CHAPTER 3

NUMERICAL
DESCRIPTIVE
MEASURES

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Opening Example

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MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY FOR
UNGROUPED DATA

 Mean
 Median
 Mode
 Relationships among the Mean, Median,
and Mode

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Figure 3.1

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Mean
The mean for ungrouped data is obtained
by dividing the sum of all values by the
number of values in the data set. Thus,

Mean for population data: =  x

N
Mean for sample data: x=
 x
n

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Example 3-1

Table 3.1 lists the total sales (rounded to

billions of dollars) of six U.S. companies for
2008.

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Table 3.1 2008 Sales of Six U.S. Companies

Find the 2008 mean sales for these six

companies.
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Example 3-1: Solution
x = x 1 + x2 + x3 + x 4 + x5 + x6
= 149 + 406 + 183 + 107 + 426 + 97 = 1368

x=
 x
=
1368
= 228 = $228 Billion
n 6

Thus, the mean 2008 sales of these six companies

was 228, or $228 billion.

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Example 3-2

The following are the ages (in years) of all

eight employees of a small company:
53 32 61 27 39 44 49 57
Find the mean age of these employees.

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Example 3-2: Solution

=  x 362
= = 45.25 years
N 8

Thus, the mean age of all eight employees of

this company is 45.25 years, or 45 years and
3 months.

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Example 3-3
Table 3.2 lists the total philanthropic givings
(in million dollars) by six companies during
2007.

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Example 3-3
Notice that the charitable contributions
made by Wal-Mart are very large
compared to those of other companies.
Hence, it is an outlier. Show how the
inclusion of this outlier affects the value of
the mean.

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Example 3-3: Solution

If we do not include the charitable givings of

Wal-Mart (the outlier), the mean of the
charitable contributions of the fiver
companies is
22.4 + 31.8 + 19.8 + 9.0 + 27.5
Mean = = $22.1 million
5

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Example 3-3: Solution
Now, to see the impact of the outlier on
the value of the mean, we include the
contributions of Wal-Mart and find the
mean contributions of the six companies.
This mean is

22.4 + 31.8 + 19.8 + 9.0 + 27.5 + 337.9

Mean = = $74.73 million
6

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Case Study 3-1 Average Attendance at Baseball
Games

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Median
Definition
The median is the value of the middle term
in a data set that has been ranked in
increasing order.

The calculation of the median consists of the

following two steps:
1. Rank the data set in increasing order.
2. Find the middle term. The value of this term is
the median.
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Example 3-4

The following data give the prices (in

thousands of dollars) of seven houses
selected from all houses sold last month in a
city.
312 257 421 289 526 374 497
Find the median.

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Example 3-4: Solution
First, we rank the given data in increasing
order as follows:
257 289 312 374 421 497 526
Since there are seven homes in this data set
and the middle term is the fourth term,

Thus, the median price of a house is 374.

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Example 3-5

Table 3.3 gives the 2008 profits (rounded

to billions of dollars) of 12 companies
selected from all over the world.

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Table 3.3 Profits of 12 Companies for 2008
Find the median
of these data.

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Example 3-5: Solution
First we rank the given profits as follows:

7 8 9 10 11 12 13 13 14 17 17 45

There are 12 values in this data set. Because

there is an even number of values in the
data set, the median is given by the average
of the two middle values.

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Example 3-5: Solution
The two middle values are the sixth and
seventh in the foregoing list of data, and
these two values are 12 and 13.

12 + 13 25
Median = = = 12.5 = $12.5 billion
2 2

Thus, the median profit of these 12

companies is $12.5 billion.

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Median
The median gives the center of a histogram,
with half the data values to the left of the
median and half to the right of the median.
The advantage of using the median as a
measure of central tendency is that it is not
influenced by outliers. Consequently, the
median is preferred over the mean as a
measure of central tendency for data sets
that contain outliers.

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Case Study 3-2 The Gender Pay Gap

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Mode

Definition
The mode is the value that occurs with the
highest frequency in a data set.

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Example 3-6

The following data give the speeds (in miles

per hour) of eight cars that were stopped
on I-95 for speeding violations.
77 82 74 81 79 84 74 78
Find the mode.

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Example 3-6: Solution

In this data set, 74 occurs twice and each of

the remaining values occurs only once.
Because 74 occurs with the highest
frequency, it is the mode. Therefore,

Mode = 74 miles per hour

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Mode

 A major shortcoming of the mode is that a

data set may have none or may have
more than one mode, whereas it will have
only one mean and only one median.
◼ Unimodal: A data set with only one mode.
◼ Bimodal: A data set with two modes.
◼ Multimodal: A data set with more than two
modes.

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Example 3-7 (Data set with no mode)

Last year’s incomes of five randomly

selected families were $76,150. $95,750,
$124,985, $87,490, and $53,740. Find the
mode.

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Example 3-7: Solution

Because each value in this data set occurs

only once, this data set contains no mode.

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Example 3-8 (Data set with two modes)

Refer to the data on 2008 profits of 12

companies given in Table 3.3 of Example
3-5. Find the mode for these data.

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Example 3-8: Solution

In the data given in Example 3-5, each of

two values 13 and 17 occurs twice, and each
of the remaining values occurs only once.
Therefore, that data set has two modes:
$13 billion and $ 17 billion.

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Example 3-9 (Data set with three modes)

The ages of 10 randomly selected students

from a class are 21, 19, 27, 22, 29, 19, 25,
21, 22 and 30 years, respectively. Find the
mode.

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Example 3-9: Solution

This data set has three modes: 19, 21 and

22. Each of these three values occurs with
a (highest) frequency of 2.

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Mode

One advantage of the mode is that it can be

calculated for both kinds of data -
quantitative and qualitative - whereas the
mean and median can be calculated for
only quantitative data.

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Example 3-10

The status of five students who are

members of the student senate at a college
are senior, sophomore, senior, junior,
senior. Find the mode.

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Example 3-10: Solution

Because senior occurs more frequently than

the other categories, it is the mode for this
data set. We cannot calculate the mean and
median for this data set.

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Relationships among the Mean, Median, and Mode

1. For a symmetric histogram and frequency

curve with one peak (Figure 3.2), the
values of the mean, median, and mode
are identical, and they lie at the center of
the distribution.

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Figure 3.2 Mean, median, and mode for a
symmetric histogram and frequency curve.

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Relationships among the Mean, Median, and Mode
2. For a histogram and a frequency curve
skewed to the right (Figure 3.3), the
value of the mean is the largest, that of
the mode is the smallest, and the value of
the median lies between these two.
(Notice that the mode always occurs at
the peak point.) The value of the mean is
the largest in this case because it is
sensitive to outliers that occur in the right
tail. These outliers pull the mean to the
right.
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Figure 3.3 Mean, median, and mode for a histogram and
frequency curve skewed to the right.

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Relationships among the Mean, Median, and Mode

3. If a histogram and a distribution curve are

skewed to the left (Figure 3.4), the value
of the mean is the smallest and that of the
mode is the largest, with the value of the
median lying between these two. In this
case, the outliers in the left tail pull the
mean to the left.

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Figure 3.4 Mean, median, and mode for a histogram and
frequency curve skewed to the right.

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MEASURES OF DISPERSION FOR UNGROUPED
DATA

 Range
 Variance and Standard Deviation
 Population Parameters and Sample
Statistics

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Range

Finding Range for Ungrouped Data

Range = Largest value – Smallest Value

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Example 3-11

Table 3.4 gives the total areas in square

miles of the four western South-Central
states of the United States.
Find the range for this data set.

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Table 3.4

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Example 3-11: Solution

Range = Largest value – Smallest Value

= 267,277 – 49,651
= 217,626 square miles

Thus, the total areas of these four states

are spread over a range of 217,626 square
miles.

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Range
Disadvantages
 The range, like the mean has the
disadvantage of being influenced by
outliers. Consequently, the range is not a
good measure of dispersion to use for a
data set that contains outliers.
 Its calculation is based on two values only:
the largest and the smallest. All other
values in a data set are ignored when
calculating the range.
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Variance and Standard Deviation

 The standard deviation is the most used

measure of dispersion.

 The value of the standard deviation tells

how closely the values of a data set are
clustered around the mean.

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Variance and Standard Deviation

 In general, a lower value of the standard

deviation for a data set indicates that the
values of that data set are spread over a
relatively smaller range around the mean.

 In contrast, a large value of the standard

deviation for a data set indicates that the
values of that data set are spread over a
relatively large range around the mean.
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Variance and Standard Deviation

 The Variance calculated for population

data is denoted by σ² (read as sigma
squared), and the variance calculated for
sample data is denoted by s².

 The standard deviation calculated for

population data is denoted by σ, and the
standard deviation calculated for sample
data is denoted by s.

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Table 3.5

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Variance and Standard Deviation

Short-cut Formulas for the Variance and Standard

Deviation for Ungrouped Data
( x ) 2
( x)
2

x 2
−
N
x − n 2

 =
2
and s = 2

N n −1
where σ² is the population variance and s² is the
sample variance.

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Variance and Standard Deviation
Short-cut Formulas for the Variance and
Standard Deviation for Ungrouped Data

The standard deviation is obtained by taking

the positive square root of the variance.
Population standard deviation:  =  2
Sample standard deviation: s = s 2

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Example 3-12
The following table gives the 2008 market values
(rounded to billions of dollars) of five international
companies. Find the variance and standard
deviation for these data.

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Example 3-12: Solution
Let x denote the 2008 market value of a
company. The value of Σx and Σx2 are
calculated in Table 3.6.

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Example 3-12: Solution

( x )
2
(662)2
x 2
−
n
114,600 −
5 114,600 − 87,648.80
s2 = = = = 6737.80
n −1 5 −1 4
s = 6737.80 = 82.0841 = $82.08 billion

Thus, the standard deviation of the market

values of these five companies is $82.08
billion.
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Two Observations

1. The values of the variance and the

standard deviation are never negative.

2. The measurement units of variance are

always the square of the measurement
units of the original data.

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Example 3-13

Following are the 2009 earnings (in

thousands of dollars) before taxes for all six
employees of a small company.
88.50 108.40 65.50 52.50 79.80 54.60
Calculate the variance and standard
deviation for these data.

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Example 3-13: Solution
Let x denote the 2009 earnings before taxes
of an employee of this company. The value
of x and x2 are calculated in Table 3.7.

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Example 3-13: Solution

(  x)
2
(449.30)2
x 2
−
N
35,978.51 −
6
2 = = = 388.90
N 6
 = 388.90 = $19.721 thousand = $19,721

Thus, the standard deviation of the 2009

earnings of all six employees of this company is
$19,721.
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Population Parameters and Sample Statistics
 A numerical measure such as the mean,
median, mode, range, variance, or
standard deviation calculated for a
population data set is called a population
parameter, or simply a parameter.

 A summary measure calculated for a

sample data set is called a sample statistic,
or simply a statistic.

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MEAN, VARIANCE AND STANDARD DEVIATION
FOR GROUPED DATA

 Mean for Grouped Data

 Variance and Standard Deviation for
Grouped Data

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Mean for Grouped Data

Calculating Mean for Grouped Data

Mean for population data: =  mf

N

x=
 mf
Mean for sample data: n
where m is the midpoint and f is the frequency of
a class.
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Example 3-14
Table 3.8 gives the frequency distribution of
the daily commuting times (in minutes) from
home to work for all 25 employees of a
company.
Calculate the mean of the daily commuting
times.

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Table 3.8

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Example 3-14: Solution

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Example 3-14: Solution

=  mf
=
535
= 21.40 minutes
N 25

Thus, the employees of this company spend

an average of 21.40 minutes a day
commuting from home to work.

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Example 3-15

Table 3.10 gives the frequency distribution of

the number of orders received each day
during the past 50 days at the office of a
mail-order company. Calculate the mean.

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Table 3.10

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Example 3-15: Solution

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Example 3-15: Solution

x=
 mf
=
832
= 16.64 orders
n 50

Thus, this mail-order company received an

average of 16.64 orders per day during these 50
days.

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Variance and Standard Deviation for Grouped
Data
Short-Cut Formulas for the Variance and
Standard Deviation for Grouped Data
( mf ) 2
( mf )
2

m 2
f−
N
m f − n2

2 = and s 2 =
N n −1

where σ² is the population variance, s² is the

sample variance, and m is the midpoint of a
class.

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Variance and Standard Deviation for Grouped
Data

Short-cut Formulas for the Variance and

Standard Deviation for Grouped Data

The standard deviation is obtained by taking

the positive square root of the variance.
Population standard deviation:  =  2
Sample standard deviation: s = s2

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Example 3-16

Table 3.8 gives the frequency distribution of

the daily commuting times (in minutes) from
home to work for all 25 employees of a
company. Calculate the variance and
standard deviation.

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Table 3.8

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Example 3-16: Solution

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Example 3-16: Solution

( mf ) 2 (535) 2
 f−
m 2

N
14,825 −
25 3376
2 = = = = 135.04
N 25 25

 =  2 = 135.04 = 11.62 minutes

Thus, the standard deviation of the daily
commuting times for these employees is 11.62
minutes.
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Example 3-17

Table 3.10 gives the frequency distribution of

the number of orders received each day
during the past 50 days at the office of a
mail-order company. Calculate the variance
and standard deviation.

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Table 3.10

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Example 3-17: Solution

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Example 3-17: Solution
( mf ) 2 (832) 2
 f−
m 2

n
14,216 −
50 = 7.5820
s2 = =
n −1 50 − 1

s = s 2 = 7.5820 = 2.75 orders

Thus, the standard deviation of the number of

orders received at the office of this mail-order
company during the past 50 days in 2.75.
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USE OF STANDARD DEVIATION
 Chebyshev’s Theorem
 Empirical Rule

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Chebyshev’s Theorem
Definition
For any number k greater than 1, at least
(1 – 1/k²) of the data values lie within k
standard deviations of the mean.

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Figure 3.5 Chebyshev’s theorem.

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Figure 3.6 Percentage of values within two standard
deviations of the mean for Chebyshev’s theorem.

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Figure 3.7 Percentage of values within three standard
deviations of the mean for Chebyshev’s theorem.

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Example 3-18

The average systolic blood pressure for

4000 women who were screened for high
blood pressure was found to be 187 with a
standard deviation of 22. Using
Chebyshev’s theorem, find at least what
percentage of women in this group have a
systolic blood pressure between 143 and
231.

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Example 3-18: Solution

Let μ and σ be the mean and the standard

deviation, respectively, of the systolic blood
pressures of these women.
μ = 187 and σ = 22

143 - 187 = -44 231 - 187 = 44

143 μ = 187 231

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Example 3-18: Solution

The value of k is obtained by dividing the

distance between the mean and each point
by the standard deviation. Thus
k = 44/22 = 2

1 1 1
1 − 2 = 1 − 2 = 1 − = 1 − .25 = .75 or 75%
k (2) 4
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Example 3-18: Solution

Hence, according to Chebyshev's theorem,

at least 75% of the women have systolic
blood pressure between 143 and 231. this
percentage is shown in Figure 3.8.

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Figure 3.8 Percentage of women with systolic
blood pressure between 143 and 231.

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Empirical Rule

For a bell shaped distribution approximately

1. 68% of the observations lie within one standard
deviation of the mean
2. 95% of the observations lie within two standard
deviations of the mean
3. 99.7% of the observations lie within three
standard deviations of the mean

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Figure 3.9 Illustration of the empirical rule.

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Example 3-19

The age distribution of a sample of 5000

persons is bell-shaped with a mean of 40
years and a standard deviation of 12 years.
Determine the approximate percentage of
people who are 16 to 64 years old.

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Example 3-19: Solution
From the given information, for this
distribution,
x = 40 and s = 12 years
Each of the two points, 16 and 64, is 24
units away from the mean.
Because the area within two standard
deviations of the mean is approximately
95% for a bell-shaped curve, approximately
95% of the people in the sample are 16 to
64 years old.

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Figure 3.10 Percentage of people who are 16 to 64
years old.

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MEASURES OF POSITION

 Quartiles and Interquartile Range

 Percentiles and Percentile Rank

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Quartiles and Interquartile Range
Definition
Quartiles are three summery measures that
divide a ranked data set into four equal
parts. The second quartile is the same as the
median of a data set. The first quartile is the
value of the middle term among the
observations that are less than the median,
and the third quartile is the value of the
middle term among the observations that are
greater than the median.

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Figure 3.11 Quartiles.

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Quartiles and Interquartile Range

Calculating Interquartile Range

The difference between the third and first
quartiles gives the interquartile range;
that is,
IQR = Interquartile range = Q3 – Q1

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 7/E

Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons. All right reserved
Example 3-20
Refer to Table 3.3 in Example 3-5, which
gives the 2008 profits (rounded to billions
of dollars) of 12 companies selected from
all over the world. That table is
reproduced below.
a) Find the values of the three quartiles.
Where does the 2008 profits of Merck & Co
fall in relation to these quartiles?
b) Find the interquartile range.

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 7/E

Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons. All right reserved
Table 3.3

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 7/E

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Example 3-20: Solution
a)

By looking at the position of $8 billion, which is

the 2008 profit of Merck & Co, we can state that
this value lies in the bottom 25% of the profits
for 2008.
Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 7/E
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Example 3-20: Solution

b)
IQR = Interquartile range = Q3 – Q1
= 15.5 – 9.5
= $6 billion

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 7/E

Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons. All right reserved
 Example 3-21

The following are the ages (in years) of

nine employees of an insurance company:
47 28 39 51 33 37 59 24 33
a) Find the values of the three quartiles.
Where does the age of 28 fall in relation to
the ages of the employees?
b) Find the interquartile range.

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 7/E

Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons. All right reserved
Example 3-21: Solution
a) Values less than the median Values greater than the median

24 28 33 33 37 39 47 51 59

28 + 33 47 + 51
Q1 =
2 Q2 = 37 Q3 =
2
= 30.5 = 49

The age of 28 falls in the lowest 25% of the

ages.

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 7/E

Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons. All right reserved
Question 2: Find the first quartile, second quartile and third quartile of the given
information of the following sequence 4, 77, 16, 59, 93, 88 ?
Solution:

First, lets arrange of the values in an ascending order :

4, 16, 59, 77, 88, 93
Given n = 6
∴ Lower quartile = (n+14)th term

= (6+14)th term

= (74)th term

= 1.7 th term

Here we can consider the 2nd term (rounding 1.7 to nearest whole integer) from the
set of observation.
⇒ 2nd term = 16
Lower quartile = 16

Upper quartile = (3(n+1)4)th term

= (3(6+1)4)th term

= (214)th term

= 5.25th
Here we can consider the 5th term (rounding 5.25 to nearest whole integer) from
the set of observation.
⇒ 5.25th = 88
Upper quartile = 88

Inter - quartile = Upper quartile - lower quartile

= 88 - 16
= 72
Example 3-21: Solution

b)
IQR = Interquartile range = Q3 – Q1
= 49 – 30.5
= 18.5 years

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 7/E

Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons. All right reserved
Percentiles and Percentile Rank

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 7/E

Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons. All right reserved
Percentiles and Percentile Rank
Calculating Percentiles
The (approximate) value of the kth
percentile, denoted by Pk, is

 kn 
Pk = Value of the   th term in a ranked data set
 100 

where k denotes the number of the

percentile and n represents the sample
size.
Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 7/E
Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons. All right reserved
Example 3-22

Refer to the data on 2008 profits for 12

companies given in Example 3-20. Find the
value of the 42nd percentile. Give a brief
interpretation of the 42nd percentile.

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 7/E

Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons. All right reserved
Example 3-22: Solution
The data arranged in increasing order as follows:

7 8 9 10 11 12 13 13 14 17 17 45
The position of the 42nd percentile is

kn (42)(12)
= = 5.04th term
100 100

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 7/E

Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons. All right reserved
Example 3-22: Solution
The value of the 5.04th term can be
approximated by the value of the fifth term
in the ranked data. Therefore,
Pk = 42nd percentile = 11 = $11 billion
Thus, approximately 42% of these 12
companies had 2008 profits less than or
equal to $11 billion.

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 7/E

Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons. All right reserved
Percentiles and Percentile Rank

Finding Percentile Rank of a Value

Number of values less than xi

Percentilerank of xi = 100
Total number of values in the data set

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 7/E

Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons. All right reserved
Example 3-23

Refer to the data on 2008 profits for 12

companies given in Example 3-20. Find the
percentile rank for $14 billion profit of
Petrobras. Give a brief interpretation of this
percentile rank.

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 7/E

Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons. All right reserved
Example 3-23: Solution
The data on revenues arranged in increasing order
is as follows:
7 8 9 10 11 12 13 13 14 17 17 45

In this data set, 8 of the 12 values are less than

$14 billion. Hence,

8
Percentile rank of 14 =  100 = 66.67%
12

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 7/E

Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons. All right reserved
Example 3-23: Solution

Rounding this answer to the nearest integral

value, we can state that about 67% of the
companies in these 12 had less than $14
billion profits in 2008. Hence, 33% of these
12 companies had $14 billion or higher
profits in 2008.

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 7/E

Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons. All right reserved
BOX-AND-WHISKER PLOT
Definition
A plot that shows the center, spread, and
skewness of a data set. It is constructed by
drawing a box and two whiskers that use the
median, the first quartile, the third quartile,
and the smallest and the largest values in
the data set between the lower and the
upper inner fences.

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 7/E

Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons. All right reserved
Example 3-24
The following data are the incomes (in
thousands of dollars) for a sample of 12
households.

75 69 84 112 74 104 81 90 94 144 79 98

Construct a box-and-whisker plot for these

data.

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 7/E

Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons. All right reserved
Example 3-24: Solution
Step 1.

69 74 75 79 81 84 90 94 98 104 112 144

Median = (84 + 90) / 2 = 87

Q1 = (75 + 79) / 2 = 77
Q3 = (98 + 104) / 2 = 101
IQR = Q3 – Q1 = 101 – 77 = 24

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 7/E

Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons. All right reserved
Example 3-24: Solution

Step 2.

1.5 x IQR = 1.5 x 24 = 36

Lower inner fence = Q1 – 36 = 77 – 36 = 41
Upper inner fence = Q3 + 36 = 101 + 36 =
137

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 7/E

Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons. All right reserved
Example 3-24: Solution

Step 3.

Smallest value within the two inner fences = 69

Largest value within the two inner fences = 112

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 7/E

Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons. All right reserved
Example 3-24: Solution
Step 4.
Figure 3.13

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 7/E

Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons. All right reserved
Example 3-24: Solution
Step 5.
Figure 3.14 USES and MISUSES

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 7/E

Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons. All right reserved
TI-84

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 7/E

Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons. All right reserved
TI-84

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 7/E

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TI-84

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 7/E

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Minitab

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 7/E

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Minitab

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 7/E

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Minitab

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 7/E

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Minitab

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 7/E

Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons. All right reserved
Minitab

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 7/E

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Excel

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 7/E

Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons. All right reserved
Excel

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 7/E

Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons. All right reserved
Excel

Prem Mann, Introductory Statistics, 7/E

Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons. All right reserved