A review of steel and its interaction with hydrogen

Diana M. Ayala Valderrama*, Yinela A. Young Mosquera*

GISPA – Integral management of services and Agroindustrial Productivity, Santo Tomas Tunja
University. Av. Universitaria No. 45 - 202. Tunja – Boyacá. Colombia1
Faculty of Industrial Engineering, Technological University of Panama
Tunja, Colombia

Keywords: hydrogen, diffusion, material, metal, chemical element

Abstract - Hydrogen damage in steel is caused by different factors such as the environment,
temperature, pressure, amount of hydrogen absorbed in the alloy, among others. The best-known
damages are hydrogen attack, blistering and hydrogen embrittlement and its main damage
mechanism is the process in which hydrogen atoms diffuse into the crystal lattice of the steel
causing loss of its mechanical properties and in some cases loss of the material. It is very
important to consider that each of the damages have similar characteristics, but they differ due to
the conditions or environment in which each one develops; To prevent this damage, the
microstructure and chemical elements that will be used for the alloy must be considered so that
they can resist an aggressive environment characterized by hydrogen exposure. At the same time,
heat treatment processes can be applied to strengthen the material and reduce the effects it may
have when exposed to hydrogen

1. Introduction
Throughout history, man has focused on improving the selection of his raw material and
equipment for the elaboration of mechanisms or objects that are known today. Steel is a good
example of these, one of the reinforcement materials produced and most used worldwide, which
due to its mechanical properties such as hardness, flexibility and strength has become an
indispensable alloy to meet the needs of industries such as production, storage, and transport.
This material was considered almost indestructible but has some considerable failures under
different conditions and in the presence of elements such as hydrogen. The existence of this
element is irrevocable, since it has a fundamental role in the chemical industry, oil refining,
energy and fuel, among others. Therefore, materials must be used to support it and a candidate
that meets almost all the requirements is steel. However, despite being one of the best alloys, it
has negative consequences on its properties that involve phenomena such as fragility, fractures
and brooding caused by hydrogen. This article aims to analyze the different damages caused by
hydrogen in steel and how we can reduce or avoid these damages.

2. Interaction of hydrogen with steel

The hydrogen penetrates the material atomically or ionized in a gaseous environment or
atmosphere, the hydrogen molecule together with chemical reactions, dissociate molecule
allowing entry into the crystal structure permanently or temporarily causing damage to the
metal[1] . There are two phases in which hydrogen interacts with the metal. Gas phase: In this
phase the source of hydrogen is usually molecular hydrogen (H 2) and with an aqueous
electrolyte, where the exchange is given by a source of (H2O)[2].
In the gas phase the hydrogen enters the metal through 4 stages[2]:
 Diffusion of H2 in the gas phase, from the sinus of the gas to the metal surface.
 Adsorption and dissociation on the metal surface (dissociative chemisorption).
 Penetration across the surface: passage from adsorbed state to absorbed state, or in
abbreviated form: ad-ab passage.
 Diffusion within the metal

It is key to note that for this phase the oxide film, temperature and pressure play a fundamental
role in the entry of hydrogen into the material.
In the aqueous phase, their interaction is electrochemical, this is one of the phases where
fractures are most potentiated or produced[3] and consists of a cathodic reaction of proton
reduction. The source of hydrogen is water in an acidic medium: This cathodic reaction can be
caused by two reasons:[2]
 The external circulation of electric current (electrolysis of water where the metal in
question acts as a cathode). We refer then to a cathodic charge.
 Electrochemical corrosion of the metal itself.
During the aqueous phase, the interaction of hydrogen with the metal via cathodic reaction, there
are substances that increase the detachment and entry of this element into the metal, among them
is sulfide, cyanide, and the trivalent ion of arsenic these substances increase the rate of absorption
of hydrogen in this phase.[2]

3. Factors influencing the interaction and diffusion of hydrogen with steel

There are different factors that contribute to the diffusion of hydrogen in steel, these are
temperature, chemical composition, crystal structure that is considered substructure, time, state of
stress, the presence of gases and liquids, the environment, the concentration of hydrogen in steel,
pressure, physical and mechanical properties of the material, surface conditions among others [4]
of all those mentioned above, the most significant will be explained.

3.1. Environment
Most of the damage is caused from hydrogen sources that are not necessarily created in
manufacturing processes, if not when the steel is in service. [5]
There are situations where hydrogen is possible to enter the metal [6]:

1. Systems where hydrogen circulates in metal containers at high pressures and temperatures.
2. System where hydrogen appears as a corrosion reaction. This case occurs in pipes that
transport crude oils or acid petroleum gases, which contain appreciable amounts of hydrogen
sulfide.
3. Systems in which hydrogen appears as a product of some electrochemical process, such as
electroplating processes.
The effect of hydrogen is greatest near room temperature and decreases with increasing rate of
deformation. Hydrogen degradation is more pronounced with increased hydrogen content or a
charge. [7]

3.1.1 Exchange of hydrogen between the alloy and the medium.

Remember that the hydrogenated environment can be aqueous and gaseous.
If you take a piece of steel and expose yourself to hydrogen gas (gaseous environment) in an
atmosphere of pressure and room temperature, much less than one ppm of hydrogen will
dissolve[8]. On the other hand, if it is in contact with an acidic medium (aqueous environment)
and the exposure to hydrogen sulfide is corroded or simply by exposure to moisture, the
concentration of nascent hydrogen on the surface can become quite high and the solubility of
hydrogen during exposure can exceed several ppm[8].

With this we can deduce that steel exposed to acidic solutions (they produce aqueous hydrogen)
load more hydrogen to the metal and these become more susceptible to damage caused by
hydrogen. In the case of steel exposed to gas, it is damaged at high pressures. Bruzzoni in his
thesis "[2]Surface effects on the diffusion of hydrogen in iron and ferrous alloys" explains in
detail the exchange of hydrogen between the metal and its phases considering the existence of
oxide films and under conditions of high temperatures and ambient temperature.

3.2. Characteristics of the microstructure

3.2.1 Manufacturing processes
A component or structure can be contaminated by hydrogen at various stages of its life, both in
the manufacturing and service process. This begins in the metallurgical process, because the
solubility of hydrogen in molten metal is much higher than in the solid state[9][10]. For a
hydrogen-induced fracture to occur, both hydrogen and stresses and charges must be present in a
material that is sensitive or susceptible to this type of failure. Processes such as uncontrolled
casting, galvanization, or welding can increase the preload of hydrogen on a given metal[11].

3.2.2 Casting and Welding

The atmosphere surrounding the molten metal contains hydrogen that diffuses through the mass
until it reaches an equilibrium concentration. When the metal solidifies and cools the previously
absorbed hydrogen is at supersaturation concentration and tends to escape the crystal lattice,
accumulating in micropores, segregations and inclusions, which inevitably form in the
solidification structures of metals[12].

Molten steels can absorb hydrogen above their solubility limit. When a part containing high
levels of hydrogen solidifies, subsurface porosity will inevitably appear. Hydrogen can be taken
from almost any source of moisture, such as refractories, green sand molds, decomposition of
chemical binders in the mold and hearts, slag additives, and atmospheric moisture[13] .

In the welding process, damage to steel is also generated as fragile by hydrogen, which is
generated by: 1) presence of hydrogen, (2) traction forces and (3) a susceptible microstructure.
A fourth factor that is frequently mentioned in the literature is the temperature of formation
which is below 200°C, which is why it is often referred to as cold cracking [14]. Hydrogen
uptake during fusion welding operations is a relatively simple mechanism in which hydrogen,
dissociated from water presented as a contaminant either in welding consumables, filler
materials, fluxes or shielding gases, enters the molten weld bath [15].
3.2.3 Galvanized
The main objective of Galvanizing is to protect steel in any of its forms from corrosion[16]. It is
an economical and efficient way to extend its useful life in most environments, but at the time of
its elaboration hydrogen atoms may be introduced into the material. The most well-known
damage produced by this process is hydrogen fragilization, but very rarely occurs during the
galvanizing process[16].

Conversely, a study by Malick, points out that hydrogen embrittlement can occur after a small
concentration has been absorbed during the process and diffuses on the contact surface between
grains or preferably at grain limits[17]. Coating processes generally have a current efficiency of
less than 100% and a proportion of the current that passes during electrodeposition results in the
generation of hydrogen, part of which is incorporated into the reservoir and then diffused into the
substrate[18].

3.2.4 Surface finish

The amount of hydrogen absorbed will depend on the efficiency of the dissociation process
which, in turn, depends on the state of the metal surface. Thin oxide films on metal surfaces
significantly reduce hydrogen's ability to dissociate, so the presence of an oxide has the same
impact on hydrogen absorption as reducing hydrogen pressure would [6], [8].

3.3 Microstructure of steel

The diffusion of hydrogen is caused in its great majority by the fraction of spaces occupied by the
atoms in the crystal lattice, that is, in crystalline structures where the packing factor is lower, they
will be very susceptible to hydrogen damage. [4], [19].
At the same time, due to their great mobility, hydrogen atoms tend to diffuse into the network
and interact with the defects present: precipitations, inclusions, grain edges among others[20][6].
We should bear in mind that the size of the hydrogen atom is only 0.092nm, this explains its great
diffusivity, if the crystal structure of iron is Body Centered Cubic (BCC) or Face Centered Cubic
(FCC), and we compare its octahedral and tetrahedral interstice diameters to analyze the diffusion
of hydrogen (Table 1), We can conclude that it has enough capacity to diffuse in iron, at the
same time, we can say that the solubility of hydrogen is greater in the FCC cell due to the larger
diameter of its octahedral interstices[19].

Table 1. Atomic diameters and interstices BCC AND FCC

Diameter Tetrahedral
Diameter
Ugly interstices interstice
Atomic(nm)
octahedral(nm) diameter (nm)
Faith
0.038(6/unit 0.072(12/unit
0.248 0.68
(BCC) cell) cell)
Fe
0.104(4/unit 0.057(8/unit
0.252 0.74
(FCC) cell) cell)

Fountain: [19]

3.4 Hydrogen entrapment

The traps are considered as microstructural defects of the material are places in the network
where hydrogen is stored and can be: grain limits, dislocations, interfaces between matrix and
inclusions, the presence of traps in the steel increases the solubility of the hydrogen, generating
additional sites so that it can be lodged; these traps can be classified into [21][22][23]reversible
and irreversible traps[1] .

 Reversible traps: Hydrogen remains for a short time and has little interaction energy.

 Irreversible traps: The rate of hydrogen release is minimal and high interaction energy
to be released.
As an example, we can indicate that, at room temperature, the energy value of trapped in a ferritic
steel with BCC structure is: Interstices:[24] 7 kJ/mol; Dislocations: 27 to 30 kJ/mol (reversible
trap); Titanium carbide (Tic) interface – matrix: 80 to 90 kJ/mol (irreversible trap)
In the case of Austenitic steels (FCC), the trapping energy is weaker than in ferritics (BCC). The
energy trapped in the dislocations is between 9 to 14 kJ/mol. and ferritic is between 27 to 30
kJ/mol, [24] Figure 1, represents an example of hydrogen traps where a) Represents the
conventional solubility in the crystal lattice. (b) Sites of hydrogen captured on the surface. (c)
Below the surface. (d) Grain limit. (e) Dislocations.
f) Vacancies.

Figure 1. Example of hydrogen traps

Fountain: [1]

3.5 Inclusions
The susceptibility of steels to hydrogen damage also depends on non-metallic inclusions. Non-
metallic inclusions are metallic compounds (Fe, Mn, Al, Si, Ca) with nonmetals (O, S, C, H, N)
which form separate phases[25]. Non-metallic phases containing more than one compound (e.g.
different oxides, sulfide oxide) are called non-metallic inclusion complexes (spinels, silicates,
oxysulfides, carbonitrides), despite small contents of non-metallic inclusions in steel (0.01-
0.02%) this exerts a significant effect on the properties of steel, such as tensile strength,
deformability, ductility, hardness, fatigue resistance, corrosion resistance, weldability, polishing
and machinability depending on the source, from which the non-metallic inclusion is derived,
which are subdivided into two groups: indigenous and exogenous inclusions[25].
The shape, size, coherence with the matrix, distribution and density of the inclusion are factors
that must be considered in hydrogen damage[4].

 Size: Smaller inclusions have less interaction with the matrix and less interaction with
hydrogen.
 Form: The elongated shapes are very harmful, this because their ends function as stress
concentrators, low energy places that reveal a greater attraction for hydrogen.
 Coherence: refers to the way in which the inclusions are distributed in the steel, they are
presented in two ways: a). The incoherent: these particles generate less distortion in the
network, trapping hydrogen appreciably and letting it escape later, with which at that moment
you will have more diffusible hydrogen. b). Coherent: they have greater distortion, which
causes less captured hydrogen and is easier to escape.
 Distribution: In homogeneous distributions, a uniform distribution of trapped hydrogen is
obtained, while the heterogeneous one presents high peaks in the concentration of hydrogen.
 Density: The influence of density is related to the characteristics of inclusion.

4. Ways to determine hydrogen in steel

There are numerous techniques to characterize the existence of hydrogen in the material. These
have the purpose of determining the diffusivity, solubility, localization, interaction with the
microstructure betweenothers[26]. The best known and used is the electrochemical permeation
technique. Devanathan and Stachurski[27], pioneers in the study of hydrogen diffusion and
permeation in metals and alloys, using a permeation cell and electrochemical methods0, initiated
the bases and foundations for this phenomenon to be the subject of study in materials science
today[28]. This technique is based on the study of the hydrogen detection current transient that
passed through a thin sheet of metal, and which was produced by a current jump or potential on
the opposite side (input side). The calculation of the diffusion coefficient is classically done
through the solution of Fick's law with boundary and initial conditions in accordance with the
conditions imposed at the beginning of the jump[29].

5. Hydrogen damage to steel

In the literature there is a great disagreement and multiple opinions about the nature,
classification and mechanism of the damage produced by hydrogen. The interaction of hydrogen
with steel can cause three types of damage grouped into 2 categories: a). In Combined Hydrogen:
attack by hydrogen, blistering or blistering are found and b). Hydrogen in solution: there is
Hydrogen Fragility [30][31].

5.1 Damage Caused by Combined Hydrogen.

5.1.1 Hydrogen attack
According to API RP 571 standards [32], hydrogen attack refers to exposure to hydrogen at
elevated temperatures and pressures. Hydrogen reacts with carbide in steel forming methane
(CH4) without the ability to diffuse into steel.
The reaction of hydrogen with carbon causes decarburization on the surface of the steel, this is
not considered harmful to the point of limiting the useful life of the equipment, and at the same
time can be reflected as an internal attack, but if there is extensive decarburization, it can reduce
the strength of its components[32].

Characteristics and Mechanism of Damage

Hydrogen attack is characterized by the formation of bubbles in steel, caused by the limited
diffusion of carbon on the surface, allowing methane to form inside the steel. The methane (CH4)
not being able to diffuse into the steel, begins to exert pressure, this accumulates and initially
forms the bubbles or cavities, then these are transformed into micro fissures and finally combined
fissures are formed. These fissures are the most serious phase of the hydrogen attack, thus
causing equipment or material failures[32]. This damage can cause the following consequences:
 Decreased mechanical strength
 Decreased ductility
 Decreased tenacity.

It is important to mention that the attack by hydrogen occurs in front of high temperatures, to be
more specific at more than 200 ° C and high partial pressures of hydrogen (700 KPa)[33][34]
(See figure 2) In these conditions the steel undergoes decarburization and initiates the process of
attack[24] .
Figure 2: Hydrogen Attack Process
Source: Own elaboration

Factors influencing hydrogen attack[24] .

In these are environmental factors such as temperature, pressure, and stresses. In the case of
metallurgical aspects, the purity content, cold work, grain sizes that are considered in the
nucleation and appearance of methane bubbles influence.
For tensile stress applications they have been shown to increase the attack by hydrogen, by the
increase in driving force exerted on the growth of methane bubbles and by the slippage of grain
limits that produce stress concentration sites.
On the other hand, heat treatments influence the susceptibility of steel to attack by H, austenitic at
very high temperature (e.g. above 1000 C) increases the susceptibility of steel to attack by
hydrogen. Tempering and tempering structures are more susceptible than standardized ones.
The cold deformation produced during the manufacturing process of a component increases
susceptibility to attack by hydrogen.
How to prevent or reduce hydrogen attack on steel.
Nelson curves
Nelson's diagram includes numerous cases of different materials subjected to different operating
conditions (temperature and pressure) these show the empirical limits above which no cases of
failure are reported. They are under constant review, being modified according to the most recent
cases[35].
Solid lines define the areas above which failures have been recorded due to internal
decarburization and cracking. Below and to the left of the curves, they show that the alloys
performed satisfactorily after 35 years of exposure in the hydrogen atmosphere. The temperature
above and to the right of the solid curve occurs internal decarbonization. The temperature above
and to the right of the solid curve occurs internal decarbonization[24][2]
It is important to mention that Nelson Curves do not imply that the material you refer to is not
faulty if it is used below the curve. This tool shows us that the material in conditions of use, does
not fail in the past. That is, this tool works as a guide to select the material [2].
In Figure 3, we refer to a textual example of Alvarez's master's work, in which he uses Nelson's
curves for the choice of materials in working conditions at 300°C and a partial hydrogen pressure
of 10 Mpa. We use this illustration to emphasize the usefulness of the tool.[36]

Figure 3 Enlargement of Nelson curves in material selection.

Source: [35]

Chemical composition
The addition of elements such as Cr, Mo, W, V, Ti and Nb form stable carbides. The presence of
these elements reduces the number of sites for nuclear cavities and the amount of carbon to form
(CH4). Consequently, it can decrease the susceptibility of the material to hydrogen attack.
Of all the elements mentioned, the Mo is the most effective, providing greater resistance to steel
against this damage. As well as steels of the type of Cr-1Mo-V-Cb-Ca and 2 1/4Cr-1MoV-Cb-
Ca. [1]
5.1.2 Ampouled by Hydrogen
Blistering occurs in steels exposed to high concentrations of hydrogen for long periods of time. In
this type of failure, hydrogen tends to accumulate in inclusions of manganese, alumina or oxides.
Hydrogen enters by solid diffusion as atomic hydrogen, usually from an acidic medium, and
accumulates in the inclusions of impurities [37].
Characteristics and Mechanism of Damage
Blistering occurs when the atomic hydrogen absorbed by the steel diffuses until it finds a defect
or a cavity where it can recombine and form molecular hydrogen. When this is formed, the
pressure increases causing the growth and subsequent separation of the cavity, and this eventually
becomes an external blister[38].
This type of fault can usually be found in rolled steels. This phenomenon is limited to steels of
low yield strength, less than 600 MPa (low carbon steels) that work in a medium that promotes an
energetic entry of H into the material, as for example the case of wet H 2S. In the case of stronger
steels, it is reduced to small blisters that can propagate in a direction perpendicular to the
maximum tensile stress.[24]
Blistering can be distinguished in 3 stages:
 Entrance of the H.
 Nucleation sites of fissures and blisters.
 Propagation of fissures.

Factors influencing steel blistering.
Percentage of sulphur and size of inclusions
Using a study carried out with commercially produced steels intended for the manufacture of
tubes used in the oil industry or for the construction of pressure vessels as a reference, where this
yielded the values of average length and total length of the inclusions for sulfides, it is concluded
that the way to reduce the nucleation sites of the fissure is to reduce the density of inclusions in
the steel, that is why it is necessary to reduce the sulfur and oxygen content[24]. Sulphur
contents below 0.001 % result in few small inclusions and a sharp increase in the strength of steel
to hydrogen embrittlement (FIH). In addition, we can say that the intensity of the phenomenon,
the size of the blisters, their depth and in general their morphology at each moment depends on
the intensity of acid corrosion, time and the inclusionary state of the steel (density and average
length). In addition, we can say that the intensity of the phenomenon, the size of the blisters, their
depth and in general their morphology at each moment depends on the intensity of acid corrosion,
time and the inclusionary state of the steel (density and average length) [24].
Bands
It has been observed that the fissures propagate by means of bands with a hardness greater than
300K, associated with the segregation of elements such as phosphorus, magnesium and silicon.
[24], [39].

Strength and susceptibility of materials

This phenomenon occurs in high and low strength steels so it is very difficult to avoid, regardless
of how much the hardness of the material is reduced [39].

How to Prevent or Decrease Hydrogen Blistering.

Microstructure
The spread of fissures by blistering is easier in a less ductile microstructure, hard areas
composed of bainite and / or martensite are harmful. Some actions to prevent or decrease H
blistering that might be used are[24]:
 Reduce as much as possible the content and size of sulfur 0.001%.
 The phosphorus content should be reduced, P < 0.005%, particularly for standardized C-
Mn steels.
 We can minimize the hard areas (bainite-martensite) the content of C and Mn should be
lowered.
 Microalloying elements (Ti, Nb) help reduce carbon equivalent without reducing
mechanical properties.
 Reduce the entry of H through coatings, addition of alloys, and / or surface treatments
(shot blasting) or use of inhibitors.
 Use homogeneous ferritic-perlithic structures.

5.2 Damage caused by hydrogen in solution

Hydrogen in solid solution in steels can be highly harmful, this because it tends to decrease
the ductility of the alloy, inducing a fragile behavior in the steel to be the same under
load[37].

5.2.1 Hydrogen fragilization

This is the most dangerous damage, and the least known caused by hydrogen, occurs in various
steels, both low and high strength. This is the most dangerous damage, and the least known
caused by hydrogen occurs in various steels, both low and high strength. The failure involves the
steel presenting losses of mechanical propertiesFor this phenomenon to occur, a minimum
amount of hydrogen is needed in the material that is considered an aggressive environment, a
minimum stress (residual stresses) in the elastic range and a susceptible microstructure and
chemical composition.[40][4].

Characteristics and mechanism of damage

For this damage to occur, there must be the presence of sources supplying hydrogen to the alloy.
Once absorbed at the surface and atomically, the hydrogen atoms diffuse into the crystal lattice
and are transported to the embrittlement zones by means of dislocations and diffusion. In
addition, it is important to mention that it is caused when the material is subjected to stress and is
in ambient temperature conditions[41][41] .

Hydrogen embrittlement can be reversible, as long as it can be detected in time and with the
implementation of appropriate treatments. As we mentioned before, this damage produces losses
in the mechanical properties of steel, some of them are[40][19][42][43]:
 Decrease in ductility progressively with the increase in H.
 Decreased fracture resistance with increased H in steel.
 The presence of hydrogen can change the ductile fracture to a fragile one.

Theories of Hydrogen embrittlement

This is one of the most complex phenomena and of which less concrete information is available.
That is why there are numerous theories of its formation, among the most cited are[40][24].
Pressure theory
It is the oldest and possibly the best known, explains the formation of internal fissures and
blisters by the formation of high molecular H pressures where possible: cavities, grain edges,
interfaces, etc [44][45].

Theory of decohesion
According to this theory, the presence of H within the plastic deformation zone at the end of the
micro fissure will reduce the interatomic cohesion forces.[46][47][48][49].
Surface energy theory
This theory explains that, hydrogen atoms in solid solution in the material would diffuse towards
the tip of a crack, causing the crack to decrease. This decay of energy would be responsible for
the decrease in the resistance of the material to cleavage or intergranular fracture. This would
explain the delayed nature of the fracture and the intermittent propagation of the crack [4].
Like the previous theory, it is based on the pre-existence of micro fissures in the metal, but in this
case it is the H absorbed in the inner surface, on the front of the micro fissure, that would reduce
the surface energy. The nominal breakdown stress, which is proportional to the square root of the
surface energy, will then be lower. [1]

Factors influencing hydrogen embrittlement.

Temperature
Hydrogen embrittlement occurs at ambient temperatures, this is because at high temperatures the
solubility of hydrogen increases. At very low temperatures, low solubility and diffusion
coefficient, causing the material to decrease its toughness[24].

Microstructure
Hydrogen embrittlement is linked to its microstructure (traps). Tempering structures are the most
susceptible, ferritic structures sensitive and austenite structures insensitive. Laminar structures
are more sensitive than globular ones. Structures obtained at high temperatures and in a state
close to that of thermodynamic equilibrium (almost complete absence of internal stresses) are the
least sensitive to the action of H[24].

How to reduce or prevent hydrogen embrittlement.

Micro alloy steel low MN high Nb
High strength and low alloy micro alloy steels are low carbon steels that differ from others by
their low content of alloying elements and by the mechanical properties obtained depending on
their quantity within the material. They have a higher mechanical and corrosive strength than
normal steels, along with good formability and weldability due to their low carbon content.[1]
This material has suitable conditions to be used in the oil and gas industry in offshore extraction,
due to its high resistance to hydrogen embrittlement and high mechanical properties. The
homogeneous, clean microstructure, with little variability of grain size throughout the thickness,
formed by ferrite and low amount of perlite distributed in the grain limits, in addition to the
globular shape and uniform distribution of Al2O3 precipitates, make the alloy a suitable material
for the Sour application [1].

Tempering heat treatment

Tempering is a low temperature heat treatment that is normally performed after a process of
neutral tempering, double tempering, carburetion in atmosphere, carbonitruration or induction
hardening, with the aim of achieving the desired ratio of hardness and strength.

This treatment does not compromise the levels of resistance acquired and does not affect the
microstructure It is important to mention that, tempered steels at 400 ° c must maintain their
values of UTS and YS independent of the treatment time, presenting at this temperature the
least[50] susceptibility to hydrogen fragility[50]It is important to mention that, steels tempered at
400 ° c must maintain their values of UTS and YS independent of the treatment time, presenting
at this temperature the lowest susceptibility to hydrogen embrittlement[50].

Austenitic stainless steels

They are non-magnetic alloys hardened by cold forming (in which case they may become slightly
magnetic) but not by heat treatment. Its microstructure consists mainly of austenite grains [24].
Most of the time austenitic stainless steels are less susceptible to FPH than carbon and low-alloy
ferritic steels. This is because austenitic stainless steels are much more resistant to corrosion, the
diffusion rate (at room temperature) in austenite is much lower than in ferrite and also the
solubility (at room temperature) of H in austenite is much higher than in ferrite [24].

6. Conclusion
The main factor, or at least the one that should be taken with greater consideration of the damage
caused by hydrogen in steel, is its chemical composition and microstructure. It is important to
 take into account these points when producing alloys intended for the transport of hydrogen or
tasks in which they are exposed to this element. Problems in the manufacturing and
manufacturing process are other conductors to the presence of hydrogen in steel. For example,
welds have risks of cracking (cold cracking). This is a consequence of the introduction, during
the welding process, of a significant amount of hydrogen, internal stresses and microstructures
very sensitive to hydrogen damage. The use of austenitic steel is a good option to reduce attacks
by hydrogen, this steel contains low levels of carbon and the presence of chromium which makes
it much more resistant to corrosion or in this case to hydrogen damage. Another option that can
be implemented to reduce damage is heat treatments, only at convenient or controlled
temperatures and pressures.

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