art − Computers provide a new medium for artists.
 Training − Flight simulators, computer aided instruction, etc.
 Entertainment − Movies and games.
 Simulation and modeling − Replacing physical modeling and enactments

 Liquid Crystal Display.

LCD stands for Liquid Crystal Display. It is a flat panel display technology, mainly
used in TVs and computer monitors, nowadays it is used for mobile phones also.
These LCDs are completely different from that old CRT displays, it uses liquid
crystals instead of cathode ray in its primary form of operation. 
In LCD display, it consists of millions of pixels made of crystal and arranged in a
rectangular grid. In LCD it has backlights that provide light to each pixel. Each pixel
has a red, green, and blue (RGB) sub-pixel that can be turned on or off. When all of
the sub-pixels are turned off, then it’s black and when all the sub-pixels are turned
on 100%, then it’s white. 
LCD is a combination of two states of matter, the solid and the liquid. The solid part
is crystal and this liquid and crystal together make the visible image. LCD consists
of two layers which are two polarized panels- filters and electrodes. LCD screen
works by blocking the light rather than emitting the light. There are two types of
pixel grids in LCD:  
 Active Matrix Grid– It is a newer technology. In smartphone with LCD
display uses this technology.
 Passive Matrix Grid– It is an older technology. Some older devices used
this technology.
Characteristics
Main characteristics of LCD are:  
 Voltage: 3V to 12V
 Operating temperature: Normally it ranges from  to  ,
but for extreme cases it varies from  to  .
 Frequency: 30Hz to 60 Hz
 Average Current consumption: 1.2 A to 6 A
 Opening Time: 100 ms
Also LCD has other characteristics in terms of many areas, that are 
 Resolution: LCD is made up of liquid crystal, which is neither liquid nor
solid, and this thing reflects the light in a well-formed way, lights enter
into the crystal and reflect very clearly. So the image made with this liquid
crystal is very accurate. LCD is a Digital display, which addresses each
individual pixel using a fixed matrix of horizontal and vertical dots. LCD
scales the image according to the resolution the device provided. So the
quality of the image is not degraded.
 Brightness: Brightness means the light provided by the LCD, which is
nothing but the intensity of visible light, it is measured using nits. Nits is
defined as one candela per square meter. In LCD brightness is very much
accurate for the good resolutions and pixels.
 Contrast Ratio: It is the ratio of the brightest color and the darkest color
for a particular position of the screen provided by the display. To calculate
contrast ratio(CR) see the below formula: 

Typically the ratios of modern monitors are 1000:1 and TVs are 4000:1.
 Response Rate: Response Rate is high in LCD, it means the time required
for changing colors of the pixels is very much less, so that the refresh rate
is very high in LCD than CRT. There is no lagging between the pixels
when the image is changed. 
 
Advantages of LCD :
 The main advantage of LCD is, it has low in cost and energy efficient and
very less power consumption.
 LCD is thinner and lighter and very flexible.
 LCD provides excellent contrast, brightness and resolution, so the picture
quality is very clear like a crystal.
 Radiation of LCD monitors are much less than CRT monitors
 LCDs can be suitable with CMOS integrated circuits so that making of
LCD is very easy.
 It gives perfect sharpness at the native resolution
 Zero geometric distortion at the native resolution of the pane
 It provides various conveniences like portability as compared to previous
technology based screens.
Disadvantages of LCD :
 LCD require additional light sources for lighting the pixels, so if the light
source is destroyed then the LCD is not providing any image on the
display.
 LCD is less reliable display.
 The image visibility depends on light intensity
  The aspect ratio and resolution are fixed for LCD.
 LCD has an irregular intensity scale and it produce lower than 256 discrete
intensity levels.
 In LCD color saturation is reduced at the low intensity level due to poor
black-level.
 LCD provide limited viewing angle, it effects the brightness. if we are
watching the screen by an angle then the color of the image is changed in
our eyes.
.

Input Devices
The Input Devices are the hardware that is used to transfer transfers input to the
computer. The data can be in the form of text, graphics, sound, and text. Output
device display data from the memory of the computer. Output can be text, numeric
data, line, polygon, and other objects.

These Devices include:

1. Keyboard
 2. Mouse
3. Trackball
4. Spaceball
5. Joystick
6. Light Pen
7. Digitizer
8. Touch Panels
9. Voice Recognition
10. Image Scanner

Keyboard:
The most commonly used input device is a keyboard. The data is entered by pressing
the set of keys. All keys are labeled. A keyboard with 101 keys is called a QWERTY
keyboard.

The keyboard has alphabetic as well as numeric keys. Some special keys are also
available.

1. Numeric Keys: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
2. Alphabetic keys: a to z (lower case), A to Z (upper case)
3. Special Control keys: Ctrl, Shift, Alt
4. Special Symbol Keys: ; , " ? @ ~ ? :
5. Cursor Control Keys: ↑ → ← ↓
6. Function Keys: F1 F2 F3....F9.
7. Numeric Keyboard: It is on the right-hand side of the keyboard and used for fast
entry of numeric data.

Function of Keyboard:
1. Alphanumeric Keyboards are used in CAD. (Computer Aided Drafting)
2. Keyboards are available with special features line screen co-ordinates entry, Menu
selection or graphics functions, etc.
 3. Special purpose keyboards are available having buttons, dials, and switches. Dials are
used to enter scalar values. Dials also enter real numbers. Buttons and switches are
used to enter predefined function values.

Advantage:
1. Suitable for entering numeric data.
2. Function keys are a fast and effective method of using commands, with fewer errors.

Disadvantage:
1. Keyboard is not suitable for graphics input.

Mouse:
A Mouse is a pointing device and used to position the pointer on the screen. It is a
small palm size box. There are two or three depression switches on the top. The
movement of the mouse along the x-axis helps in the horizontal movement of the
cursor and the movement along the y-axis helps in the vertical movement of the
cursor on the screen. The mouse cannot be used to enter text. Therefore, they are
used in conjunction with a keyboard.

Advantage:
1. Easy to use
2. Not very expensive
Trackball
It is a pointing device. It is similar to a mouse. This is mainly used in notebook or
laptop computer, instead of a mouse. This is a ball which is half inserted, and by
changing fingers on the ball, the pointer can be moved.

Advantage:
1. Trackball is stationary, so it does not require much space to use it.
2. Compact Size

Spaceball:
It is similar to trackball, but it can move in six directions where trackball can move in
two directions only. The movement is recorded by the strain gauge. Strain gauge is
applied with pressure. It can be pushed and pulled in various directions. The ball has
a diameter around 7.5 cm. The ball is mounted in the base using rollers. One-third of
the ball is an inside box, the rest is outside.

Applications:
1. It is used for three-dimensional positioning of the object.
2. It is used to select various functions in the field of virtual reality.
3. It is applicable in CAD applications.
4. Animation is also done using spaceball.
5. It is used in the area of simulation and modeling.
Joystick:
A Joystick is also a pointing device which is used to change cursor position on a
monitor screen. Joystick is a stick having a spherical ball as its both lower and upper
ends as shown in fig. The lower spherical ball moves in a socket. The joystick can be
changed in all four directions. The function of a joystick is similar to that of the
mouse. It is mainly used in Computer Aided Designing (CAD) and playing computer
games.

Light Pen
Light Pen (similar to the pen) is a pointing device which is used to select a displayed
menu item or draw pictures on the monitor screen. It consists of a photocell and an
optical system placed in a small tube. When its tip is moved over the monitor screen,
and pen button is pressed, its photocell sensing element detects the screen location
and sends the corresponding signals to the CPU.
 Direct View Storage Tube (DVST) resembles
CRT as it uses electron gun to draw picture and phosphor coated screen to display it.
The phosphor used in this is of high persistence. DVST does not use refresh buffer
or frame buffer to store picture definition. Picture definition is stored in inside CRT
in form positive charged distribution. Because of this reason DVST is knows as
Storage Type CRT. In DVST no refreshing is required as result picture drawn on
DVST will be seen for several minutes before fading.  

Various components of DVST :

1. Electron guns – 
Two electron guns are used in DVST : Primary Gun and Flood Gun.
Primary gun is used to store picture pattern. Flood gun is used to maintain
picture display on phosphor coated screen.
2. Phosphor Coated Screen – 
In DVST the inner surface of CRT is coated with phosphor crystals is of
high persistence that emit light when beam of electrons strike them.
3. Storage Mesh – 
It is thin and high quality wire that is coated with dielectric and is located
just behind phosphor coated screen. Primary gun deposits pattern of
positive charge on this grid and it is transferred to phosphor coated screen
by continuous flood of electrons produced by flood gun. Thus Storage
Mesh stores picture to be displayed in form of positive charge distribution.
4. Collector – 
This grid is located just behind storage mesh and purpose of this
negatively charged grid is to smooth out flow of flood electrons.
Working principle of DVST: 
In DVST similar with CRT electron gun and phosphor coated method is used. But in
this no electron beam is used to directly writing pictures on screen, but instead of
this we can used Storage mesh wire grid is used it is just located behind phosphor
coated screen. There is also another grid located just behind storage mesh is called
Collector and this purpose is to smooth out flow of flood electrons. The flood gun
produce large number of electrons, this negatively charged grid reduces speed of
these electrons. Then electrons pass through collector at low velocity and attracted
by positive charged portions of storage mesh and strike at portions of phosphor
coated screen to display picture. Some electrons get repelled by other portions of
mesh that are negatively charged.  
Since the collector has slowly down electrons, in this way they not able to produce
sharpened images. So to reduce this problem, screen itself is maintained at a high
positive potential by means of voltage applied to thin aluminium coating between
tube face and phosphor.

Uses:
1. Light Pens can be used as input coordinate positions by providing necessary
arrangements.
2. If background color or intensity, a light pen can be used as a locator.
3. It is used as a standard pick device with many graphics system.
4. It can be used as stroke input devices.
5. It can be used as valuators

Digitizers:
The digitizer is an operator input device, which contains a large, smooth board (the
appearance is similar to the mechanical drawing board) & an electronic tracking
device, which can be changed over the surface to follow existing lines. The electronic
tracking device contains a switch for the user to record the desire x & y coordinate
positions. The coordinates can be entered into the computer memory or stored or an
off-line storage medium such as magnetic tape.
Advantages of DVST :
 For picture display it does not require refreshing.
 Display complex pictures at high resolution without any flicker.
 No use of frame buffer or refresh buffer.
Disadvantages of DVST :
 Not used for dynamic graphic such as animation.
 These systems do not display colors.
 To erase selected part of an image, entire screen needs to be erased and
modified pictures needs to be redrawn.
Flat-Panel Devices are the devices that have less volume, weight, and power
consumption compared to Cathode Ray Tube (CRT). Due to the advantages of the
Flat-Panel Display, use of CRT decreased. As Flat Panel Devices are light in weights
that’s why they can be hang on walls and wear them on our wrist as a watch. Flat
Panel Display (FPD) allow users to view data, graphics, text and images.  
Types of Flat Panel Display: 
  
1. Emissive Display: 
The Emissive Display or Emitters are the devices that convert electrical energy into
light energy.
Examples: Plasma Panel, LED (Light Emitting Diode), Flat CRT.
2. Non-Emissive Display:  
Non-Emissive Display or Non-Emitters are the devices that use optical effects to
convert sunlight or some other source into graphic patterns.
Examples: LCD (Liquid Crystal Display)
Advantages of Flat Panel Devices:
 Flat Panel Devices like LCD produces high quality digital images.
 Flat Panel monitor are stylish and have very space saving design.
 Flat Panel Devices consumes less power and give maximum image size in
minimum space.
 Flat Panel Devices use its full color display capability.
 Full motion video can be viewed on Flat Panel Devices without artifacts or
contrast loss.
Disadvantages of Flat Panel Devices:
 They are very expensive compared to CRTs.
 They have very high refresh rates.
 Slow response times.  
 They may be heavier and bulkier than other display types.
Advantages:
1. Drawing can easily be changed.
2. It provides the capability of interactive graphics.

Disadvantages:
1. Costly
2. Suitable only for applications which required high-resolution graphics.

Touch Panels:
Touch Panels is a type of display screen that has a touch-sensitive transparent panel
covering the screen. A touch screen registers input when a finger or other object
comes in contact with the screen.

When the wave signals are interrupted by some contact with the screen, that located
is recorded. Touch screens have long been used in military applications.

Voice Systems (Voice Recognition):

Voice Recognition is one of the newest, most complex input techniques used to
interact with the computer. The user inputs data by speaking into a microphone. The
simplest form of voice recognition is a one-word command spoken by one person.
Each command is isolated with pauses between the words.

Voice Recognition is used in some graphics workstations as input devices to accept

voice commands. The voice-system input can be used to initiate graphics operations
or to enter data. These systems operate by matching an input against a predefined
dictionary of words and phrases.

Advantage:
1. More efficient device.
2. Easy to use
3. Unauthorized speakers can be identified

Disadvantages:
1. Very limited vocabulary
2. Voice of different operators can't be distinguished.

Image Scanner
It is an input device. The data or text is written on paper. The paper is feeded to
scanner. The paper written information is converted into electronic format; this
format is stored in the computer. The input documents can contain text, handwritten
material, picture extra.

By storing the document in a computer document became safe for longer period of
time. The document will be permanently stored for the future. We can change the
document when we need. The document can be printed when needed.

Scanning can be of the black and white or colored picture. On stored picture 2D or
3D rotations, scaling and other operations can be applied.

Types of image Scanner:

1. Flat Bed Scanner: It resembles a photocopy machine. It has a glass top on its top.
Glass top in further covered using a lid. The document to be scanned is kept on glass
plate. The light is passed underneath side of glass plate. The light is moved left to
right. The scanning is done the line by line. The process is repeated until the
complete line is scanned. Within 20-25 seconds a document of 4" * 6" can be
scanned.
2. Hand Held Scanner: It has a number of LED's (Light Emitting Diodes) the LED's
are arranged in the small case. It is called a Hand held Scanner because it can be kept
in hand which performs scanning. For scanning the scanner is moved over document
from the top towards the bottom. Its light is on, while we move it on document. It is
dragged very slowly over document. If dragging of the scanner over the document is
not proper, the conversion will not correct.

Base of
S.NO Difference  Random Scan Raster Scan

The resolution of random While the resolution of

1. Resolution scan is higher than raster raster scan is lesser or
scan. lower than random scan.

While the cost of raster

2. Cost It is costlier than raster scan. scan is lesser than
random scan.
 Base of
S.NO Difference  Random Scan Raster Scan

In random scan, any

While in raster scan, any
3. Modification alteration is easy in
alteration is not so easy .
comparison of raster scan.

In random scan, interlacing is While in raster scan,

4. Interlacing
not used. interlacing is used.

In random scan, While in which, for

mathematical function is used image or picture
for image or picture rendering, raster scan
5. Line Drawings
rendering. It is suitable for uses pixels. It is suitable
applications requiring for creating realistic
polygon drawings. scenes.

Electron Beam is directed

Electron Beam is directed to
from top to bottom and
Motion of only that part of screen where
6. one row at a time on
Electron Beam picture is required to be
screen. It is directed to
drawn, one line at a time.
whole screen.

It stores picture definition

It stores picture definition as
Picture as a set of intensity
7. a set of line commands in the
Definition values of the pixels in the
Refresh buffer.
frame buffer. 

Refresh rate depends on the Refresh rate  is 60 to 80

number of lines to be frames per second and is
8. Refresh Rate
displayed i.e. 30 to 60 times independent of picture
per second. complexity.

In random scan, Solid Pattern In raster scan, Solid

9. Solid Pattern
is tough to fill. Pattern is easy to fill.

10. Example Pen Plotter TV Sets