MINN2008A/MINN3013A

Introduction to Underground and Surface Mining Methods

Unit 1: Introduction to Mining

By: Isaac Mabala

 Topics
• What is mining? Definition, history, benefits, negative impacts, and operational challenges of
mining.
• Stages in a life cycle of a mine.
• Some important terminology and concepts related to mining.
• Main classification of deposits by shape.
• Underground versus Surface Mining Methods.
What is mining?
 What is mining?
• Mining is the process extracting rocks, minerals, and elements of
economic interest from the earth's crust.
• A rock - a solid collection of minerals and rocks are categorised into
three main groups, i.e. igneous, metamorphic-and sedimentary.
• A mineral - a collection of one or more elements packed together
orderly and repetitively to form a crystal structure.
• An element is a substance whose atoms have the same atomic
number and cannot be decomposed into simpler substances by
ordinary chemical processes.
 What is mining?

http://ratw.asu.edu/
What is mining?
 What is mining?
• The earth’s crust (made up of solid rocks and minerals) varies in thickness from 5
km - 75 km

• The world’s deepest mine (Mponeng Gold Mine, near Carletonville, South Africa) is
only mining at depths of 4 km.

• The potential for asteroid or space mining is in its infancy stages and not yet
explored.

• The potential to continue mining by developing new methods and techniques to

mine beyond our current physical constraints is limitless.

• We need to relook at the definition of mining in light of the potential to mine

beyond the earth’s crust.
 What is mining?
• Extraction of minerals has
always been a part of human
history since the stone ages (3.3
million – 5000 years ago).

• The oldest evidence of a mine is

found at Lion Cavern Mine
(dated at-least 43 000 years) at
Ngwenya mountain in Swaziland
where Haematite (red ochre)
was mined for cosmetic and
ritual purposes.
 Importance of Mining
Platinum

• Catalyst converters for automobiles,

• Hard discs and thermocouples in the electronics industry,

• Fibre optic cables, fibreglass, LCDs,

• Turbine blades,

• Spark plugs,

• Pacemakers, dental fillings, chemotherapy,

• Catalyst in fertilizers and explosives,

• Fuel cells,

• Jewellery, etc.
 Importance of Mining
Gold

• Small amount is found almost every

electronic device,

• Treatment of rheumatoid arthritis,

• As a radiation source in certain cancer

treatments,

• In aerospace circuits,

• Temperature stabilisation of spacecrafts,

• Lubricant between mechanical parts of

space vehicles, etc.
 Importance of Mining
Coal

• Power generation,

• Cement production,

• Steel production,

• Carbon fibres and foams,

• Treatment of psoriasis and eczema,

• Tars – binders in asphalt and cement products, preservative of wood products,

• Synthetic petroleum-based fuels, etc.

 Importance of Mining
Copper

• Computer chips,

• Cabling and wiring, plumbing,

• Smartphone displays,

• Car parts,

• Heat exchange in industrial machines,

• Roofing, etc.
 Importance of Mining
Cobalt

• Rechargeable battery electrodes,

• Making of magnets,

• Jet and gas turbines for temperature

resistance,

• Electroplating,

• Treatment of cancer,

• Food preservation,

• Catalysts for the petroleum and chemical

industries, etc.

Iron ore

• Production of steel, etc.

 Importance of Mining
Manganese

• Gives glass a clear finish,

• Steel production,

• Reducing the octane rating in fuel, etc.

Limestone

• Steel manufacturing,

• Cement manufacturing,

• Paper production,

• Water treatment and purification,

• Soil conditioning,

• Plastic production, etc.

 Importance of Mining
Aluminium
• Huge variety of products including cans, foils, kitchen utensils, window frames,
beer kegs and aeroplane parts,
• Electrical transmission lines, etc.

Nickel

• plating other metals to protect them from corrosion,

• In toasters and oven (nichrome),

• Used in batteries,

• Catalyst for hydrogenating vegetable oils,

• Adding green colour to glass, etc.

 Importance of Mining
Chrome ore
• Manufacture of stainless steel,
• Grey cast iron,
• Iron-free high-temperature alloys,
• Chromium plating for surface protection, etc.

Bauxite
• Production of alumina and aluminium metal,
• Catalyst in the oil industry, etc.
https://technologystudent.com/despro_3/aluminium1.html

Zinc
• Used to galvanise other metals, such as iron, to prevent rusting;
• Die-castings for the automobile, electrical and hardware industries, etc.
 Importance of Mining
• Mining also contributes to economies of countries through:

o Job creation,

o Tax revenue,

o Foreign exchange earnings and,

o Infrastructure development.
 Importance of Mining
In the South African context, the mining industry contributed to the economy as
follows in 2022:

• R1.18 trillion of mineral production value.

• Employed 475 560 people.
• Paid R74 billion in mining company taxes and R 15 billion rands in royalties.
• Contributed 7.53% (R494 billion) to the gross-domestic product.
• R878 billion rands to export value. (Minerals Council of South Africa, 2022)
 Importance of Mining
What will happen if we suddenly stopped mining?

Watch this interesting videos:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e_A2Od45MeM

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JXoQQB0_3SM
 Importance of Mining

So what is the job of a mining

engineer?
 Negative Impacts of Mining
• Despite the positives of mining, the industry can also pose negative
effects such as:

o Environmental degradation,

o Displacement of communities,

o Abuse of human rights and,

o Resource curse.
 Negative Impacts of Mining
Environmental degradation
 Negative Impacts of Mining
Displacement of communities

The exploitation of Newmont’s Ahafo gold

deposits led to the dispossession of ancestral
land by farmers and communities. 9,500
Ghanaians were relocated, mostly subsistence
farmers. Yet their relocation did not imply they
have access to the same means of livelihood
(water resources, level of crops’ yields, fish
ponds etc.), as before.
 Negative Impacts of Mining
Abuse of human rights
 Negative Impacts of Mining
Resource curse
• Refers to a paradoxical situation in which countries with more natural resources
underperform economically.
• Most capital and labour is concentrated in just a few resource-dependent industries.
• Resulting in inadequate investments in other sectors.
• Countries can become vulnerable to declines in commodity prices, leading to long-run
economic underperformance.
• Good read: The Economics of Exhaustible Resources (Harold Hotelling).
 Operational Challenges of Mining
Furthermore, the industry also faces major challenges with regards to:

• Shortage of skills,
• Under- investment,
• Geopolitical risks,
• Low productivity,
• Low grade deeper and more complex orebodies,
• Volatile markets,
• Spiralling operating costs and high capital costs,
• Health and safety,
• Energy supply,
• Logistical challenges,
• Climate change, etc.
 Operational Challenges of Mining
• Therefore, to fully harness the full potential from mining, it should be carried out:

• “In such a way that maximum return can be realised from exploiting the orebody’.

• This can be achieved through addressing the inherent operational challenges

mentioned above, as well as

• “ensuring responsible and sustainable practices that protect the environment and
benefit local communities.”

• Understanding different mining methods and selecting the optimal method for exploiting a
particular mineral is critical to ensure full potential and long-term sustainability of any mine.
 Stages in the life cycle of a mine
There are five stages which define the life cycle of a mine. These are:

i. Prospecting: the search for a mineral deposit through studying of outcrops, geological studies, use of
aerial photography, geological maps, geochemical studies and geophysical studies. (1- 3 years)
ii. Exploration: Defining the extent and value of the ore through sampling (drilling/excavation). Carrying-
out assays, estimation of grade and tonnages, valuating the deposit, feasibility study and ultimately
deciding on whether to abandon the project or continue to mine (2-3 years)
iii. Development: Opening up the ore deposit before the exploitation commences. Access to the orebody
can be through the removing the soil/rock covering the deposit (i.e., stripping the overburden) or
excavating openings from surface to access deep deposits underground (i.e. shaft sinking). Construction
of surface infrastructure such as access roads, processing plant, change houses, offices, etc. is also done.
All necessary pending permits are finalised. (2-5 years)
iv. Extraction: Involves large scale-production (mining) of ore. The ore is subsequently processed,
transported and sold to markets. (10-30 years)
v. Reclamation: Restoration of site. This includes removal of plant and buildings; reclamation of
waste/tailings dumps and monitoring. (1-10 years)
 Stages in the life cycle of a mine
Prospecting
 Stages in the life cycle of a mine
Exploration

https://www.911metallurgist.com/blog/fire-assay
 Stages in the life cycle of a mine
Development

http://www.mancala.com.au/Shaft%20Sinking.html

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cvcn9R88xRk
 Stages in the life cycle of a mine
Extraction

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235686593_Integrated_Operations_Re-
Scheduling_from_Mine_to_Ship
 Stages in the life cycle of a mine
Reclamation

https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/45415
a) The original Jarrahdale crusher circle before its closure in 1998,
and b) the same crusher circle site at Jarrahdale, after rehabilitation
has been completed (Alcao 2012)

https://www.wesizwe.co.za/sustainability-human-
capital-detail.php?Portable-Skills-4
 Pre-requisite mining terminology and concepts
An ore body is a region of natural concentration of valuable metallic or non-metallic material (ore) that can
be extracted and sold at a profit.

A reef is a term primarily used in hard-rock mining, referring to the host rock within which a particular
valuable mineral that can be profitably mined is found.
 Pre-requisite mining terminology and concepts
The grade of an orebody is the concentration of the desired material it contains (e.g., amount in
grams of the valuable material in a ton of ore, % of the valuable material).
 Pre-requisite mining terminology and concepts
Overburden - the layer of rock, soil, and other material that lies above the ore or mineral
deposit being mined.

Waste - barren rock or rock of too low a grade to be mined economically.

 Pre-requisite Mining Terminology and Concepts
Outcrop - the ore literally cropped out at the surface level.
 Pre-requisite mining terminology and concepts
Dip - an angle at which an ore deposit in inclined from the horizontal.
Strike- main horizontal course or direction of a mineral deposit.
 Pre-requisite mining terminology and concepts
Shaft - a vertical or inclined excavation in rock for the purpose of providing access to an
orebody. Usually equipped with a hoist at the top, which lowers and raises a conveyance for
handling workers and materials.

Drift - a horizontal underground opening that follows along the length of an ore deposit.
 Pre-requisite mining terminology and concepts
Adit - an opening driven horizontally into the side of a mountain or hill for providing access to a
mineral deposit.
 Pre-requisite mining terminology and concepts
Tunnel - a horizontal underground opening.
 Pre-requisite mining terminology and concepts
Fold - any bending or wrinkling of rock strata.

Fault - a break in the Earth's crust caused by tectonic forces which have moved the rock on one
side with respect to the other.

https://forestrybloq.com/fault-fold-and-joints-and-their-differences/
 Classification of main ore deposits by shape
• Narrow Tabular Reefs – A is a type of ore deposit that is characterized by a flat or nearly flat
shape, with a relatively uniform thickness and large lateral extent.

Sibanye (2016)
Classification of main ore deposits by shape
 Classification of main ore deposits by shape
• Stratified Deposit: A stratified deposit is a type of ore deposit that is characterized by the
concentration of minerals within specific layers or beds of the rock.
 Classification of main ore deposits by shape
• Massive Deposit: A massive deposit is a type of ore deposit that is characterized by a large,
homogeneous body of mineralization that is relatively uniform in composition and texture.
Classification of main ore deposits by shape
Classification of main ore deposits by shape
Classification of main ore deposits by shape
 Classification of main ore deposits by shape
• Vein Deposit: A vein-type deposit is a fairly well-
defined zone of mineralization, usually inclined
and discordant (cuts across the existing
bedding), which is typically narrow relative to its
length and depth.

• They are formed by the deposition of minerals

from hydrothermal fluids in faults, fissures or
shear zones within host rocks.

• Typically mined using massive mining

methods.

• E.g. gold lodes.

A quartz vein, prominent from
the surrounding weathered rock
at Cape Jervis, South Australia
Classification of main ore deposits by shape
Classification of main ore deposits by shape
 Underground versus Surface mining
Surface Mining - A process of extracting valuable material from the ground utilizing surface
equipment. Common surface mining methods include:

• Open pit Mining

• Strip Mining

• Quarrying

• Dredging

https://www.911metallurgist.com/blog/open-pit-mining
 Underground versus Surface mining
• Underground mining - opening one or more shafts into and through the earth in
order to follow or intercept the orebody in order to extract valuable material from
the ground in cases where it is too deep for surface mining methods. Underground
mining can be divided into two broad categories based on the type of deposit
being mined:
o Hard rock:
 Tabular (scattered breast mining, up-dip mining, down-dip, mini-longwall)
 Massive (Room-and-pillar, cut-and-fill, sub-level open-stoping, sublevel
stoping, vertical crater retreat stoping, vein mining, shrinkage stoping,
block caving, sub-level caving)
o Soft rock (Longwall, room-and-pillar)
 Underground versus Surface Mining Methods
• Underground mining
Factors for deciding on surface vs underground
• Size of ore body:
o Cannot merely be defined as the dimensions (volume) of the deposit.
o Varies depending on the type of commodity concerned.
o Affected by the cut-off grade.
o Cut-off grade - grade where costs = income.
o Cut-off grade is in turn influenced by market conditions.
• The shapes of ore bodies with respect to mining method selection are usually categorised as
narrow tabular reefs, stratified seams, massive and veins in the South African context.
• The depth of a deposit can be classified as (over generalisation):
o Shallow (usually less than 300 m),
o Moderate (typically 300 - 1000m) or
o Deep (usually above 1000m).
Factors for deciding on surface vs underground
Geologic structure and geo-mechanical conditions:
• Geological structures are deformations in a rock mass (e.g., folds, faults, joints).
• Geo-mechanical conditions refer to rock properties that influence how rocks would behave
under stress (e.g., rock strength, elastic modulus).
• Geologic structures and geo-mechanical conditions affect the stability of opening.

Mining cost:
• Operating costs focus on the day-to-day running of a mine.
• can be divided into fixed and variable costs.
• Variable costs vary with the tonnage produced, e.g., fuel, explosives, and electricity costs.
• Fixed costs are independent of the tonnage produced, e.g., labour costs.
• Generally, operating costs are expressed in total costs per ton of ore mined.
Factors for deciding on surface vs underground
Capital investment:
• Capital costs in mines can be split into start-up (initial) and stay-in-business (working)
capital costs.
• Start-up costs focus mainly on accessing the orebody, infrastructure (mining and
beneficiation), equipment, environmental compliance, and licensing costs.

Safety:
• Safety is a state in which hazards and conditions leading to physical, psychological, or
material harm are controlled in order to preserve the health and well-being of individuals
and the community.

Environmental risk:
• The potential of mining to cause environmental damage such erosion of land, destruction of
flora and fauna, sinkholes, contamination of water, etc.
Factors for deciding on surface vs underground
Production rate:

• Production rate in the number of tonnes mined during a specific period (e.g., day, month,
year). Can be measured as t/month or t/year, etc.

Productivity:

• Productivity is defined as the ability to turn inputs (resources) into outputs.

Development rate:

• The development rate refers to the rate at which underground or surface access and
infrastructure is constructed to facilitate mining operations.
 Factors for deciding on surface vs underground
Selectivity:

• The ability to extract the valuable mineral resource while minimizing the amount of waste
material that is extracted and processed.

• Aiming to extract only the highest-grade ore while leaving lower-grade material behind

• Reduces the amount of waste material that needs to be processed and disposed of, as well as
reduce the overall environmental impact of the mining operation.

Flexibility:

• Flexibility refers to the ability of a mining operation to adjust to:

o Changes in market demand,

o Ore grade or ,

o Other factors that may impact the profitability or sustainability of the operation.
 Factors for deciding on surface vs underground
Climate:
Weather conditions prevailing in an area in general or over a long period.

Recovery (Extraction %):

• The percentage of valuable minerals or metals that are successfully mined from the ore body
and subsequently processed into a saleable product.
• It can be calculated as follows:

Dilution:
• mixing of valuable mineral material with waste or lower-grade material during the mining
process.
• This can result in a decrease in the overall grade or quality of the ore that is extracted,
• which can impact the profitability of the mining operation.
Factors for deciding on surface vs underground
• Dilution can be classified in terms of where it occurs:
o Internal dilution occurs within a mining block in which pockets of waste are unable to
be separated and are mined with the block.
o External dilution is the waste outside of the orebody that is mined within the block.

• Dilution can be calculated using this formula:

 Factors for deciding on surface vs underground
The following should be considered when determining dilution:
• Geological Reserves (Tg): The tonnage of ore above the cut-off grade.
• Planned Waste (Wp): Rock with a lower mineralization content than the cut-off grade within slope
limits.
• Mining Reserves (Tm): The ore tonnage within the planned stope limits
• Unplanned Waste (Wu): Rock with a lower mineralization content than the cut-off grade, coming from
beyond the planned stope limits.
• Total Waste: Rock which includes mineralization below the cut-off grade.
• Run of Mine Ore (Tt): The tonnage generally sent to the mill, Tg + Wp + Wu.
 Have you met the objectives?
Can you:
• …describe the broad concept of mining including the history, benefits, negative impacts and
operational challenges of mining?
• …summarise key activities in the stages of a life of a mine?
• …explain common terminology and basic concepts of mining as well as geological aspects
that pertain to mining method selection?
• …differentiate between underground and surface mining methods in terms of the general
mining approach as well as based on key factors used to distinguish between the two
methods?
 Tutorial 1
In your groups, compare underground and mining methods based on these 14
factors. You will need to do some research and summarise your findings.

You will need to do some literature research and summarise your findings in a table
format. You must cite and reference your sources. Follow the Harvard referencing
style.

Marks will be allocated as follows:

• Each correct comparison: 1 x 2 Marks = 28 Marks
• Referencing = 12 Marks
Total = 40 Marks

Submission on Ulwazi by end of Tutorial 1 on the 6th March at 16:00.