Girne American University

REDUCTION OF THE EMBODIED

CARBON DIOXIDE (eCO2)

Faculty of Engineering

Civil Engineering Department

By
Ragbir Mwinibola Mulangu

Hermine Mayumbu Atubuna

Nathan Maniema Makwala

Hamdoon Qatra

5/06/2022
Cyprus / Girne
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First and foremost, we thank God for the blessing and bounty for leading us
to this successful destination of life.

We also have to thank our families, whose many bleedings have made us
inspired and be as we are today.

All respect and kind regards for our head of department, supervisor, Dr.
Kezban Özlütaş for her guidance and encouragement throughout the courses
and this graduation project.

Finally, our big thanks to our dear friends for their accompaniment through
our path in the civil engineering department.

1
 Abstract

The project is a two-story residential building. This project consists of two

main sections. The first section includes manual and computer softwares
designs and calculations of the main structural elements. While the second
section is about minimizing the embodied carbon dioxide research and
calculations. Our group members have faced different cases to be studied in
this project.

2
Table of Contents

1.Introduction … .………………………………………………………….8
2.The aim and methodology of the project……………………………….9
2.1 The aim of the project ...……………………………………………….9
2.2 The methodology....…………………………………………………….9
3. Autocad work……………………………………………………………10
3.1.Overview…...………………………………………………………….10
3.2 The benefit of the autocad...…………………………………………10
3.3 Plans ....………………………………………………………………..11
3.3.1 Ground floor plan….………………………………………………..11
3.3.2 First floor plan ….….…………………………………………...…12
3.3.3 Framing plan ….….……………………………………………….12
4. Etabs work ….…………………………………………………………13
4.1 VIews 3D exterior view….……………………………………………15
4.2 Plan column. ..………………………………………………………...16
4.3 Loads types……………………………………………………………16
4.3.1 Dead load……………………………………………………………17
4.3.2 Live load……………………………………………………………..17
4.4 Column design………………………………………………………...18
4.5 Beam design…………………………………………………………..26
4.6 Slab design…………………………………………………………….28
4.7 Seismic design …....………………………………………………..34
4.7.1 Introduction ….…………………………………………………….34
4.7.2 Parameters ….…………………………………………………….34
4.7.2.1 Materiels ….……………………………………………………..35
4.7.2.2 Seismic load ….…………………………………………………35
4.7.2.3 Used loads ………………………………………………………..35
4.7.3 Auto seismic loading ….…………………………………………35
5. Safe …. ………………………………………………………………..42
5.1 Overview ………………………………………………………………43
5.2 General information ………………………………………………….43
5.2.1 Fondation matt thickness ………………………………………….43
5.2.2 Materials …………………………………………………………….43
5.2.4 Load combination ……………………………………………….43
5.3 Design …………………………………………………………………44
5.3.1 Soil subgrade property and materials ……………………………44

3
5.3.2 Soil pressure ………………………………………………………..45
5.3.3 Punching shear capacity ….….……………………………….46
5.3.4 Requirement bars sections …. ………………………………….47
5.3.5 Requirement bars sections diagram ……………………………..48
6.Reducing the carbon in building ………………………………………49
6.1 Massing of the building ………………………………………………51
6.2 Orientation of the building ………………………………………...…51
6.3 Landscape strategies ………………………………………………..51
6.4 Passive ventilation …………………………………………………...52
6.4.1 Passive heating/ cooling …………………………………………..52
6.4.2 Windows of the building …………………………………………...53
6.4.3 High performance glazing …………………………………………54
6.4.4 Insulation materials ….…………………………………………..54
6.5 Active design system ………………………………………………...55
6.5.1 HVAC system ……………………………………………………….56
7.Mix design ……………………………………………………………….56
7.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………………56
7.1.1 Nominal mix ………………………………………………………...57
7.1.2 Design mix ………………………………………………………….57
7.1.2.1 Materials emitting CO2…………………………………………..57
7.1.2.1.1 Fly Ash…………………………………………………………..58
7.1.2.1.2 Ground Granulated Blast-furnace Slag………………………59
7.1.2.1.3. Glass …………………………………………………………...60
7.1.2.1.4 Silica Fume……………………………………………………..60
7.2 Embodied carbon dioxide calculations ………………………….62
7.3 The amount of CO2 embodied in a concrete mix ……………...62
7.4 Renewable energy.…………………………………...………………64
7.4.1 Solar panel…………………………………………………………..64
7.5 Materials used ……………………………………………………..65
8. Conclusion and recommendation ……………………………………65
References……………………………………………………………………

4
 List Of Table

Table 1: Loads Types ……...……………………………………………. 14

Table 2: Dead load ….………………………………………...….15
Table 3: Columns Parameters .……………………………….….17
Table 4: Span U-D …………………………………………….…..29
Table 5: Support U-D .………………………………………….….29
Table 6: Span V-D .………………………………………………...30
Table 7: Lateral load . .……………………………………………..31
Table 8: Story Force X-D …………………………………………33
Table 9: Story Force Y-D . . ...…………………………………………35
Table 10: PC 100% use ……………………………………….….52
Table 11: mix of 70% PC & 30% FA ..….………………………….…52

5
 Table Of Figure

Figure 1: 3D VIEW-02………………………………..……..……………9
Figure 2: 3D VIEW-02……………………………….………..…………10
Figure 3: 3D VIEW-02..……………………………………….…………10
Figure 4: 3D VIEW-01..……………………………………….…………13
Figure 5: 3D VIEW-02..……………………………………….…............13
Figure 6: Plan columns for all floor..……………………………………14
Figure 7: Plan columns for second floor…………………….…………...17
Figure 8: C4 Column Layout……………………………….….………...19
Figure 9: Column C4(40x40) for storey 1..…………………..……….….20
Figure 10: C4 First Floor Column..……………………………..………..21
Figure 11: C4 Column Layout…………………………...……………….22
Figure 12: Column C4(40x40)...................................................................23
Figure 13: Beam B9(20x40) Layout……………………………...……...24
Figure 14: Beam Reinforcement and Dimensions………………...….….25
Figure 15: Slab: C25, S420 Layout………………………………………26
Figure 16: Steel and Repartition………………………………………….30
Figure 17: Lateral Force in X Direction ………………………………………….……33
Figure 18: Lateral Force in Y Direction …………………………………35
Figure 19: Raft model……………………………………………….. …..37
Figure 20: Deformed Shape (Displacements)............................................38
Figure 21: Pressure Of Soil……………………………………………….39
Figure 22: Punching Shear Capacity…………………………………...…40
Figure 23: Requirement bar in X-Section………………………...……….41
Figure 24: Requirement bar in Y-Section……………………………..…..41
Figure 25: Rebar Layout X-Direction……..…..……………………….…42
Figure 26: Rebar Layout Y-Direction…………..…...……………….……42
Figure 27: Building Orientation …………………..…………………………………….…..45
Figure 28: Strategie Landscape………….……………………………...…45

6
Figure 29: Passive ventilation/………………………………………………………………46
Figure 30: Heating..……………………………………………………….47
Figure 31: Cooling ………………………….…………………………….47
Figure 32: Material Insulation ……………………….…………………...48
Figure 33: Mixing concrete………………………………..………………50
Figure 34: Concrete producing procedure………………………..………..51

7
1. INTRODUCTION

Reports are a way used to summarize a document or a piece of papers to show

the results, tables, and figures. For engineers, reports are vital for their
careers. This report, the graduation project report, is about Reducing
embodied carbon dioxide of construction phases in buildings which includes
the design of the main elements of the building and the calculations needed to
make the building a minimized embodied carbon dioxide building.

The structure is a residential building and has an area of 84.36 m2 which is

11.4 x 7.4 m, and it is located in the northern part of Cyprus in Lapta. The
building is a multi-story, as mentioned above, which contains two stories. The
height of each typical story is 3m and for the plinth 1m. The Plans and
elevations are inserted in the appendix.
As mentioned above, the report includes the design of the main elements of
the building such as columns, beams, and slabs. More information will be
given in the next section.

Energy demand and CO2 emission’s reductions:

Most of the energy used today is produced from fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural
gas), and a direct consequence of using these fuels is that greenhouse gasses
are released into the atmosphere, with one of the most significant being CO2
(carbon dioxide). These gasses, absorbed then emitted with infrared radiation,
contribute to global warming and climate change. In response to this threat,
governments across the world have committed to reduce their greenhouse
gasses emissions and increase renewable energy productions.

In addition to the design, low embodied carbon dioxide calculations will be

done in the second section. The calculations include a concrete mix design
which yields the quantities of cement content, water content, and aggregates.
To compute the total concrete quantity a simple bill of quantity is done. In
addition to concrete, the electricity is generated by solar panel system which
helps the building to achieve the reduced carbon dioxide emission
requirements, so the number of panels and how they are working are
explained in this section.

8
2. THE AIM & METHODOLOGY OF THE PROJECT

2.1 The Aim of the Project

Structural design is the methodical investigation of the stability, strength and

rigidity of structures. The basic objective in the structural analysis and design
is to produce a structure capable of resisting all applied loads without failure
during its intended life. The primary purpose of a structure is to transmit or
support loads. Aligning with our topic, the assessment of the embodied
carbon dioxide would be done as well. If the structure is improperly designed
or fabricated, or if the actual applied loads exceed the design specifications,
the device will probably fail to perform its intended function, with possible
serious consequences. A well-engineered structure greatly minimizes the
possibility of costly failures.

2.2 The Methodology

We can summarize the whole work of the project into five stages as follows:

⦁ Stage 1: We'll prepare the architectural drawings by using AutoCAD

software.
⦁ Stage 2: Modeling the structure using ETABS software
⦁ Stage 3: Define all the parameters, materials, location of the building and
apply loads.
⦁ Stage 4: We'll prepare the foundation model using SAFE software and
analyze it.
⦁ Stage 5: Embodied carbon dioxide calculation

9
3. AutoCAD WORK

3.1 Overview:

AutoCAD is a computer-aided software drafting tool. Main purpose of

autocad is to present your work imagination with calculated and specific
measurements. It develops its works in both 2D and 3D formats and provides
the information to the designer.
It is very easy to use, time saving, accurate and hassle free.
AutoCad holds anywhere close to 75% of the market share.

3.2 Benefits of the AutoCAD:

⦁ Increase in the productivity of the designer

⦁ 3D Modelling
⦁ Improve the quality of the design
⦁ Creating documentation of the designing
⦁ Creating the database for manufacturing
⦁ Saving of design data and drawings
⦁ Storage and accessibility
⦁ Speed
⦁ Accuracy
AutoCAD 2020, version has enhanced following features.
⦁ PDF import : Import geometry, including SHX font files, fills, raster
images, and TrueType text into a drawing from a PDF
⦁ External file references: Save time and minimize frustration with tools to
fix broken paths for externally referenced files.
⦁ Object selection: Selected objects stay in the selection set, even if you
pan or zoom off screen.
⦁ Text to Mtext: Convert combinations of text and Mtext objects to a single
Mtext object.
⦁ User interface: Work intuitively with common dialog boxes and toolbars.
⦁ Share design views: Publishes design views of your drawing to a secure
location for viewing and sharing in a web browser.
⦁ High-resolution monitor support: Enjoy the best possible viewing
experience ever, even on 4K and higher resolution displays.

10
⦁ AutoCAD mobile app: View, create, edit, and share CAD drawings on
your mobile device with the AutoCAD mobile app

3.3 PLANS

3.3.1 Ground floor plan

Figure1: 3D VIEW-02

11
 3.3.2 First floor plan

Figure 2: 3D VIEW-02

3.3.3 Framing plan

Figure 3: 3D VIEW-02

12
4. ETABS WORK

A. ETABS allows use of graphic inputs and modifications for the sake of easy
and quick model creation for any type of structure.
B. Creation of 3D models with the utilization of plan views and elevations,
3D models of any kind of complex structure can be created easily.
C. With the help of similar story concept, creation of 3D models is very easy
and quicker. If the stories are similar then the model generation time can be
reduced multiple times through similar story concepts.
D. Editing a model is very easy. Moving any object from one position to
another, combining two or more objects using merge command, making a
similar object using Mirror command and making a copy of any object in the
same level of different story levels.
E. Drawing of object with most accuracy using snap command consisting of
end, perpendicular and middle or some other options.
F. Creation of objects is very quick for any type of object like beam, column,
slab, wall etc. with one mouse click.
G. Easy navigation through multiple viewing of windows. This feature allows
you to create or edit your model very easily with a real time view.
H. Creating your model and editing has been easy through 3D view with
different types of zoom options as well as panning commands for moving the
whole model easily without any rotation.
I. Different view options of the 3D model including plan view, any side
elevation view, and also customization view created by the modeler.
J. Graphical insertion of sectional dimension of any kind of shape and
material through section designer. Almost all types of shapes of various
members are available in this program.
K. Geometry of model copying and pasting feature from and to spreadsheets
L. Exporting capability of the model geometry to .dxf files can be used in
different working aspects.
M. Connection with EC-Praxis 3J which allows analysis and design for the
steel structure connections.
N. Automatic consideration of self weight of material has made it easy to
consider the self weight of various members even if the size is changed.
O. Automatic creation of Earthquake and Wind load saves lots of time to
calculate them manually and assign them in the 3D Model.

13
P. Load combination as per your defined building code is also automated; you
do not need to define them individually which saves lots of time.
Q.17. Very easy importing of model geometry as well as design of Reinforced
Concrete structures as per Greek code with the integration of
STEREOSTATIKA.
R. For the design of Reinforced Concrete structures as per Greek and
masonry structure as per Eurocode 6 also Reinforced Concrete jackets as per
to Greek Code and pushover analysis has been made easy to perform by
automatically creating plastic hinges.
S. For the 3D design of structural components like bridges, dams, tanks and
building structures this program has integration with SAP2000.
T. To analyze and design slabs with any shape and mat foundations Etabs is
integrated with SAFE allowing you to complete analysis and design of any
type of slab..

14
4.1 Views | 3D Exterior View :

Figure 4: 3D VIEW-01

Figure 5: 3D VIEW-02

15
4.2 Plan | Columns :

Figure 6: Plan Columns For all Floor

4.3 Loads Types:

Table 1: Loads Types

Case Label Case Name Nature

01 DL1 SW | Self Weigh Structural
02 DL2 TDL | Dead Load Structural
03 DL3 DL | Dead Load Structural
04 LL1 TLL | Live Load Category D
05 LL SLX | Seismic Load in X direction Seismic
06 LL SLY | Seismic Load in Y direction Seismic

16
 4.3.1 Dead Loads:

⦁ DL1 | Self Weight (will be calculated automatically by the software).

⦁ DL2 | Dead Load:

Table 2: Dead load

Layers Thickness (cm) Unit weight Load (kN/m2)

(kN/m3)

DL3= 2,0
DL2= 1,6
Reinforced 16 25 will be included into
concrete the self- weight
finishing 8 20 1,6
materials &
plaster
water proof 2,0

4.3.2 Live Loads:

⦁ LL1 | Live Load: +3 (kN/m2)

⦁ Combination of loads:
There are several combinations due to dead load, live load, and earthquake
load according to Etabs and Safe. And these combination:

● 1,5DL
● 1,5DL+1,5LL

17
● 1,2DL+1,2LL+1,2 EQX
● 1,2DL+1,2LL-1,2 EQX
● 1,2DL+1,2LL+1,2 EQY
● 1,2DL+1,2LL-1,2 EQY
● 1,5DL+1,5EQX
● 1,5DL-1,5EQX
● 1,5DL+1,5EQY
● 1,5DL-1,5EQY
● 0,9DL+1,5EQX
● 0,9DL-1,5EQX
● 0,9DL+1,5EQY
● 0,9DL-1,5EQY
● DL+LL

4.4 Columns Design

Introduction:

Columns are linear elements which constitute a well-supported structure and

carry the transferred loads exerted from the other elements of the structures or
from the other stories.
They are mainly used to carry the loads from the beams and reinforced
concrete slabs. There are two types of column design, short columns and long
columns. To know the column types the first step is to check the slenderness
of the column to determine whether to calculate the inertia or not and then
calculate the reinforcement. In this project, all columns are 3 meters long, 40
cm width and 40 cm depth. So logically they were all short. As mentioned
above in the main introduction the software used are: Etabs 2016, SAFE
2016, using the Turkish standards TS 500 - 2000. All reinforcement cross
sections are attached.

Table 3: Columns Parameters

\

Parameters Notation Value

Yield strength of steel Fy 420 Mpa
Strength of concrete Fc 25 MPa

18
 Young modulus of E 24855.58
elasticity
Concrete Unit weight γ concrete 25 KN/m3

Column C4(40x40) for storey 2

Figure 7: Plan Columns For Second Floor

N= 229.5637 KN
𝑀1= 17.5898 KNm
𝑀2= 6.5105 KNm
concrete cover=4cm

Check for 𝑒1

𝑒1=𝑀1/N=17.5898/229.5637=0.076623m

19
𝑒1= 76.623mm
𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑛= 15+0.03h= 15+0.03(400)= 27mm
𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑛≤ 𝑒1

Check for 𝑒2

𝑒2= 𝑀2/N=6.5051/229.5637=0.02836m
𝑒2= 28.36mm
𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑛= 15+0.03h= 15+0.03(400)= 27mm
𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑛≤ 𝑒2
d” = 400-2(40)= 320mm
𝑑''
ℎ
=320/400=0.8
3
𝑁 229.5637𝑥10
𝑏 𝑥 ℎ 𝑥 𝑓𝑐𝑑
= 400𝑥400𝑥17
=0.084
𝑀1 17.5898𝑥10
6

2 = 2 =0.0162
𝑏 𝑥 ℎ 𝑥 𝑓𝑐𝑑 400𝑥400 𝑥17

λ=¼.

Figure 8: C4 Column Layout

𝑑''
According to our design C25, Steel S420, λ=1/4 and ℎ
=0.8

ρtm is less than 0.1, thus ρ𝑚𝑖𝑛 =0.01 is our ρ

𝑓 365
m= 𝑓𝑦𝑑 = 17
= 21. 5
𝑐𝑑

20
ρ ≥ ρ
𝑚𝑖𝑛

Slenderness check:
-Effective length factor is K=1.0
-Height of the floor =3m(300cm) (beam height=40cm)
-Unsupported length of the Column 𝐿𝑢=300-40=260 cm
r=0.3h=0,3(40)=12cm
λ = (k*𝐿𝑢)/r=(1*260)/12=21.6 ≃ 22
𝑀
λ𝑙𝑖𝑚= 34 - 12( 𝑀2 )
1
6.5105
=34 - 12( 17.5898 )=29.558≺ 40 (ok)
λ ≤ λ𝑙𝑖𝑚 (it’s a short column)
2
𝐴𝑠 = ρ * 𝑏 * 𝑑 = 0. 01x40x40=16𝑐𝑚
Selected bars for main reinforcement:8ϕ16
Tie bars: 16/3=5.33mm; min bar size is ≃ ϕ6 𝑚𝑚
Spacing of tie bars:12 x ϕ=12x16=192 mm = 19.2cm ≃ 19𝑐𝑚 ≤ 20 𝑐𝑚;
𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥=20 cm
Selected bars for tie bars:ϕ6/19

21
figure 9: Column C4(40x40) for storey 1

22
Column C4(40x40) for storey 1

figure 10: C4 First Floor Column

N= 458.5671 KN
𝑀1= 22.3640 KNm
𝑀2= 9.5298 KNm
concrete cover=4cm

Check for 𝑒1

𝑒1=𝑀1/N=22.3640/458.5671=0.04877m
𝑒1= 48.77mm
𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑛= 15+0.03h= 15+0.03(400)= 27mm
𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑛≤ 𝑒1

23
Check for 𝑒2

𝑒2= 𝑀2/N=9.5298/458.5671=0.02078m
𝑒2= 20.78mm
𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑛= 15+0.03h= 15+0.03(400)= 27mm
𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑛≥ 𝑒2
We need to correct 𝑀2
𝑀2=N*𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑛=458.5671x0.027=12.381KNm
d” = 400-2(40)= 320mm
𝑑''
ℎ
=320/400=0.8
3
𝑁 458.5671𝑥10
𝑏 𝑥 ℎ 𝑥 𝑓𝑐𝑑
= 400𝑥400𝑥17
=0.17
𝑀1 22.3640𝑥10
6

2 = 2 =0.021
𝑏 𝑥 ℎ 𝑥 𝑓𝑐𝑑 400𝑥400 𝑥17

λ=1/4

Figure 11: C4 Column Layout

𝑑''
According to our design C25, Steel S420, λ=1/4 and ℎ
=0.8

ρtm is less than 0.1, thus ρ𝑚𝑖𝑛 =0.01 is our ρ

𝑓 365
m= 𝑓𝑦𝑑 = 17
= 21. 5
𝑐𝑑

ρ ≥ ρ
𝑚𝑖𝑛

24
Slenderness check:
-Effective length factor is K=1.0
-Height of the floor =3m(300cm) (beam height=40cm)
-Unsupported length of the Column 𝐿𝑢=300-40=260 cm
r=0.3h=0,3(40)=12cm
λ = (k*𝐿𝑢)/r=(1*260)/12=21.6 ≃ 22
𝑀
λ𝑙𝑖𝑚= 34 - 12( 𝑀2 )
1
12.381
=34 - 12( 22.3640
)=27.357≺ 40 (ok)
λ ≤ λ𝑙𝑖𝑚 (it’s a short column)
2
𝐴𝑠 = ρ * 𝑏 * 𝑑 = 0. 01x40x40=16𝑐𝑚
Selected bars for main reinforcement:8ϕ16
Tie bars: 16/3=5.33mm; min bar size is ≃ ϕ6 𝑚𝑚
Spacing of tie bars:12 x ϕ=12x16=192 mm = 19.2cm ≃ 19𝑐𝑚 ≤ 20 𝑐𝑚;
𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥=20 cm
Selected bars for tie bars:ϕ6/19

figure 12: Column C4(40x40)

25
4.5 Beams design

Introduction

Beams are linear elements that constitute a supporting construction of

transporting loads backed by elements of the elements supporting upon.
Beams are mainly used to carry reinforced concrete slabs in the structure. In
other words, the slab transfers the loads into the beam(s). It may be a simple
one span or continuous. Beam's sections take several forms such as:
(rectangular section –T section – L section), according to the designer it may
be in an internal or projected Ends or hidden or inverted. In this project, the
beams used were all T section shaped sections. Dimensions used are (20 x
40). The following beam was chosen to be designed manually.

figure 13: Beam B9(20x40) Layout

𝑀1=52.6432 KNm
𝑀2=37.3702 KNm

26
for 𝑀1:
52.6432 2
R= 2 = 9. 027 𝑘𝑔/𝑐𝑚
20𝑥54

ρ=0.0026 ≻ρ𝑚𝑖𝑛 =0.0025

2
𝐴𝑠=ρ*b*d = 0.0026x20x54=2.808𝑐𝑚

Selected:
𝑀2=37.3702 KNm

for 𝑀2:
37.3702 2
R= 2 = 6. 408 𝑘𝑔/𝑐𝑚 , thus the R value is less then the value of R of
20𝑥54

our ρ , ρ=ρ
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑖𝑛
ρ𝑚𝑖𝑛 =0.0025
2
𝐴𝑠=ρ*b*d = 0.0025x20x54=2.7𝑐𝑚

Selected:
Stirrups:
𝑊𝐿𝐿*𝑙𝑥𝑛 3*2.3
𝑞𝐿𝐿 = 3
= 3
= 2. 3𝐾𝑁/𝑚

𝑊𝐷𝐿*𝑙𝑥𝑛 5.6*2.3
𝑞𝐷𝐿 = 3
= 3
= 4. 29𝐾𝑁/𝑚

𝑊𝑢 = 1. 5𝐷𝐿 + 1. 5𝐿𝐿 = 1. 5 * 4. 29 + 1. 5 * 2. 3 = 9. 885𝐾𝑁𝑚

9.885*2.5
𝑅𝑎 = 𝑅𝑏 = 2
= 12. 356𝐾𝑁
0.2
𝑉𝑑 = 12. 356 − 9. 885 2
= 11.3675KN

𝑉𝑐𝑟 = 0. 65 * 𝑓𝑐𝑑 * 𝑏𝑤 * 𝑑 = 0. 65 * 1. 15 * 200 * 540 = 80. 73𝐾𝑁 ≥ 𝑉𝑑

Minimum shear reinforcement should be provided.

𝐴𝑠𝑤 𝑓𝑐𝑡𝑑 1.15
Min 𝑆
= 0. 3 𝑓𝑦𝑤𝑑
= 0. 3 365
= 0. 189𝑚𝑚

27
 2
𝐴𝑠𝑤 = 0. 2 * 0. 5 = 100𝑚𝑚
100 54
Max 𝑆 = 0.189
= 529𝑚𝑚 = 52. 9𝑐𝑚 ≥ 2
= 27𝑐𝑚 ⇒ 𝑆 = 27 𝑐𝑚

Selected:

Figure 14: Beam Reinforcement and Dimensions

4.6 Slabs Design

Introduction

A concrete slab is a common structural element of modern buildings.

Horizontal slabs of steel reinforced concrete, typically between 4 and 20
inches (100 and 500 millimeters) thick, are most often used to construct floors
and ceilings, while thinner slabs are also used for exterior paving.The
thicknesses are 12 cm for the slabs. A 4 cm solid slab was added in case of
adding solar panels in the future.

28
 Figure 15: Slab: C25, S420 Layout

While designing the slabs, we noticed that all slabs are two ways, so that we
decided to design S105
S105:
𝑙𝑦
𝑙𝑥
= 500/400=1.25(two way)

Thickness:
(480 𝑥 2)+380
∝𝑠= 2(2𝑥480+380) = 0. 5
380 0.5
ℎ𝑓= 20 (1 − 4
)= 10.72cm (≃11cm)
15+ 1.25

ℎ𝑓=11+5(for extra)=16cm
2
Self weight:0.16x25=4KN/𝑚
2
Ceiling finishing:1,6KN/𝑚
2
Total DL=4+1.6=5.6KN/𝑚
2
LL=3 KN/𝑚
𝑊𝑢=1.5DL+1.5L
2
=1.5(5.6)+1.5(3)=12.9KN/𝑚

29
Moments:

V direction(short direction):

− 2
𝑀 =0.057x12.9x3. 8 =10.618KNm

+ 2
𝑀 =0.043x12.9x3. 8 =8.010KNm

U direction(long direction):

− 2
𝑀 =0.041x12.9x3. 8 =7.637KNm

+ 2
𝑀 =0.031x 12.9x3. 8 =5.775KNm

Moment for S102 in V direction: ξ=1.75

− 2
𝑀 =0.075x 12.9x2. 8 =7.585KNm

+ 2
𝑀 =0.056x 12.9x2. 8 =5.664KNm

Moment for S104 in U direction: ξ=1.75

− 2
𝑀 =0.082x 12.9x2. 3 =5.596KNm

+ 2
𝑀 =0.062x 12.9x2. 3 =4.231KNm

Moment for S106 in U direction: ξ=1.2

− 2
𝑀 =0.062x 12.9x3. 3 =5.596KNm

+ 2
𝑀 =0.047x12.9x3. 3 =4.231KNm

Check the support:

− 𝑆102 7.5852
𝑀𝑣 = 𝑠105 = 10.618 =0.714≺0.8

30
 2
S102-S105: 3 (10. 618 − 7. 5852) = 2. 022KNm

− 𝑆104 5.596
𝑀𝑢 = 𝑠105 = 7.637 = 0. 733≺ 0. 8

2
S104-S105: 3 (7. 637 − 5. 596) = 1. 361KNm

− 𝑆105 8.7 −
𝑀𝑢 = 𝑠106 = 10.618 =0.82; use 𝑀𝑢 =10.618KNm

Use C25; S42;: clear concrete cover 2cm; assume bars of ϕ10; ℎ𝑓=16cm

dx=ℎ𝑓-𝑑'𝑥=16-(2+0.5)=13.5

dy=ℎ𝑓-𝑑'𝑦=16-(2+1.05)=12.5

Spacing:

in short direction=1.5x16=24cm>20cm ⇒ 𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥=20cm ⇔ S

in long direction=24cm < 𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥=25cm; S=24cm

Min Reinforcement:

ρ𝑥+ρ𝑦≥0.0035

𝑀
R= 2
𝑏𝑥𝑥

U-direction:

Span:

Table 4: Span U-D

M d R ρ 𝐴𝑠 Selected

S104 4.321x10
4 13.5 2.32 0.0015 2.03 ϕ10/20/(3.93)

31
 S105 5.77x10
4 12.5 3.7 0.0015 1.875 ϕ10/24(3.29)

S106 6.603x10
4 13.5 3.62 0.0015 2.03 ϕ10/20(3.9)

Support:

Table 5: Support U-D

M d R ρ 𝐴𝑠 𝐴𝑠 Avail.

S104-S1 1.361x10
4 13.5 0.75 0.0015 2.03 3.61
05
S105-S1 8.7 13.5 4.78 0.0015 2.03 3.61
06

V-direction

Span:

Table 6: Span V-D

M d R ρ 𝐴𝑠 Selected

S102 5.664x10
4 13.5 3.12 0.0015 2.03 ϕ10/20(3.93)

S105 8.010x10
4 13.5 4.40 0.0020 2.70 ϕ10/20(3.93)

Since ρ𝑥+ρ𝑦=0.0015+0.0015=0.0030<0.0035

Increase ρ𝑦to 0.0020 as ρ𝑥+ρ𝑦=0.0015+0.0020≥0.035

Support:
S102-S105 2.022X10
4
13.5 1.11 0.0015 2.03 3.93

32
Figure 16: Steel and Repartition

33
4.7 Seismic Design

4.7.1 Introduction

Seismic design is an engineering field which considers earthquake in its

calculations. The main aim for it is to make the building resistance higher
against the earthquake. A seismic engineer's main job is to construct buildings
or bridges that will not be damaged in minor moves and will avoid serious
damage or collapse in a strong earthquake. Earthquake engineering is the
scientific field concerned with protecting society, the natural environment,
and the man-made environment from earthquakes by decreasing the risk to
acceptable degrees. In this project, the main objective regarding the seismic
design was to calculate the lateral load in x and y direction. Firstly,calculating
the x-direction lateral load. Thirdly, calculating y-direction lateral load. For
this objective the TSC-2007 was used as a design code.

4.7.2 Parameters

Parameter Notation

Time period
T

Spectrum Characteristics periods Ta, Tb

Ordinate of elastic acceleration

S(T)
spectrum

Effective ground acceleration

A0

Importance Factor
I

Structural system behaviour

R

Building weight
W

34
 Live load participation factor
n

Equivalent seismic load

F

Lateral Load
V

4.7.2.1. Materials:

Concrete :C25
Steel : S420

4.27.2.2. Seismic load (lateral load)

Table 7: lateral load

Load in Zone site Class Acc. Importance R factor

factor
X axis Z1 Z2 0.4 1 8
Y axis Z1 Z2 0.4 1 8

4.7.2.3. Used Codes:

Concrete design code IS 456:2000

Loading code AISC 14
Earthquake code TSC-2007

4.7.3 Auto Seismic Loading

TSC-2007 Auto Seismic Load Calculation

This calculation presents the automatically generated lateral seismic loads for
load pattern EQ X according to TSC-2007, as calculated by ETABS.

35
Direction and Eccentricity
Direction = X
Eccentricity Ratio = 0% for all diaphragms
Structural Period
Period Calculation Method = Program Calculated

Factors and Coefficients

Seismic Zone = Zone 1

Seismic Response

Equivalent Lateral Forces

Calculated Base Shear :

Direction Period Used S(T1 ) W V FN

(sec) (kN) (kN) (kN)

X 0.331 2.5 1071.1261 133.8908 3.0125

36
Figure 17: Lateral Force in X Direction

Applied Story Forces :

Table 8: Story Forces X-D

Story Elevation X-Direction Y-Direction

m kN kN
F1 7 78,4463 0
G 4 50,3222 0
PLINTH 1 5,1222 0
Base 0 0 0

37
TSC-2007 Auto Seismic Load Calculation
This calculation presents the automatically generated lateral seismic loads for
load pattern EQ Y according to TSC-2007, as calculated by ETABS.
Direction and Eccentricity
Direction = Y
Eccentricity Ratio = 0% for all diaphragms
Structural Period
Period Calculation Method = Program Calculated

Factors and Coefficients

Seismic Zone = Zone 1

Seismic Response

Equivalent Lateral Forces

Calculated Base Shear:

Direction Period Used S(T1 ) W V FN

(sec) (kN) (kN)

Y 0.343 2.5 1071.1261 133.8908 3.0125

38
Figure 18: Lateral Force in Y Direction

Applied Story Forces

Table 9: Story force Y-D

Story Elevation X-Direction Y-Direction

m kN kN
F1 7 0 78,4463
G 4 0 50,3222
PLINTH 1 0 5,1222
Base 0 0

39
Manual Design:

Seismic weight one floor :

80 x(5.6+0.30x 3)=520 KN

load from roof = 80x5.6 = 448KN

seismic weight of the structure;

2 x 520+448 = 1488 KN

X-Dimension :
0.09 𝑥 7
ta = 0.186
11.2
𝑆𝑎
𝑔
= 2.50
𝑆𝑎
𝑍𝐼( ) 0.34(1.0)(2.5)
AHx = =
𝑔
2𝑥𝑅 2(8)
= 0.0531
Vbx = A ℎ𝑥 x W = 0.0531 X 1488 = 78KN

Y- Dimension :
0.09 𝑥 7
ta = 0.235
7.2
𝑆𝑎
𝑔
= 2.50
𝑆𝑎
𝑍𝐼( ) 0.34(1.0)(2.5)
AHx = 2𝑥𝑅
𝑔
= 2(8)
= 0.0531
Vbx = A ℎ𝑥 x W = 0.0531 X 1488 = 78 KN

40
Story 𝑤𝑖 ℎ𝑖(𝑚) 2
𝑤𝑖ℎ𝑖 𝑤𝑖ℎ𝑖
2
V
2
ε𝑤𝑖ℎ𝑖

F1 431 7 21119 0.071 78.44

G 500.5 4 8008 0.27 50.32
P 500.5 1 500.5 0.0168 5.1223

41
5. SAFE

5.1. Overview:

SAFE is the ultimate tool for designing concrete floor and foundation
systems. From framing layout to detail drawing production, SAFE integrates
every aspect of the engineering design process in one easy and intuitive
environment. It provides unmatched productivity to the engineer with its truly
unique combination of power, comprehensive capabilities, and ease-of-use.
Laying out models is quick and efficient with the sophisticated drawing tools,
or use one of the import options to bring in data from CAD, spreadsheet, or
database programs. Slabs or foundations can be of any shape, and can include
edges shaped with circular and spline curves.
Post-tensioning may be included in both slabs and beams to balance a
percentage of the self-weight. Suspended slabs can include flat, two-way,
waffle, and ribbed framing systems. Models can have columns, braces, walls,
and ramps connected from the floors above and below. Walls can be modeled
as either straight or curved.
Foundations can include nonlinear uplift from the soil springs, and a
nonlinear cracked analysis is available for slabs. Generating pattern surface
loads is easily done by SAFE with an automated option. Design strips can be
generated by SAFE or drawn in a completely arbitrary manner by the user,
with complete control provided for locating and sizing the calculated
reinforcement. Finite element design without strips is also available and
useful for slabs with complex geometries.
Comprehensive and customizable reports are available for all analysis and
design results. Detailed plans, sections, elevations, schedules, and tables may
be generated, viewed, and printed from within SAFE or exported to CAD
packages.
SAFE provides an immensely capable yet easy-to-use program for structural
designers, providing the only tool necessary for the modeling, analysis,
design, and detailing of concrete slab systems and foundations.

42
Raft model :

Figure 19: Raft model

5.2 General information

5.2.1 Foundation mat thickness

The thickness of the foundation is selected to be 900 (mm)

5.2.2 Type of soil

It is a clay soil

5.2.3 Materials

Concrete: CSAC30 : where (fc=30 N/mm²)

Bars: CSA-G30.18Gr400: where (fy=400 N/mm²))

5.2.4 Load combination

DL+LL

43
5.3 Design

5.3.1 Soil subgrade property & Materials

Soil bearing capacity =150 kN/m²

S.F = 3
Permissible settlement = 0.05m
Soil subgrade = 9000 kN/m/m²

Diagrams

Figure 20: Deformed Shape (Displacements)

44
 5.3.2. Soil pressure:

Max (110.9 kN/m²) ˂ (150 kN/m²) ok

Min ( 120 kN/m²) ˂ (150 kN/m²) ok

Figure 21: pressure of soil

45
 5.3.3. Punching Shear Capacity

(NO punching all values ˂1)

Figure 22: Punching Shear Capacity

46
 5.3.4. Requirement bars Sections

In X- direction
bars size : 14

Figure 23: Requirement bar in X Section

47
 In Y- direction
bars size : 14

Figure 24: Requirement bar in Y Section

5.3.5 Requirement rebar sections diagram

In X-direction

Figure 25: Rebar layout X-Direction

48
 In Y-direction

Figure 26: Rebar layout Y-Direction

6. REDUCING THE E CARBON IN BUILDING

We have three different aspects to consider for minimizing the amount of

carbon dioxide in the whole structure.
⦁ Passive design and mix design
⦁ Renewable energy system
⦁ Active design.
It is agreed around the world that global warming is one of the most important
factors that are harming our planet, and knowing that carbon dioxide is the
most toxic element it will be our main focus.

Carbon dioxide is formed mainly during the manufacturing and transporting

of materials used for construction. According to US studies in 2009 (U.S.
Energy Information Administration), 49% of annual energy consumption is of
buildings, resulting in it being one of our main concerns to minimize carbon
dioxide submission.

Civil engineers nowadays are working on minimizing carbon dioxide

consumption by basically focusing on the previously mentioned points
(manufacturing and transporting materials along with the annual energy
consumption of buildings).

One of the most significant manufactured materials used for construction

would be cement since it is the main component in the production of
reinforced concrete, which is used in our project’s building. Carbon dioxide is
emitted from the production of cement via the calcination of calcium
carbonate:

CaCO3 + heat CaO + CO2

49
100 kg 56kg 44kg

The calcination of calcium carbonate happens in a kiln that is heated up by

the burning of fossil fuels and natural gasses which also emits greenhouse
gasses.

It is now safe to say that there is a lot of embodied carbon dioxide in cement,
thus engineers are trying to find cementations materials such as pulverized
fuel ash (PFA), ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) and silica fume
(SF) to minimize the use of cement in mixed designs, as we will suggest in
our project.
Energy consumption doesn’t just stop after the construction of buildings, it
continues after civilians have occupied the buildings, as their use of electricity
is endless since it is vital for their revolutionized civilization.

It would be ridiculous to assume that the use of electricity could not be

minimized, so our best solution would be looking for more environmentally
friendly energy sources that do not come from the power plants that burn
fossil fuels, coal, oil and natural gasses that release carbon dioxide during the
process.

The percentage of electricity usage from power plants will be reduced, as

solar panels will be our substitute energy source, since our project is mainly
about restricting the emission of carbon dioxide.

Reducing the embodied carbon dioxide in the building can lead to what we
call a “Zero carbon” building also known as zero energy building, is a
building with zero net energy consumption, meaning the total amount of
energy used by the building on an annual basis is roughly equal to the amount
of renewable energy created on the site. They do at times consume
non-renewable energy and produce greenhouse gasses, but at other times
reduce energy consumption and greenhouse gas production elsewhere by the
same amount.

Zero energy consumption could be achieved by passive design, active design

(HVAC – heating, ventilation and air conditioning) and renewable energy.

50
Passive design refers to a design approach that uses natural elements such as
sunlight and wind to heat/cool or light a building.

The passive design approach can include several factors such as the structure
of the building itself, such as the orientation and the massing of the building,
window’s placement and size, materials used in insulation and some specific
elements.

The main reason behind passive design is to reduce the electrical and fossil
fuels energy consumption by using the energy of ambient sources.
If the mentioned factors were studied, managed and evaluated properly we
will achieve optimum efficiency for the structure designed.

6.1 Massing of a building:

It is one of the most important factors in passive design, by considering the
height, width and surface area of the building, to be exposed to the sun at
different times of the day (peak hours), along with the activities of building.

6.2 Orientation of a building:

It’s the location and direction that the building faces. And it should be
optimized along with massing. Orientation could be the most important factor
of passive design by maximizing or minimizing the energy coming from the
sun and the wind.

Figure 27: Building Orientation

6.3 Landscape Strategies:

51
It is designing the building to have plants surrounding it. It aids us in reducing
the temperature surrounding the designed building to protect it from sun,
wind and precipitation.

Figure 28: Strategie Landscape

6.4 Passive Ventilation

Passive ventilators make use of natural forces such as wind and thermal
resilience to circulate air to and from an indoor space.

Figure 29: Passive ventilation

6.4.1 Passive Heating/Cooling:

52
Passive solar buildings are designed to absorb and distribute thermal energy
keeping it warm in winters, and repel thermal energy keeping it cool in
summers.

6.4.2 Windows of a building:

Windows control the amount of sunlight that penetrates the building;

windows should be placed and sized intelligently to get optimum energy
efficiency.
External shading is also an excellent apparatus that could be placed around
the windows which is used to limit the amount of sunlight that enters a
building. As shown in the figures below, during summer, the external shades
over the windows are covering the windows, thus having minimal heat
entering the room. In addition to that, during winter the sun is lower, giving
sunrays easy access into the building without being affected by the external
shade, hence making it warmer inside the building.

Figure 30: Heating

53
 Figure 31: Cooling

6.4.3 High performance glazing:

High performance glazing, by definition, performs better than normal glazing

in terms of thermal insulation and solar heat control. The high performance
glass wall system offers good thermal and optical performance to lower
cooling loads, reduce the reliance on artificial lighting and thus reduce energy
consumption.

6.4.4 Insulation material:

Materials used on the roofs and walls to insulate (reflect back) the sun’s heat
to the sky to reduce the surface temperature. Insulation is essential to zero
carbon buildings because it allows spaces to maintain what heat they have
while avoiding gaining excess heat from outside.
The 5 most common thermal insulation materials are:
⦁ Fiberglass
⦁ Mineral wool
⦁ Cellulose
⦁ Polyurethane foam
⦁ Expanded Polystyrene (EPS)

54
 Figure 32: Material Insulation
⦁ Special equipment that could be added to the design itself to improve the
usage of ambient sources include:
⦁ Wind catcher
⦁ Earth cooling tube
⦁ Light shelf
⦁ Light pipes
⦁ Heat reflecting shade
⦁ Cool paint
With everything mentioned above being kept in mind, we would achieve a
more environmentally friendly construction method. Nowadays these
strategies are being applied in developed countries such as the Zero Carbon
Building in Hong Kong that was completed in June 2012 (founded by Ronald
Lu and partners). This project is a great example that the rest of the world
could start following in order to get a better planet.

6.5 Active design systems

Active systems refer to the electrical and mechanical systems, such as the
HVAC (heating, ventilation and air conditioning) systems and lighting
systems. The energy efficient active systems in ZCB result in a 25% of energy
saving compared to a similar building of the current standard design. In the
building design, the active system used was HVAC systems and lighting
systems which are the most common used in the residential buildings.

55
 6.5.1 HVAC systems

Heating, ventilating and air conditioning (HVAC) is defined as the

simultaneous control of temperature, humidity, radiant energy, air motion and
air quality within a space for the purpose of satisfying the requirements of
comfort or a process. Not included in the definition, but often required, is the
control of pressure in the conditioned space relative to adjacent areas.
Another factor that becomes important in many applications is the noise level
associated with the air conditioning equipment. For engineering purposes the
definition should also be extended to include the lowest life-cycle cost of
conditioning the air by right-sizing of equipment to meet the particular
application with the lowest operating and maintenance.

7. MIX DESIGN

7.1 Introduction
Mix design is a process of selecting suitable ingredients and determining their
relative proportions with the objective of producing concrete of having certain
minimum workability, strength and durability as economically as possible.

56
 Figure 33: Mixing concrete

A mix design can be designed in two ways as explained below

1. Nominal Mix
2. Design Mix

7.1.1. NOMINAL MIX

It is used for relatively unimportant and simpler concrete works. In this type
of mix, all the ingredients are prescribed and their proportions are specified.
Therefore there is no scope for any deviation by the designer.

7.1.2. DESIGN MIX

It is a performance based mix where choice of ingredients and proportioning

are left to the designer to be decided. The user has to specify only the
requirements of concrete in fresh as well as hardened state. The requirements
in fresh concrete are workability and finishing characteristics, whereas in
hardened concrete these are mainly the compressive strength and durability.
The design mix provided us with the total quantities of concrete which were
used in calculating the total carbon embodied.

Figure 34: Concrete producing procedure

7.1.2.1 Materials emitting CO2

Most of the materials used in building construction emit CO2, from glass to
cement and the use of by-products, their productions emit CO2 but our

57
purpose is designing our building using the materials that have low emission
of CO2.
Therefore we will be comparing some materials to determine the one with
low CO2 emission then use them in the design of our building.

7.1.2.1.1 Fly ash

Fly ash is a fine powder that is a by-product obtained by burning pulverized

coal in electric generation power plants. Fly ash is a pozzolan, a substance
containing aluminous and siliceous material that forms cement in the presence
of water.
a. Advantages
Fly ash can be a cost-effective substitute for Portland cement in many
markets. Fly ash is also recognized as an environmentally friendly
material because it is a by-product and has low embodied energy, the
measure of how much energy is consumed in producing and shipping a
building material.
By contrast, Portland cement has a very high embodied energy because
its production requires a great deal of heat. Fly ash requires less water
than Portland cement and is easier to use in cold weather. Other benefits
include:
● Produces various set times
● High strength gains
● ​Great workability
● Allows for a lower water-cement ratio for similar slumps when
compared to no-fly-ash mixes
● Reduces CO2 emissions
b. Disadvantages
Smaller builders and housing contractors may not be familiar with fly ash
products, which can have different properties depending on where and
how it was obtained. Additionally, fly ash applications may face
resistance from traditional builders due to its tendency to effloresce along
with concerns about freeze/thaw performance. Other concerns about
using fly ash in concrete include:
● Slower strength gain
● Seasonal limitation
● Increased need for air-entraining admixtures

58
 ● Increase of salt scaling produced by higher proportions of fly ash

From manufacturing, transportation and delivering at site, FA has emissions

of 0.006 e CO2 kg per tonne.

7.1.2.1.2 GGBS (Ground Granulated Blast-furnace Slag)

GGBS (Ground Granulated Blast-furnace Slag) is a by-product of iron

manufacturing which is used as a cementitious material used in concrete.
GGBS is obtained by the heating of iron ore, limestone and coke at a
temperature about 15000C. The process is carried out in a blast furnace. It is
obtained by quenching molten iron slag from a blast furnace in water or
steam, then dried and ground into a fine powder.
a. Advantages
Concrete containing GGBS cement has a higher ultimate strength than
concrete made with Portland cement. It has a higher proportion of the
strength-enhancing calcium silicate hydrates (CSH) than concrete made
with Portland cement only, and a reduced content of free lime, which
does not contribute to concrete strength. Concrete made with GGBS
continues to gain strength over time Its advantages includes:
● Increases the strength and durability of the concrete structure
● Better workability, making placing and compaction easier
● Reduces the risk of thermal cracking in large pouring
● Does not produce carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide or nitrogen oxides
● Considerable sustainability benefits
● High resistance to chloride ingress
b. Disadvantages

59
From manufacturing, transportation and delivering at site, GGBS has
emissions of 50 e CO2 kg per tonne

7.1.2.1.3 Glass

Glass can be used in concrete as aggregate in concrete. Glass aggregate can

replace part or all of the sand and gravel in concrete, for effects that range
from colorful terrazzo, to granite- or marble-like finishes, to concrete that
reflects light like a mirror. Glass aggregate can even be used to produce
concrete that literally glows.
The major environmental impact of glass production is caused by
atmospheric emissions from melting activities. The combustion of natural
gas and the decomposition of raw materials during the melting lead to
the emission of CO2. This is the only greenhouse gas emitted during the
production of glass.
The result shows that the CO2 emissions from producing flat glass is 3.08kg
CO2 , more than 60% of the CO2 emissions caused by the raw materials
acquisition during the flat glass production process.

7.1.2.1.4 Silica Fume

Silica fume, a co-product from the production of silicon or ferrosilicon metal,

is an amorphous silicon dioxide - SiO2 which is generated as a gas in
submerged electrical arc furnaces during the reduction of very pure quartz.

60
Silica fume is a mineral admixture, composed of submicron particles (100 to
150 times smaller than a grain of cement) of amorphous silicon dioxide.
Silica fume powder is gray to off-white in color, and is available in several
product forms and packaging options.
When used in cementitious applications (concrete, shotcrete, repair products
and oil well grouts.), silica fume acts as both a filler - improving the physical
structure by occupying the spaces between the cement particles - and as a
“pozzolan” reacting chemically to impart far greater strength and durability
to concrete.

There are so many by-products that can be used as a replacement for PC, but
in our studies, we decided to use FA because among all by-products, it is the
one with the lowest embodied carbon emission among all others and it is the
cheapest.

The type of bricks used in our project is an Interlocking compressed earth

brick (ICEB).
● Interlocking compressed earth brick (ICEB): is one of the construction
materials in the construction industry. Nowadays, the use and production
of ICEB emerged as the construction material used replaced the
conventional bricklaying method.
The Interlocking Compressed Earth Bricks (ICEB) has been introduced
as an alternative for low carbon building material. The ICEB system is an
improvement from the conventional brick production where the brick is
fabricated by compressed method (not fired), thus reducing the carbon
emissions.
The total carbon of the buildings using conventional bricks and ICEB
construction are 405.75 kgCO2/m2 and 264.50 kgCO2/m2, respectively,
which are comparable with the results of similar studies. In order to
achieve low-carbon buildings for the residential, the use of ICEB as
alternative materials with low carbon intensities and sustainable
construction practices are suitable and recommended. The result shows
that the implementation of Interlocking Compressed Earth Bricks
contributes to carbon footprint reduction of 35% from the conventional
and suitable to be used as a low carbon footprint building material.

61
7.2 Embodied carbon dioxide calculation:

In this part we will be comparing the embodied carbon for two cements, the
first one will be the use of portland cement (PC) at 100% and the second one
a blended cement (portland cement and fly ash) at 70% PC and 30% fly
ash(FA) to see which one has the higher amount of carbon dioxide emitted.
We are using the ratio of 70-30 because it’s the optimum according to the
Sustainability course given by Kezban Özlütaş. Also a higher percentage of
FA might not provide the strength needed on the long run because it won’t
properly react with PC.

Figure 35: Comparing strength for PC and PC/FA in 28 days

7.3 The Amount of CO2 Embodied in Concrete Mix:

2
C25 / Slump Class: 30 – 60 / Strength: 25 N/𝑚𝑚

For the first mix, we use a 100% PC concrete:

Table 10: PC 100% use

3
Concrete Mix Proportions Kg/𝑚

PC Water Aggregates Density W/C

320 160 1440 2325 0.5

62
Admixture Used: 5% by weight of cement

Component Embodied CO2 Constituent Total E-C𝑂

2
Content

Portland 930 320 297.60

Cement

Aggregates 4 1440 5.76

Water 0.3 160 0.048

Admixture 0.22 16 0.00352

3
The total of embodied C𝑂2 in the mix = 303.41Kg/𝑚

303.41
Embodied C𝑂2 per tonne= 2325
𝑥1000 = 130. 498 𝐾𝑔/𝑡 =130.5Kg/t

The total of embodied CO2 in the concrete needed for the building =303.41Kg/
3
𝑚 x 97𝑚 =29430.77 kg
3

For the second mix, we use 70% PC and 30% FA:

Table 11: mix of 70% PC & 30% FA

Concrete Mix Proportions Kg/𝑚3

PC FA Water Aggregates Density W/C

224 96 160 1440 2325 0.5

Admixture Used: 5% by weight of cement.

Component Embodied CO2 Constituent Content Total E-CO2

63
 Portland 930 224 208.32
Cement

FA 4 96 0.384

Aggregates 4 1440 5.76

Water 0.3 160 0.048

Admixture 0.22 11.2 0.002464

3
The total of embodied CO2 in the mix = 214.514 Kg/𝑚
214.514
Embodied C𝑂2 per tonne= 2325
𝑥1000 = 92. 26 𝐾𝑔/𝑡

The total of embodied CO2 in the concrete needed for the building
=214.514Kg/𝑚 x 97𝑚 = 20807.858 kg
3 3

7.4 Renewable energy

Renewable energy is energy that is collected from renewable resources, which

are naturally replenished on a human timescale, such as sunlight, wind, rain,
tides, waves, and geothermal heat. Renewable energy often provides energy
in four important areas: electricity generation, air and water heating/cooling,
transportation, and rural (off-grid) energy services.
Renewable energy is derived from natural processes that are replenished
constantly. In its various forms, it derives directly from the sun, or from heat
generated deep within the earth. Included in the definition is electricity and
heat generated from solar, wind, ocean, hydropower, biomass, geothermal
resources, and biofuels and hydrogen derived from renewable resources.
7.4.1. Solar Panel
A solar panel is an assembly of photo-voltaic cells mounted in a framework
for installation. Solar panels use sunlight as a source of energy to generate
direct current electricity. A collection of PV modules is called a PV panel,

64
and a system of PV panels is called an array. Arrays of a photovoltaic system
supply solar electricity to electrical equipment.

7.5 Materials Used

Here we are going to list the materials that we will use:
● Cement (Portland cement at 70%)
● Fly Ash (at 30%)
● Solar Panels
● Thermal insulating materials (such Aerated concrete or foamed concrete)
● Aggregates (GGBS)
● Admixtures
● Bricks (Interlocking Compressed Earth Bricks ICEB)
● Steel bars

8. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

This chapter serves to summarize all findings of the results of the analysis and
design of the 2 stories residential building, and based on them,
recommendations would be made for possible future graduation projects
about reduction of the embodied carbon dioxide.

The building design has been done by computer via using ETAS 2019 and
SAFE 2020. In addition to the computer, the calculation values were checked
by the manual solutions. In this project, the group members learnt how to
integrate both manual and computer solutions together and compare between
the results in each of them. In this project, the group members have gained the
knowledge of summing up the design procedure in the academic study years
and in real life together along with using the software as mentioned above.

Further study was made about the methods of minimizing the carbon dioxide
emissions of the whole structure from the manufacturing process to the
transportation and implementation. A concentration on the mix design and the

65
installation of a renewable energy was made by the group members and was
compared to know the differences that may occur to the amount of carbon
dioxide emissions through the building life and some results as follow were
obvious:
Including a percentage of 30% of a pulverized material in the mix design and
especially PFA or GGBS will approximate the reduction of the same amount
of carbon dioxide emissions.

Taking in consideration of the passive design and some physical structures

while construction will minimize the use of electricity coming from burning
fossil fuels which in turn minimizes the carbon dioxide emissions.

Get advantage of a proper HVAC system to improve the efficiency of the

buildings' functions and minimize the conventional energy consumption.

Installing a photo voltage solar system by placing a solar panels on top of the
building in order to generate electricity and which in turn will contribute
through the total energy consumption taking in consideration the amount of
solar panels with respect to the available area and the capacity of the structure
by withstanding the loads of the panels

REFERENCES:

● Chemical Reaction: Ernest Orlando Lawrence – Berkeley national laboratory

● ZCB definition: http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy06osti/39833.pdf
● Mix Design procedure
http://civil.emu.edu.tr/courses/civl284/8%20Mix%20design%20calculations.pdf
● Definitions of structural elements
https://en.wikipedia.org/
● HVAC systems:
HVAC Systems Design Handbook, Fifth Edition
● Figures:
https://sustainabilityworkshop.autodesk.com/
http://vancouver.ca/files/cov/passive-design-large-buildings.pdf
http://www.cic.hk/eng/main/zcb/

66
● https://www.thespruce.com/fly-ash-applications-844761
● https://www.constrofacilitator.com/what-are-the-advantages-and-applicati
ons-of-ggbs/
● https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1755-1315/476/1/012086/meta
● https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666165921000016

67