Part A

1. Define is Tribology? History of Tribology

Tribology is the science and technology of friction, lubrication, and

wear, derived from the Greek tribos meaning "rubbing". Formally, it is
defined as the science and technology of interacting surfaces in
relative motion and all practices related thereto. Webster’s dictionary
defines tribology as “a study that deals with the design, friction, wear,
and lubrication of interacting surfaces in relative motion (as in bearings
or gears).”

History of Tribology

• September 1964 -- Conference on Lubrication in Iron

and Steel Works in Cardiff (UK). Realization of
considerable losses due to lack of knowledge related
friction and wear of machine components.
• After this realization UK Minister of State for science
formed a committee to investigate the education,
research and the need of industry related to lubrication.
• Committee after deliberations concluded that only
lubrication engineering could not provide complete
solution to deal with friction and wear of machine
components. An interdisciplinary approach embracing
solid and fluid mechanics, chemistry, and material
science is essential. Since there was no word for such
new concept, a new name “Tribology” was coined in
1966.
• After 1966, the word “Tribology” has been used for:

1. Basic mechanisms governing interfacial behaviour.

2. Basic theories quantifying interfacial mechanisms.
3. Solutions to friction and wear problems.

Major breakthrough in tribological science came in 1981

with development of “Scanning tunneling microscope”
(STM) and systematic theory based on “Contact
mechanics”. Such developments provided tools to
predict and estimate the behaviour of a single asperity
 contact.
• Subsequent development of Atomic Force Microscope
(AFM) 1985 allowed measurement (surface topography,
friction force) of all engineering surfaces. Atomic Force
Microscope can be used for studies of adhesion,
scratching,
wear, lubrication, surface temperatures and
measurements of elastic/plastic mechanical properties.
• The developments of tip-based microscopes (STM &
AFM) and computational techniques for simulating tip-
surface interactions and interfacial properties, have
allowed systematic investigations for interfacial
problems. Modifying and manipulating surface
microstructure provide a bridge between science and
engineering.

2. Define lubrication ,briefly explain the properties of

lubrication.
Lubrication is the control of friction and wear by introducing a
friction-reducing film between moving surfaces in contact
properties of lubrication.

1. Viscosity
2. Flash Point and Fire Point
3. Cloud Point and Pour Point
4. Aniline Point
5. Corrosion Stability
Viscosity: The resistance to flow of liquid is known as viscosity. The
unit of viscosity is poise. It is the most important single property of any
lubricating oil because it is the main determinant of the operating
characteristics of the lubricant. If the viscosity of the oil is too low, a
liquid oil film between two moving/sliding surfaces cannot be
maintained. On the other hand, if the viscosity of the oil is too high,
excessive friction will result. Effect of temperature on viscosity: Viscosity
of liquids decreases with increasing temperature and, consequently,
the lubricating oil becomes thinner as the operating temperature
increases. Hence, viscosity of good lubricating oil should not change
much with change in temperature, so that it can be used continuously,
under varying conditions of temperature. The rate at which the
viscosity of lubricating oil changes with temperature is measured by an
arbitrary scale, known as Viscosity Index (V. I). If the viscosity of
lubricating oil falls rapidly as the temperature is raised, it has a low
viscosity index. On the other hand, if the viscosity of lubricating oil is
only slightly affected on raising the temperature, its viscosity index is
high.
Flash Point and Fire Point: Flash point is the lowest temperature at
which the lubricant oil gives off enough vapours that it would ignite for
a moment, when a tiny flame is brought near it; while Fire point is the
lowest temperature at which the vapours of the lubricant oil burn
continuously for at least five seconds, when a tiny flame is brought
near it. In most cases, the fire points are 5° C to 40° C higher than the
flash points. The flash and fire points do not have anything to do with
lubricating capacity of the oil, but these are important when oil is
exposed to high temperature conditions. A good lubricant should have
flash point at least above the temperature at which it is to be used.
This safeguards against fire risk during the use of lubricant.
Cloud Point and Pour Point: When the lubricant oil is cooled slowly, the
temperature at which it becomes cloudy or hazy in appearance, is
called its cloud point; while the temperature at which the lubricant oil
cease to flow or pour, is called its pour point. Cloud and pour points
indicate the suitability of lubricant oil in cold conditions. Lubricant oil
used in a machine working at low temperatures should possess low
pour point; otherwise, solidification of lubricant oil will cause jamming
of machine. It has been found that presence of waxes in the lubricant
oil raise pour point.
Aniline Point: The aniline point of the lubricant oil is defined as the
minimum equilibrium solution temperature for equal volumes of aniline
and lubricant oil samples. It gives an indication of the possible
deterioration of the lubricant oil in contact with rubber sealing, packing,
etc. Aromatic hydrocarbons tend to dissolve natural rubber and certain
types of synthetic rubbers. Consequently, low aromatic content in the
lubricant oil is desirable. A higher aniline point means a higher
percentage of paraffinic hydrocarbons and hence, a lower percentage
of aromatic hydrocarbons. Aniline point is determined by mixing
mechanically equal volumes of the lubricant oil samples and aniline in
a test tube. The mixture is heated, till homogenous solution is
obtained. Then, the tube is allowed to cool at a controlled rate. The
temperature at which the two phases (the lubricant oil and aniline)
separate out is recorded at the aniline point.
Corrosion Stability: Corrosion stability of the lubricant oil is estimated by
carrying out a corrosion test. A polished copper strip is placed in the
lubricant oil for a specified amount of time at a particular temperature.
After the stipulated time, the strip is taken out and examined for
corrosion effects. If the copper strip has tarnished, it shows that the
lubricant oil contains chemically active substances which cause the
corrosion of the copper strip. A good lubricating oil should not affect
the copper strip. To retard corrosion effects of the lubricant oil, certain
inhibitors are added to them. Commonly used corrosion inhibitors are
organic compounds containing P, As, Cr, Bi or Pb.
Part B
3. Define wear, types of wear
Wear may be defined as the progressive loss of substance from the
operating surface of a body occurring as a result of relative motion at
the surface.

types of wear
Wear classification schemes suggested by Siebel and Burwell,
respectively, are:
Wear can be classified
(i) in relation to the type of relative motion and the nature
of interacting surface and
(ii) In relation to the type of wear mechanism.
As per the first scheme, types of wear may be as follows:
1. Wear during sliding friction of dry surfaces.
2. Wear during sliding friction of lubricated surfaces.
3. Wear during rolling friction of dry surfaces.
4. Wear during rolling friction of lubricated surfaces.
5. Wear during oscillating contact.
 6. Wear by moving solid particles (erosion).
7. Wear by moving fluids (cavitation).
The above classification may not be meaningful in actual
situations, because sliding of metal against metal may
turn to metal against nonmetal or sliding of lubricated
contacts might become dry after certain period of
operation.
The second scheme given by Burwell2 is in relation to
wear mechanism. Under this scheme wear can be
classified as:
1. Adhesive wear
2. Abrasive wear
3. Corrosive wear
4. Surface fatigue wear.

Both the classifications do not seem to be perfect. None

of them do consider a few aspects, such
(i) The type of relative motion.
(ii) The interacting elements,
(iii) The principal wear mechanism,
(iv) The material properties relevant to wear,
(v) The wear rate, and
(vi) The appearance of the worn surfaces.

The types of wear are sometimes termed according to

the type of relative motion. The relative motion can be
sliding, rolling, impact or oscillation. The interfacial wear
acting during these motions can again be grouped
under:
(i) adhesion,
(ii) abrasion,
(iii) surface fatigue and
(iv) Tribo-chemical

In practice it is sometimes very difficult to determine

what type of interfacial wear mechanism acts in a given
situation. In pure sliding of metallic pair the adhesion and
abrasion type of wear occurs whereas during oscillation
fretting occurs along with all four basic mechanisms of
wear. In some situations one type of wear changes to
 another, namely, from adhesive to abrasive.

4 delamination theory of wear

This theory is based on the formation of surface, sub-

surface crack and void formation and subsequent joining
of cracks by shear deformation. The theory predicts that
the wear particle shape is thin flake like sheet and the
surface layer undergoes a large plastic deformation.
Finally a wear equation has been developed.
For deriving the wear equation, a circular wear track
produced in pin-on-disc type of wear test has been
considered. A schematic view of the metal removal layer
by layer is shown in Fig. 16.8.

The following assumptions were made in this connection:

(i) Metal wears layer by layer; each layer consists of N sheets.
(ii) The number of the wear sheets per layer is

proportional to the average number of asperities in

contact.
(iii) The rate of void and crack nucleation and the shear
deformation for loose particles can be expressed in
terms of sliding distance.
5. MEASUREMENT METHODS
The basic principle of any friction-measuring instrument is to place two
specimens together under a specified normal load and in relative
motion while the tangential force resisting motion is measured. Many
methods of varying specimen geometry, loading condition and resisting
force measurement are available. Different researchers use many
ingenious set-ups to investigate different specific cases.
1. Inclined Plane Rig
The simplest arrangement is the inclined plane test shown
in Fig.1. A specimen is placed on a flat plane whose
inclination with the horizontal is gradually increased until
the specimen on it starts sliding. If the inclination at this
moment be θ, then μs = tan θ. Obviously, this method is
incapable of evaluating friction in continuous sliding.

2. Pin-on-disk Rig
In continuous sliding cases, the rig based on pin-on-disk configuration
(Fig.2) is used. The pin is held stationary under a normal load while the
disk is made to rotate. The loading can be provided by simple dead
weight or by spring loading or hydraulic or pneumatic pressure. The
friction force is measured with the help of the calibrated tangential
movement of a capacitive or inductive transducer mounted on the
stationary specimen. For a multiple-pass arrangement, the pin is held
at a constant radial distance from the centre of the disk, but in a single-
pass arrangement it is moved radially during the experiment.
3.Conformal and Non-conformal Geometry Rig
The test rigs can be classified into two groups depending on the test
geometry: Conformal and non-conformal geometry test. In conformal
geometry test, the profiles of the two contacting surfaces are matched
carefully before the experiment is started. In this Case, the contact
pressure is moderate and normally held constant throughout the
experiment. The test may then be used to simulate the situations such
as brakes, thrust bearings, plane bearings, face seals, clutches, etc.
On the other hand, in non-conformal geometry test (with
spherically profiled pin) contact pressure is initially high because on
development loading contact is made at a single point, and with time,
pressure reduces due to of small wear scars. This can be used to
simulate the heavily loaded contacts such as gear teeth or to provide
accelerated tests of friction and wear of a number of candidate material
pairs for specified applications.