Manual for computer application-I by :Er.

A Yadav

Block diagram of computer

A computer can be defined as an electronic device that accepts data from an input device,
processes it, stores it in a disk and finally displays it on an output device such as monitor.
To understand the basic rudiments of the functioning of the computer refer to the basic block
diagram of a computer as shown in Fig. This flow of information holds true for all types of
computers such as Personal Computers, Laptops, and Palmtops etc. In other words, the
fundamental principle of working is the same.

Input unit: The input unit consists of different input devices. The role of an input unit is to
give data to the computer. A Computer takes input from input devices in the form of clicks,
drags and drops, pointing, alphanumeric characters etc depending upon the device used. Input
can be either a data or an instruction. The Keyboard is a type of input device that gives data
as input to the computer whereas mouse usually gives instructions through clicks.
Processing Unit:
Processing unit consists of various parts like CU, ALU, Registers and is often referred to as
an electronic brain of a computer system. This unit is responsible for performing overall
operations of a computer system. After the input device provides raw data to the computer
system, CPU performs specific operations like, addition, subtraction, division etc and
produces a result which we call an output. CPU can also access data from secondary storage
of computer via primary memory. To carry out any operations the CPU assigns tasks to its
component
Components of a processing unit.
▪ Arithmetic Logical Unit (ALU):
ALU is a logical unit of CPU. This unit is responsible for the processing of the data and
instructions. When the CU encounters instructions which are related to performing logical or
arithmetic operation on data, it passes that instruction to ALU. It carries out arithmetic
operations like additions, multiplication, divisions etc. The comparison operations that
arithmetic logical unit performs are comparison like less than, greater than, less than or equal
to, greater than or equal to, not equal to etc. Logical operations includes OR, AND, NOT etc.
The data on which ALU performs operations are fetched from memory unit. After the
processing completes, the information or result is sent back to the storage or an output device.

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▪ Control Unit (CU):

Control unit is another part of CPU. It supervises the overall operations of other units of the
computer. The CU acts as the central nervous system and controls the processing of data
according to the instruction given to the computer. It fetches instructions and data from the
memory unit and executes the instructions one at a time using time signal. Control unit also
determines the sequences of program and instruction’s execution
Output Unit:
The output unit of a computer system are the collections of hardware components that
show output to the user either in hardcopy or a softcopy format. After CPU completes the
processing on the data, the outcome of processing also known as output or a result is passed
to this unit. The output unit is responsible for translating the result in human understandable
format and displaying it.
Memory unit:
The Memory unit of a computer system is what provides the data that CPU needs for
processing. There is a primary and secondary memory in the computer system. Primary
memory holds the data so that CPU can process it. The data that CPU process should be
pulled to primary memory (RAM) from secondary storage device.
the computer. Functions of memory unit are:
It stores all the data and the instructions required for processing.
It stores intermediate results of processing.
It stores final results of processing before these results are released to an output device.
All inputs and outputs are transmitted through main memory.
Control Unit

Storage Unit:
The Storage unit is also a part of a block diagram of computer. Storage unit or secondary
storage unit is a non-volatile device that holds programs, files, documents. It provides
facilities to store a large volume of data. CPU executes the data stored on storage devices
indirectly. The data are transferred to RAM first and after an execution, the data can be again
written to Storage unit.
Functions of this unit are:
It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions among other units of a
computer.
It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer.
It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them, and directs the operation of
the computer.
It communicates with Input/Output devices for transfer of data or results from storage.
It does not process or store data.

.
Input/output Devices
The computer will be of no use unless it is able to communicate with the outside world.
Input/Output devices are required for users to communicate with the computer. In simple
terms, input devices bring information INTO the computer and output devices bring
information OUT of a computer system. These input/output devices are also known as
peripherals since they surround the CPU and memory of a computer system.
Some commonly used Input/Output devices are listed in table below.
(1) Keyboard : Keyboard is used in the input phase of a computer-based information system.
Keyboard is most common input device is used today. The data and instructions are input by

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typing on the keyboard. The message typed on the keyboard reaches the memory unit of a
computer. It’s connected to a computer via a cable. Apart from alphabet and numeral keys, it
has other function keys for performing different functions.
(2) Mouse : It’s a pointing device. The mouse is rolled over the mouse pad, which in turn
controls the movement of the cursor in the screen. We can click, double click or drag the
mouse. Most of the mouse’s have a ball beneath them, which rotates when the mouse in
moved. The ball has 2 wheels of the sides, which in turn mousse with the movement of the
ball. The sensor notifies the speed of its movements to the computer, which in turn moves the
cursor/pointer on the screen.
(3) Scanner : Scanners are used to enter information directly in to the computers memory.
This device works like a Xerox machine. The scanner converts any type of printed or written
information including photographs into digital pulses, which can be manipulated by the
computer.
(4) Track Ball: Track ball is similar to the upside- down design of the mouse. The user
moves the ball directly, while the device itself remains stationary. The user spins the ball in
various directions to effect the screen movements.
(5) Joystick
The joystick is a vertical stick which moves the graphic cursor in a direction the stick is
moved. It typically has a button on top that is used to select the option pointed by the cursor.
Joystick is used as an input device primarily used with video games, training simulators and
controlling robots.

(6) Light Pen

It is a pen shaped device used to select objects on a display screen. It is quite like the mouse
(in its functionality) but uses a light pen to move the pointer and select any object on the
screen by pointing to the object. Users of Computer Aided Design (CAD) applications
commonly use the light pens to directly draw on screen.

(a)The Display (Monitor)

The computer monitor or screen display was also called the “CRT”, which stands for
“cathode ray tube". “LCD” or liquid crystal display monitors are also in more common use,
particularly in laptop computers. LCD monitors are thinner, lighter and use less power than
the traditional CRT monitor. Current software requires color monitors. Screen size is
measured on the diagonal. For desktop machines large (wide) sizes are available; laptop
screen sizes can be more limited, though wider screens have become more common. Screen
resolution refers to the number of pixels that can be displayed. A is one of the many tiny dots
that make up the representation of a picture in a computer's memory. Usually the dots are so
small and so numerous that, when printed on paper or displayed on a computer monitor, they
appear to merge into a smooth image. The color and intensity of each dot is chosen
individually by the computer to represent a small area of the picture. For example, a
resolution of 640 x 640indicates that the screen can be covered by 640 dots wide and 640
dots high. Resolution determines the quality of graphic display on the screen, and also on the
printed page.

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(b) Printer
Printers are used to produce paper (commonly known as hardcopy) output. Based on the
technology used, they can be classified as Impact or Non-impact printers.
Impact printers use the typewriting printing mechanism wherein a hammer strikes the paper
through a ribbon in order to produce output. Dot-matrix and Character printers fall under this
category.
Non-impact printers do not touch the paper while printing. They use chemical, heat or
electrical signals to etch the symbols on paper. Inkjet, DeskJet, Laser, Thermal printers fall
under this category of printers.
When we talk about printers we refer to two basic qualities associated with printer’s
resolution, and speed. Print resolution is measured in terms of number of dots per inch (dpi).
Print speed is measured in terms of number of characters printed in a unit of time and is
represented as characters-per-second (cps), lines-per-minute (lpm), or pages-per-minute
(ppm).
A dot matrix printer forms characters and graphics on the paper by producing pattern of
dots. Dot matrix printers are relatively cheap and so is the stationery that they use. Dot-matrix
printers are generally noisy. Slow, with speeds usually ranging between 30 to 600 characters
per second.
Inkjet Printers
Inkjet printers transfer an image via magnetic charge. High quality graphics and a large
variety of fonts are available. Inkjet printers tend to be relatively inexpensive to purchase, but
more costly to maintain (ink cartridges are pricey!). High quality color graphics and photo
printing are available. Inkjet printers are often a good choice for home use. Print speeds are
moderate, and color photo printing options are an advantage. Inexpensive printers that
include a scanner/copier are also available.
Laser Printer
On a laser printer, the image is produced by scanning a laser beam across an electronically
charged drum. Toner, or ink, having an opposite charge and stuck to the drum, is then
transferred to the paper by pressure and heat. High quality graphics and multiple font printing
are readily available. Laser printers tend to be more expensive to purchase and relatively
expensive to maintain. These are the best choice for high speed and large volume printing.
Color laser printers are also available and in more common use – again, these tend to be
costly
The mechanism of how a laser printer works is similar to a photocopier. Laser printers are
also known as page printers because they process and store the entire page before they
actually print it. Laser printers can print text at speeds of four to over thirty pages per minute.
The cost per page of toner cartridges is lower than other printers. Laser printers are quiet
and fast
(c) Plotter
Plotters are used to print graphical output on paper. It is capable of producing graphs,
drawings, charts, maps etc. Computer Aided Engineering (CAE) applications like CAD
(Computer Aided Design) and CAM (Computer Aided Manufacturing) are typical usage
areas for plotters. A plotter is a large printer that generates high-quality documents by
moving ink pens over the surface of a page. Plotters are particularly useful to engineers and
architects, as they produce high-quality blueprints, maps, and floor plans. Plotters are
expensive.

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(d) Sound Cards and Speakers:

The Audio output is the ability of the computer to output sound. Two components are needed:
Sound card – Plays contents of digitized recordings, Speakers – Attached to sound card.
A speaker or speaker system converts an electrical signal to sound. The term loudspeaker can
refer to individual transducers (known as drivers), or to complete systems consisting of a
enclosure incorporating one or more drivers and electrical filter components. Loudspeakers
are the most variable elements in an audio system and are responsible for the greatest degree
of audible differences between sound systems.

Computer’s memory
The Term Computer Memory is defined as one or more sets of chips those store
Data/program instructions, either temporarily or permanently.
Characteristics of Main Memory
1. Primary memory is also known as Main memory or Internal memory
2. In primary memory, data is directly accessed by the processing unit.
3. Semi conductor chips are used to store information in primary memory.
4. Information stored is temporary and it can be lost when there is a sudden power cut.
5. Data operated and stored in uniform manner.
6. Primary memory devices are more expensive than secondary storage devices.
7. Nature of Parts of Primary memory varies. RAM- volatile in nature. ROM- Non-volatile
8. It is very fast in interacting with micro processor.
9. Primary memory has limited storage capacity.
10. Examples: RAM, ROM, Cache memory, PROM, EPROM, Registers etc

• Secondary Memory/Auxiliary Memory

1. Secondary memory is also known as External memory or Auxiliary memory
2. In secondary memory, data is first transferred to main memory and then routed to processing
unit.
3. Magnetic disk, optical disks are used to store information in secondary memory.
4. Information stored is permanent unless one deletes it intentionally.
5. Data stored is not uniform in secondary memory.
6. Secondary memory devices are less expensive when compare to primary memory devices.
7. It’s always Non-volatile in nature.
8. It is little slow in interacting with micro processor.
9. Whereas secondary memory can store bulk amounts of data in a single unit.
10. Examples: Magnetic Tapes, Optical Disc, Floppy Disks, Flash memory [USB drives], Paper
Tape, Punched cards etc.

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BASIS FOR
PRIMARY MEMORY SECONDARY MEMORY
COMPARISON

Basic Primary memory is directly accessible by Secondary memory is not directly

Processor/CPU. accessible by CPU.

Altered Name Main memory. Auxiliary memory.

Data Instructions or data to be currently executed Data to be permanently stored is kept in

are copied to main memory. secondary memory.

Volatility Primary memory is usually volatile. Secondary memory is non-volatile.

Formation Primary memories are made of Secondary memories are made of

semiconductors. magnetic and optical material.

Access Speed Accessing data from primary memory is Accessing data from secondary memory

faster. is slower.

Access Primary memory is accessed by the data bus. Secondary memory is accessed by input-

output channels.

Size The computer has a small primary memory. The computer has a larger secondary

memory.

Expense Primary memory is costlier than secondary Secondary memory is cheaper than

memory. primary memory

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Main Memory can be classified into two types – RAM and ROM.
1. RAM, or random access memory
2. ROM, or read-only memory
1) RAM Computer Memory
The most important things to understand about RAM are that RAM memory is very fast, it
can be written to as well as read, it is volatile (so all data stored in RAM memory is lost when
it loses power) and, finally, it is very expensive compared to all types of secondary memory
in terms of cost per gigabyte. It is because of the relative high cost of RAM compared to
secondary memory types that most computer systems use both primary and secondary
memory.
Types of RAM
• DRAM: DRAM stands for Dynamic RAM, and it is the most common type of RAM
used in computers. The oldest type is known as single data rate (SDR) DRAM, but
newer computers use faster dual data rate (DDR) DRAM. DDR comes in several
versions including DDR2 , DDR3, and DDR4, which offer better performance and are
more energy efficient than DDR. DRAM consists of a transistor and a capacitor in
each cell.
• SRAM: SRAM stands for Static RAM, and it is a particular type of RAM which is
faster than DRAM, but more expensive and bulker, having six transistors in each cell.
For those reasons SRAM is generally only used as a data cache within a CPU itself or
as RAM in very high-end server systems. A small SRAM cache of the most
imminently-needed data can result in significant speed improvements in a system
The key differences between DRAM and SRAM is that SRAM is faster than DRAM -
perhaps two to three times faster - but more expensive and bulkier. SRAM is usually
available in megabytes, while DRAM is purchased in gigabytes.
DRAM uses more energy than SRAM because it constantly needs to be refreshed to maintain
data integrity, while SRAM - though volatile – does not need constant refreshing when it is
powered up.
2) ROM Computer Memory
ROM stands for read-only memory, and the name stems from the fact that while data can be
read from this type of computer memory, data cannot normally be written to it. It is a very
fast type of computer memory which is usually installed close to the CPU on the
motherboard.
ROM is a type of non-volatile memory, which means that the data stored in ROM persists in
the memory even when it receives no power – for example when the computer is turned off.
In that sense it is similar to secondary memory, which is used for long term storage.
When a computer is turned on, the CPU can begin reading information stored in ROM
without the need for drivers or other complex software to help it communicate. The ROM
usually contains "bootstrap code" which is the basic set of instructions a computer needs to
carry out to become aware of the operating system stored in secondary memory, and to load
parts of the operating system into primary memory so that it can start up and become ready to
use.
Types of ROM
ROM is available in several different types, including PROM, EPROM, and EEPROM.
• PROM PROM stands for Programmable Read-Only Memory, and it is different from
true ROM in that while a ROM is programmed (i.e. has data written to it) during the
manufacturing process, a PROM is manufactured in an empty state and then
programmed later using a PROM programmer or burner.

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• EPROM EPROM stands for Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory, and as the
name suggests, data stored in an EPROM can be erased and the EPROM
reprogrammed. Erasing an EPROM involves removing it from the computer and
exposing it to ultraviolet light before re-burning it.
• EEPROM EEPROM stands for Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only
Memory, and the distinction between EPROM and EEPROM is that the latter can be
erased and written to by the computer system it is installed in. In that sense EEPROM
is not strictly read-only. However in many cases the write process is slow, so it is
normally only done to update program code such as firmware or BIOS code on an
occasional basis

Sr. Key RAM ROM

No.

Definition RAM stands for Random Access ROM stands for Read Only Memory.
1
Memory.

Data RAM data is volatile. Data is present ROM data is permanent. Data remains
2
Retention till power supply is present. even after power supply is not present.

Data RAM data can be read, erased or ROM data is readonly.

3
Access modified.

Usage RAM is used to store data that CPU ROM is used to store data that in needed
4 needs for current instruction to bootstrap the computer.
processing.

5 Speed RAM speed is quite high. ROM speed is slower than RAM.

CPU CPU can access data stored on RAM. Data to be copied from ROM to RAM so
6
Access that CPU can access its data.

Capacity RAM memory is large and high ROM is generally small and of low
7
capacity. capacity.

Usage RAM is used as CPU Cache, Primary ROM is used as firmware by

8
Memory. microcontrollers.

9 Cost RAM is costly. ROM is cheap.

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Auxiliary Storage Devices-Magnetic Tape, Floppy Disk, Hard Disk.

The Magnetic Storage Exploits duality of magnetism and electricity. It convert electrical
signals into magnetic charges, captures magnetic charge on a storage medium and then later
regenerates electrical current from stored magnetic charge. Polarity of magnetic charge
represents bit values zero and one.

Magnetic Disk
The Magnetic Disk is Flat, circular platter with metallic coating that is rotated beneath
read/write heads. It is a Random access device; read/write head can be moved to any location
on the platter.

Floppy Disk
These are small removable disks that are plastic coated with magnetic recording material.
Floppy disks are typically 3.5″ in size (diameter) and can hold 1.44 MB of data. This
portable storage device is a rewritable media and can be reused a number of times. Floppy
disks are commonly used to move files between different computers. The main disadvantage
of floppy disks is that they can be damaged easily and, therefore, are not very reliable. The
following figure shows an example of the floppy disk.

HARD DISK
Another form of auxiliary storage is a hard disk. A hard disk consists of one or more rigid
metal plates coated with a metal oxide material that allows data to be magnetically recorded
on the surface of the platters. The hard disk platters spin at a high rate of speed, typically
5400 to 7200 revolutions per minute (RPM). Storage capacities of hard disks for personal
computers range from 10 GB to TB
A disk is divided into tracks, cylinders, and sectors. A track is that portion of a disk which
passes under a single stationary head during a disk rotation, a ring 1 bit wide. A cylinder is
comprised of the set of tracks described by all the heads (on separate platters) at a single seek
position. Each cylinder is equidistant from the center of the disk. A track is divided into
segments of sectors, which is the basic unit of storage

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Optical Memory
Optical memory uses light beam for its operation. It is developed in fourth generation of
computer. It is mainly used for storing audio/video, backup as well as for carrying data. It
requires optical drive for its operation. Its read/write speed is slower compared to hard disk
and flash memories.
Example: CD, DVD, BD
CD It stands for Compact Disk. It has storage capacity of 700 MB or approximately 90
minutes of standard audio. CD contains hard circular plastic, single side of this plastic is
coated by aluminum alloy. This alloy stores data. It is protected by additional thin plastic
covering. CD required CD drive for its operation. Types of CD are:
CD-R is a blank CD in which data can be stored once. After storing data it is converted into
CD-ROM. CD-ROM It cannot be erased or updated
CD-RW it can be erased and used for multiple times.
DVD
It stands for Digital Versatile Disk. It has the storage capacity of 4.7GB to 17GB. Its shape
and size is similar to CD but the difference in storage capacity is due to different chemical
component and data is compressed before storing. It requires DVD drive for its operation.
Read/write speed of DVD is slower than that of CD. Types of DVD are:
DVD-R DVD-ROM DVD-RW
DVD can also be classified as:
v Single sided single layered DVD (4.7GB)
v Single sided dual layered DVD (7-8GB)
v Dual sided single layered DVD (9GB)
v Dual sided dual layered DVD (17GB)
BD
It stands for Bluray disk. It has the storage capacity of 25GB-50GB. It requires BD drive for
its operation. Its shape and size is similar to CD and DVD. Types of BD are:
BD-R BD-ROM BD-RW
Working mechanism of CD
The surface of the CD contains land and pit. Land represents binary 1 and pit represents
binary 0. During CD reading process a beam of light is emitted which strikes the surface of
CD and gets reflected. The reflection is captured by lens in the CD drive. Difference in
reflection from land and pit is identified to determine 1 and 0. Land is actually in a crystalline
form and pit is in amorphous form. The size of land and pit is smaller in DVD compared to
CD.

Flash memory (Known as Flash Storage) is a type of non-volatile storage memory that can
be written or programmed in units called “Sector” or a “Block.” Flash Memory
is EEPROM (Electronically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory) means that it
can retain its contents when the power supply removed, but whose contents can
be quickly erased and rewritten at the byte level by applying a short pulse of higher voltage.
This is called flash erasure, hence the name. Flash memory is currently both too expensive
and too slow to serve as main memory.
Flash memory is the most economical non-volatile, rewritable storage chip on the market.
Comprised of cells that hold a charge without power, flash memory is extremely durable and
used in just about every electronic device, including cameras, smartphones, tablets, music
players and USB drives.

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