PH113: Physics (B.Tech.

I)
Module 4

Date: 30.01.2023

Lecture: 01

Dr. Anupam Roy 1

 PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)

Instructors: Dr. Kingshuk Bose and Dr. Anupam Roy, Dept of Physics, BIT Mesra.

Drop an e-mail: royanupam[AT]bitmesra[DOT]ac[DOT]in.

Class notes are based on the textbook: Arthur Beiser, Concept of Modern Physics, 6th edition 2009, Tata McGraw- Hill
 PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Syllabus
Module-1: Physical Optics
Polarization, Malus’ Law, Brewster’s Law, Double Refraction, Interference in thin films (Parallel films), Interference in wedge-shaped layers, Newton’s rings, Fraunhofer
diffraction by single slit, Double slit. Elementary ideas of fibre optics and application of fibre optic cables. [8]
Module-2: Electromagnetic Theory
Gradient, Divergence and Curl, Statement of Gauss theorem & Stokes theorem, Gauss’s law, Applications, Concept of electric potential, Relationship between E and V,
Polarization of dielectrics, dielectric constant, Boundary conditions for E & D, Gauss’s law in magnetostatics, Ampere’s circuital law, Boundary conditions for B & H,
Equation of continuity, Displacement current, Maxwell’s equations. [8]
Module-3: Special Theory of Relativity
Introduction, Inertial frame of reference, Galilean transformations, Postulates, Lorentz transformations and its conclusions, Length contraction, time dilation, velocity
addition, Mass change, Einstein's mass energy relation. [6]
Module-4: Quantum Mechanics
Planck's theory of black-body radiation, Compton effect, Wave particle duality, De Broglie waves, Davisson and Germer's experiment, Uncertainty principle, Brief idea of
Wave Packet, Wave Function and its physical interpretation, Schrodinger equation in one-dimension, free particle, particle in an infinite square well. [9]
Module-5: Modern Physics
Laser – Spontaneous and stimulated emission, Einstein's A and B coefficients, Population inversion, Light amplification, Basic laser action, Ruby and He-Ne lasers,
Properties and applications of laser radiation, Nuclear Physics- Binding Energy Curve, Nuclear Force, Liquid drop model, Introduction to Shell model, Applications of
Nuclear Physics, Concept of Plasma Physics, and its applications. [9]
Text books:
1: A. Ghatak, Optics, 4th Edition, Tata Mcgraw Hill, 2009
2: Mathew N.O. Sadiku, Elements of Electromagnetics, Oxford University Press ( 2001)
3: Arthur Beiser, Concept of Modern Physics, 6th edition 2009, Tata McGraw- Hill
4. F. F. Chen, Introduction to Plasma Physics and controlled Fusion, Springer, Edition 2016.
Reference books: 1: Fundamentals of Physics, Halliday, Walker and Resnick
Dr. Anupam Roy 3
 PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 4

Module -4 : Quantum Mechanics

Planck's theory of black-body radiation, Compton effect, Wave particle duality, De Broglie waves, Davisson and
Germer's experiment, Uncertainty principle, Brief idea of Wave Packet, Wave Function and its physical interpretation,
Schrodinger equation in one-dimension, free particle, particle in an infinite square well. [9]

Text book: T3: Arthur Beiser (AB), Concept of Modern Physics, 6th edition 2009, Tata McGraw- Hill
Reference book: R1: Fundamentals of Physics, Halliday, Walker and Resnick

Dr. Anupam Roy 4

 PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 4 (Quantum Mechanics)
Introduction
❑ Electromagnetic (EM) Wave: Coupled electric and magnetic oscillations that move with the speed of light and
exhibit typical wave behavior.
❑ We regard EM wave as waves because under suitable circumstances they exhibit diffraction, interference and
polarization (wave nature).
❑ Similarly, we shall see under other circumstances, EM waves behave as though they consist of streams of particles.
❑ It was found that the wave nature of light cannot explain several phenomena like black body radiation,
photoelectric effect, Compton effect, etc.
❑ The first sign appeared while trying to understand “black body” radiation.
❑ All bodies absorb and emit radiations (may or may not be in the visible range).
❑ At thermal equilibrium of a body with its surroundings, must absorb and radiate energy at the same rate, so as to
keep the temperature constant.

Dr. Anupam Roy 5

 PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 4 (Quantum Mechanics)
Black body radiation
❑ A black body absorbs ALL radiations that are incident on it.
❑ At thermal equilibrium of a body with its surroundings, it must absorb and emit
energy at the same rate.
❑ In lab, we can have a hollow object with a very small hole – radiation enters the
cavity through the hole – it is trapped by reflection back and forth until it is
absorbed – cavity wall is constantly emitting and absorbing radiation. This can be
approximated as the black body radiation.

❑ As per classical theory, a blackbody should radiate electromagnetic waves of ALL

frequencies, and the energy associated with the radiation INCREASES with
increase in frequency.

Ferry’s black body

Dr. Anupam Roy 6
 PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 4 (Quantum Mechanics)
Black body radiation
The Ultraviolet Catastrophe – Failure of Classical Physics
❑ Consider a one-dimensional cavity
❑ The standing wave must form nodes at two ends: at 𝑥 = 0 and at 𝑥 = 𝑎
❑ Different kinds of oscillations that satisfy this boundary condition are called the different
“modes” of the radiation
❑ Let us calculate the no. of modes having frequencies in the range 𝜈, 𝜈 + 𝑑𝜈 ≡ 𝑁 𝜈 𝑑𝜈
❑ Now, 𝜈 = 𝑐/𝜆, where 𝜆 = (2𝑎)/𝑛, where 𝑛 = 1,2, …. [𝑎 = 𝑛𝜆/2]
𝑐𝑛 2𝑎 2𝑎
❑ Using 𝜈 = 𝑐/𝜆 and 𝜆 = (2𝑎)/𝑛, we get, 𝜈 = , or, 𝑛 = 𝜈 => Δ𝑛 = Δ𝜈
2𝑎 𝑐 𝑐
❑ However, a light wave has two polarization directions.
2𝑎 4𝑎
❑ Hence actual Δ𝑛 = 2 × Δ𝜈 = Δ𝜈
𝑐 𝑐
4𝑎 4𝑎
❑ So, we get, 𝑑𝑛 = 𝑁 𝜈 𝑑𝜈 = 𝑑𝜈. (In the limit Δ𝑛 → 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 Δ𝜈 → 0) => 𝑁 𝜈 =
𝑐 𝑐 Dr. Anupam Roy 7
 PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 4 (Quantum Mechanics)
Black body radiation
The Ultraviolet Catastrophe – Failure of Classical Physics
❑ No. of modes having frequencies in the range 𝜈, 𝜈 + 𝑑𝜈 ≡ 𝑁 𝜈 𝑑𝜈. Now, 𝜈 = 𝑐/𝜆, where 𝜆 = (2𝑎)/𝑛, where 𝑛 =
1,2, …. [𝑎 = 𝑛𝜆/2].
𝑐𝑛 2𝑎 2𝑎
❑ Using 𝜈 = 𝑐/𝜆 and 𝜆 = (2𝑎)/𝑛, we get, 𝜈 = , or, 𝑛 = 𝜈 => Δ𝑛 = Δ𝜈. However, a light wave has two
2𝑎 𝑐 𝑐
2𝑎 4𝑎 4𝑎
polarization directions. Hence actual Δ𝑛 = 2 × Δ𝜈 = Δ𝜈. So, we get, 𝑑𝑛 = 𝑁 𝜈 𝑑𝜈 = 𝑑𝜈. In the limit
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐
4𝑎
Δ𝑛 → 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 Δ𝜈 → 0, 𝑁 𝜈 = .
𝑐

Dr. Anupam Roy 8

 PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 4 (Quantum Mechanics)
Black body radiation
The Ultraviolet Catastrophe – Failure of Classical Physics
❑ Now generalize to three-dimensional cavity:
8𝜋𝑎3 2
❑ For a cubic cavity of side “𝑎”, 𝑁 𝜈 𝑑𝜈 = 𝜈 𝑑𝜈.
𝑐3
8𝜋𝑉 2
❑ Considering the volume, 𝑉 (= 𝑎3), we rewrite 𝑁 𝜈 𝑑𝜈 = 𝜈 𝑑𝜈. This gives the total no. of modes in the cavity.
𝑐3
❑ What is the total energy?
❑ Average energy per mode can be shown to be 𝑘𝐵𝑇, where 𝑘𝐵 is the Boltzmann constant = 1.38 × 10-23 J/K and 𝑇 is
the temperature of the cavity (can be derived from the Equipartition Theorem of Statistical Mechanics).
1
❑ Every degree of freedom that appears quadratically in the total energy contributes an average energy of 𝑘𝐵𝑇 at
2
equilibrium.
1 1 1 1
❑ For simple harmonic oscillator, 𝐸 = 𝑘𝑥 2 + 𝑚𝑣 2 , So < 𝐸 > = 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 + 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 = 𝑘𝐵 𝑇
2 2 2 2

Dr. Anupam Roy 9

 PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 4 (Quantum Mechanics)
Black body radiation
The Ultraviolet Catastrophe – Failure of Classical Physics
8𝜋𝑎3 2
❑ For a three-dimensional cubic cavity of side “𝑎”, 𝑁 𝜈 𝑑𝜈 = 3 𝜈 𝑑𝜈. (Solve it!)
𝑐
8𝜋𝑉
❑ Considering the volume, V (= a3), we rewrite 𝑁 𝜈 𝑑𝜈 = 3 𝜈2 𝑑𝜈. This gives the total no. of modes in the cavity.
𝑐
❑ What is the total energy?
❑ Average energy per mode can be shown to be 𝑘𝐵𝑇, where 𝑘𝐵 is the Boltzmann constant = 1.38 × 10-23 J/K and 𝑇 is
the temperature of the cavity (can be derived from the Equipartition Theorem of Statistical Mechanics).
8𝜋𝑉 2
❑ (Considering energy per mode as 𝑘𝐵𝑇), the Total energy (in 𝜈 and 𝜈+𝑑𝜈) = 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 × 𝑁 𝜈 𝑑𝜈 = 𝜈 𝑘𝐵𝑇 𝑑𝜈
𝑐3
❑ Total energy density, 𝑢 𝜈 can be calculated by dividing the total energy by volume and d𝜈.
1 8𝜋𝑉 2 8𝜋𝑘𝐵 𝑇 2
❑ Total energy per unit volume in the frequency range 𝜈, 𝜈+𝑑𝜈 is 𝑢 𝜈 𝑑𝜈 = × 𝜈 𝑘𝐵𝑇 𝑑𝜈 = ( )𝜈 𝑑𝜈,
𝑉 𝑐3 𝑐3
8𝜋𝑘𝐵 𝑇 2
or, the energy density per unit frequency range, 𝑢 𝜈 = ( )𝜈 .
𝑐3
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 PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 4 (Quantum Mechanics)
Black body radiation
The Ultraviolet Catastrophe – Failure of Classical Physics
8𝜋𝑘𝐵 𝑇
❑ Total energy per unit volume in the frequency range 𝜈, 𝜈+𝑑𝜈 is 𝑢 𝜈 𝑑𝜈 = 𝜈 2 𝑑𝜈. This is known as the
𝑐3
Rayleigh-Jeans formula.
❑ 𝑢(𝜈) is the energy density (total energy per unit
8𝜋𝑘𝐵 𝑇
volume per unit frequency range) = 𝜈2.
𝑐3
❑ Energy density 𝑢(𝜈) is therefore parabolic in nature.
❑ The expression says, as the frequency 𝜈 increases
toward the ultraviolet end of the spectrum, energy
density should increase as 𝜈 2 . Hence, 𝑢 𝜈 →
∞ as 𝜈 → ∞.
❑ But, experiments show 𝑢 𝜈 → 0 as 𝜈 → ∞.
❑ This discrepancy is known as ultraviolet catastrophe of
classical physics. Dr. Anupam Roy 11
 PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 4

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Questions?
Dr. Anupam Roy 12