Unit-1

Introduction to computers:
Definition: The term computer is derived from the word “compute”. A computer is an electronic
device that takes data and instructions as an input from the user, processes data, and provides
useful information known as output.

The electronic device is known as hardware and the set of instructions is known as software.

A computer consists of various components that function as an integrated system to perform

computational tasks. These components include the following:

1) Central processing Unit (CPU): It is the brain of the computer that is responsible for
controlling and executing program instructions.
2) Monitor: It is a display screen, which shows information in visual form.
3) Keyboard and Mouse: These are the peripheral devices used by the computer for
receiving inputs from the user.

Characteristics of the computer:

1) Speed: The computer is a fast electronic device that can solve large and complex problems
in few seconds. The speed of a computer generally depends upon its hardware
configuration.
2) Storage capacity: A computer can store huge amounts of data in many different formats.
The storage area of a computer system is generally divided into two categories, main
memory and secondary storage.
3) Accuracy: A computer carries out calculations with great accuracy. The accuracy achieved
by a computer depends upon its hardware configuration and the specified instructions.
4) Reliability: A computer produces results with no error. Most of the computer generated
errors are actuality human errors that are instigated by the user itself. Therefore, computers
are regarded as quite trustworthy machines.
5) Versatility: Computers are versatile machines. They can perform varied tasks and can be
used for many different purposes.
6) Diligence: Computers can perform repetitive calculations any number of times with the
same level of accuracy.

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Components of a Computer Hardware (OR) Block Diagram of Computer:
A computer device is made up of various elements which help in its effective functioning and
processing. Components of a computer system are the primary elements which make the
functioning of an electronic device smooth and faster.

There are five basic components of the computer which help in making this processing of data
easier and convenient.

There are five basic components which include:

1. Input Unit

2. Output Unit

3. Memory Unit

4. Control Unit

5. Arithmetical and Logical Unit

Input Unit:

Computers need to receive data and instructions in order to solve any problem. Therefore, we
need to input the data and instructions into the computers. The input unit consists of one or more
input devices. Keyboard is the one of the most commonly used input device. Other commonly
used input devices are the Mouse, Scanner, Microphone etc. All the input devices perform the
following functions.

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- Accept the data and instructions from the users.

- Convert it to a form that the computer can understand.

- Supply the converted data to the computer system for further processing.

Central Processing Unit:

The Control Unit (CU) and Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) of the computer are together known as
the Central Processing Unit (CPU). The CPU is like brain performs the following functions:

- It performs all calculations.

- It takes all decisions.

- It controls all units of the computer.

Arithmetic Logical Unit (ALU):

All calculations are performed in the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) of the computer. It also does
comparison and takes decision. The ALU can perform basic operations such as addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division, etc and does logic operations such as AND, OR, NOT, and
XOR.

Whenever calculations are required, the control unit transfers the data from storage unit to ALU
once the computations are done, the results are transferred to the storage unit by the control unit
and then it is send to the output unit for displaying results.

Control Unit (CU):

It controls all other units in the computer. The control unit instructs the input unit, where to store
the data after receiving it from the user. It controls the flow of data and instructions from the
storage unit to ALU. It also controls the flow of results from the ALU to the storage unit. The
control unit is generally referred as the central nervous system of the computer that control and
synchronizes its working.

Storage Unit:

The storage unit of the computer holds data and instructions that are entered through the input
unit, before they are processed. It preserves the intermediate and final results before these are
sent to the output devices. It also saves the data for the later use. The various storage devices of a
computer system are divided into two categories.

1. Primary Storage: Stores and provides very fast. This memory is generally used to hold the
program being currently executed in the computer, the data being received from the input unit,
the intermediate and final results of the program. The primary memory is temporary in nature.

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The data is lost, when the computer is switched off. In order to store the data permanently, the
data has to be transferred to the secondary memory. The cost of the primary storage is more
compared to the secondary storage. Therefore, most computers have limited primary storage
capacity.

2. Secondary Storage: Secondary storage is used like an archive. It stores several programs,
documents, data bases etc. The programs that you run on the computer are first transferred to the
primary memory before it is actually run. Whenever the results are saved, again they get stored
in the secondary memory. The secondary memory is slower and cheaper than the primary
memory. Some of the commonly used secondary memory devices are Hard disk, CD, etc.,

Output Unit: The Output unit consists of devices that are used to display the results or output of
processing. The output data is first stored in the memory and then displayed in human-readable
form through output devices. Some of the widely used output devices are Monitor, Printer and
Projector.

Input and Output devices:

Input Devices:

An input device is a computer device that allows computer users to enter data into a system and
send instructions to the system to execute tasks accordingly. It is the first or primary step in the
processing of computer data that is done at the Central Processing Unit (CPU). The delivered
signals are received by the CPU which processes them.

Output Devices:

An output device is a computer device that displays the result of the inserted input data after
getting processed from the CPU. CPU of a computer converts received information from
machine language to a human-friendly language and then sends these signals to output devices to
execute the tasks as per entered data.

When the data entered by the input devices is processed by the CPU of the computer then the
output devices take care of the result. The output devices display the visual contents on the
monitor screen while sound contents are delivered to the speaker connected to a computer.

Input Devices:
1. Keyboard

2. Mouse

3. Joy Stick

4. Light pen

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5. Track Ball

6. Scanner

7. Digitizer

8. Microphone

9. Magnetic Ink Card Reader(MICR)

10. Optical Character Reader(OCR)

11. Bar Code Reader

12. Optical Mark Reader or Recognition (OMR)

1. Keyboard:
The most basic input device to enter data on the system or any other device with the help of the
keys is a keyboard. They establish a connection with the computer either by wifi or by a USB
system. There are keys for everything – numbers, letters, characters, and functions.

The typing keys are A – Z and number keys till 09. The numeric keypad has 17 keys allowing
users to perform different calculations. Then there are function keys for special computer
features at the top row. The control keys have arrow signs on them allowing users to scroll on the
page and select. Then there are special-purpose keys like space, enter, shift, etc.

2. Mouse:
A hand-supported input device that allows users to move the cursor on the screen is a mouse. It
works on a flat surface with a wheel between the left and right buttons. Laptops have a touchpad
as does the function of a mouse. The earliest version of the mouse had a rollerball underneath but
the modern ones are made with optical technology with a light beam. The port of the mouse
connection depends on the computer and mouse type.

3. Joystick:
Joystick is a pointing device to move the cursor on the monitor screen but not the same as a
mouse. It has a spherical ball stick-type structure. It can move in all directions and is a computer
aid design mainly for gaming purposes.

4. Light Pen:
Device with a pen-like structure allowing users to select on the screen and even draw on it.
Photocells and optical systems are inbuilt inside the small tube allowing the flow of signals to the
CPU. The tip of the pen moves on the screen with the button pressed, the CPU receives the
signals.

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5. Track Ball:
A common accessory for notebooks and laptops, that works as a replacement for a mouse. With a
similar structure, it has a half inserted ball which the fingers move to send signals for cursor
movement. It is kind of stationary taking very little space. It comes in a ball, button, and square
shape as well.

6. Scanner:
A scanner works like a photocopy machine is an input device to make information available on a
pc from paper. This is mainly to manipulate the information by converting an image into a digital
form and then printing it.

7. Digitizer:
Responsible for converting analog information into digital form, a digitizer converts signals into
numeric values stored in a computer. A graphic tablet is also a digitizer converting graphics into
binary data. It is ideal for drawing and image manipulation applications.

8. Microphone:
It is an inbuilt voice input device to take in the sound signals and then convert them into digital
form. It is a very common device present in multimedia presentation and music-related
applications.

9. Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR):

MICR is a device commonly present in banks as they deal with many Cheques every day. The
bank’s code number and Cheque number have magnetic ink present in them allowing machines
to read the letters. This process is Magnetic Ink Character Recognition that has fewer errors and
is very fast.

10. Optical Character Reader (OCR):

It is also a reading device that reads printed text by scanning it character by character. It first
converts them into machine-readable code and saves them in the system memory.

11. Bar Code Readers:

Again a reading device but to read barcode data like on goods, books, etc. It can be a handheld
scanner or a stationary one but they both scan the image by converting it to alphanumeric value
on the computer.

12. Optical Mark Reader or Recognition (OMR):

It is an optical scanner to recognize marks by pen and pencil and is commonly present in
educational institutions to check objective exam papers.

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Output Devices:
1. Monitors

2. Printers

3. Speakers

4. Projector

5. Plotter

6. Television

7. Headphones

8. Video card

1. Monitors:
The visual display units are the most important output devices responsible for showing the visual
made of pixels to the user. The pixels decide the image sharpness. There are two types of
viewing screen on the monitor:

a. Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor

The pixels make up the image on the CRT display. The smaller pixels mean the image is more
clear. Even a single character like ‘k’ is made of numerous pixels on the screen. A screen can
have limited pixels at once, it is usually 80 by 20 characters horizontally and vertically.

b. Flat-Panel Display Monitor

These are high-level video devices with low volume, lightweight, and low power requirements.
From wall hanging to smartwatches, they are everywhere. There are either emissive displays or
non-emissive displays. Emissive displays convert electrical energy into light like LEDs in
plasma panels. While the non-emissive display converts sunlight to light energy like LCDs.

2. Printers:
The primary feature is to print information on paper.

3. Speakers:
An output device that produces sound after receiving a command from the computer. They
support the computers as well as other hardware devices. Now we have wireless speakers with
Bluetooth technology.

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4. Projector:
This is an optical device that presents visuals on the screen and moving both. They are present at
movie theatres, auditoriums, etc. It connects to the computer and displays the image on it on a
larger screen.

5. Plotter:
It is a device to make graphics, prints and other vector images to give a real life illustration vibe.
It is mandatory to have a graphic card to use the device. The pen like device that comes with it
helps in replicating the exact design on the computer.

6. Television:
A very common output device present in most of the households is a display output device. It
portrays video and audio files on the screen according to the user’s needs.
7. Video Card:
This device goes inside the sockets of a motherboard of the computer system. It improvises the
digital content appearance in other output devices.

8. Headphones:
Similar to speakers, this device has a lower sound frequency. They can’t be easily heard in large
areas like grounds and parks but are only accessible to a single person using the device. A
headset is another name for them.

Memories:
The Memory unit of a computer is used to store data, instructions for processing data,
intermediate results of processing and the final processed information.

The memory units of a computer are classified as Primary Memory and Secondary Memory.

Primary Memory:

The Primary Memory is available in the computer as a built in unit of the computer. The Primary
Memory is represented as a set of locations which each location occupying 8 bits. Each bit in the
memory is identified by unique address. The data is stored in the machine understandable binary
form in these memory locations.

Primary Memories are;

ROM: ROM represents Read only Memory that stores data and instructions, even when the
computer is turned off. It is permanent memory of the computer where the contents cannot be
modified by an end user. ROM is a chip that is inserted into the motherboard. It is generally used
to store the Basic Input/Output System (BIOS), which performs the Power On Self Test(POST).

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RAM: RAM is the read/write memory unit in which the information is retained only as long as
there is regular power supply. When the power supply is interrupted or switched off the
information stored in the RAM is lost. RAM is a volatile memory that temporarily stores data
and applications as long as they are in use. When the use of data or the application is over the
content in RAM is erased.

Cache Memory: Cache Memory is used to store the data and the related applications that was
last processed by the CPU. When the processor performs processing, it first searches the cache
memory and then the RAM, for an instruction. The Cache Memory is always placed between
CPU and the main memory of the computer system.

Secondary Memory:

Secondary Memory represents the external storage devices that are connected to the computer. A
storage device is either located in the CPU casing of the computer or its connected to the
computer.

Secondary Storage devices are;

Magnetic Storage Devices: The Magnetic Storage Devices stores information that can be read,
erased and rewritten number of times. These include floppy disks, hard disk and Magnetic tapes.

Optical Storage Device: The Optical Storage Devices are secondary storage devices that use
laser beams to read the stored data. These include CD-ROM, rewritable compact disk (CD-RW)
and digital video disks with read only Memory(DVD-ROM).

Magneto-optical storage device: These are generally used to store information, such as large
programs files and backup data. The end user can modify the information stored in Magneto-
optical storage device multiple times. These devices provide higher storage capacity as they use
laser beams and magnets for reading and writing data to the device. Eg: Sony Minidisc.

Universal Serial bus (USB) drive: Commonly Known as Pendrive is a removable storage
devices that is interfaced on the USB port of a computer system.

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Difference between RAM & ROM:

RAM ROM
It is a read write memory It is a read only memory
It is volatile storage device It is a permanent storage device
Data is erased as soon as power supply is Data remains stored even after power supply
turned off. has been turned off.

It is used in the main memory of a computer It is used to store Basic input output
system system(BIOS)

It is a faster and expensive memory. It is a slower and less expensive memory.

There are two types of RAM:

1. SRAM

2. DRAM

DRAM: DRAM (Dynamic Random-Access Memory) is a type of RAM that is used for the
dynamic storage of data in RAM. In DRAM, each cell carries one-bit information. The cell is
made up of two parts: a capacitor and a transistor. The size of the capacitor and the transistor is
so small, requiring millions of them to store on a single chip. Hence, a DRAM chip can hold
more data than an SRAM chip of the same size. However, the capacitor needs to be continuously
refreshed to retain information because DRAM is volatile. If the power is switched off, the data
store in memory is lost.

SRAM: SRAM (Static Random-Access Memory) is a type of RAM used to store static data in
the memory. It means to store data in SRAM remains active as long as the computer system has
a power supply. However, data is lost in SRAM when power failures have occurred.

Types of ROM:

MROM (Masked Read Only Memory):

MROM is the oldest type of read-only memory whose program or data is pre-configured by the
integrated circuit manufacture at the time of manufacturing. Therefore, a program or instruction
stored within the MROM chip cannot be changed by the user.

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PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory):

It is a type of digital read-only memory, in which the user can write any type of information or
program only once. It means it is the empty PROM chip in which the user can write the desired
content or program only once using the special PROM programmer or PROM burner device;
after that, the data or instruction cannot be changed or erased.

EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory):

It is the type of read only memory in which stored data can be erased and re-programmed only
once in the EPROM memory. It is a non-volatile memory chip that holds data when there is no
power supply and can also store data.

EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory):

The EEROM is an electrically erasable and programmable read only memory used to erase
stored data using a high voltage electrical charge and re-programmed it. It is also a non-volatile
memory whose data cannot be erased or lost; even the power is turned off. In EEPROM, the
stored data can be erased and reprogrammed up to 10 thousand times, and the data erase one byte
at a time.

Flash ROM:

Flash memory is a non-volatile storage memory chip that can be written or programmed in small
units called Block or Sector. Flash Memory is an EEPROM form of computer memory, and the
contents or data cannot be lost when the power source is turned off. It is also used to transfer data
between the computer and digital devices.

MB,GB their Conversions:

Memory Unit Description

Bit Binary Digit 1 or 0

Byte 8 bits

KiloByte(KB) 1024 Bytes

MegaByte(MB) 1024 KB

GigaByte(GB) 1024 MB

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 TeraByte(TB) 1024 GB

PetaByte(PB) 1024 TB

HexaByte or exaByte (EB) 1024 PB

ZettaByte (ZB) 1024 EB

YottaByte (YB) 1024 ZB

BrontoByte 1024 YB

GeopByte 1024 Bronto Bytes

Application software:
The term “application software” refers to software that performs specific functions for a user.
When a user interacts directly with a piece of software, it is called application software. The sole
purpose of application software is to assist the user in doing specified tasks.

Examples of Application Software:

❖ A collection of Microsoft software including MS Office, PowerPoint, Word, Excel and

Outlook.

❖ Common Internet browsers like Google Chrome, Safari, Firefox, etc.

❖ Graphics and designing software such as Adobe Photoshop, CorelDraw, and AutoCAD.

❖ Real-time online communication tools like Skype, Hangouts, Google Meet, Zoom &
Whatsapp for video, and audio calls and messages.

❖ Multimedia and music streaming software such as Wynk, Gaana, MX Player, VLC
Media Player, Spotify, Pandora, etc. are used for entertainment purposes.

❖ Project management software like Teams, Forecast etc., for official purposes.

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Function of application software:

Application software programs are created to help with a wide range of tasks. Here are a few
examples:

✓ Software for healthcare applications for seamless connectivity and quick response

✓ Managing information and data in an organization

✓ Software for educational purposes such as Learning Management Systems & e-learning
systems

✓ Development of visuals and video for presentation purposes

✓ Emails, text messaging, audio and video conferencing involved in presentation.

✓ Management of accounting, finance, and payroll helping the HR department and other
businesses

✓ Management of any small or large scale project

✓ Management of smooth and efficient business processes

✓ Management of resources (ERP and CRM systems)

System software:
System Software is a program designed to run a computer's hardware and applications and
manage its resources, such as its memory, processors, and devices. It also provides a platform
for running application software, and system software is typically bundled with a computer's
operating system.

Or

System Software is software designed to provide a platform for other software. Each type of
system software has its own set of unique characteristics.

Examples of system software include operating systems (OS) (like mac OS, Linux, Android
and Microsoft Windows), computational science software, game engines, search engines,
industrial automation, and software as a service applications.

Function of system software:

✓ Hardware is assigned to the respective programs as per the needs.

✓ Schedule the programs on the processor for executing them in a linear and systematic
manner.

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 ✓ The memory is allocated to each and every individual program according to the
requirement of the program.

✓ Input and output devices which are needed by programs are assigned at a time.

✓ Management of all the files of the program and data are stored on the secondary storage
devices.

✓ The file directories present in memory are maintained, and the provision of access to the
data of the files is provided.

✓ Maintain the coordination between the software and the user by allocating, assigning and
providing the assemblers, compilers, memory, interpreters and other things.

✓ Maintaining the security and access privileges to various resources of the system.

Difference between System Software and Application Software:

System Software Application Software

This acts as an interface between the system This is designed directly from the user perspective
and the applications.

It is the platform that allows the various These are independent applications which can be
application software to run on the system download and installed in the system

System Software is generally developed in Each application has a specific purpose and thus is
low-level languages. This is so that the developed with high-level languages so that the
interaction between the software and hardware purpose can be fulfilled
can be simplified and made more compatible

Is working is more automated. Once a system User action is required to start application
is turned on, the system software starts software. These applications can only be work
working when the user commands the system to do so

These are responsible for the working of the They have minimum involvement in the
system processing and functioning of the computer device
The system software are installed at the time The application software can be installed as and
of installing the operating system. A computer when the user requires them
device cannot work without its presence

It is an independent software. Once this is This is a dependent software. Applications can

installed the computer will work only be downloaded when the operating system is
installed

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Since a device cannot work without a system These are designed to be user interactive, thus the
software, the user has to have it installed in application software can be removed as and when
their devices required by the user

Example for System Software includes Examples of Application Software includes Word
Android, Mac Operating system, MS Processor, games, media player, etc.
Windows, etc.

Data:
Data is a collection of information gathered by observations, measurements, research or analysis.
They may consist of facts, numbers, names, figures or even description of things. Data is
organized in the form of graphs, charts or tables.

OR

Data can be defined as a representation of facts, concepts, or instructions in a formalized manner,

which should be suitable for communication, interpretation, or processing by human or
electronic machine.

Data is represented with the help of characters such as alphabets (A-Z, a-z), digits (0-9) or
special characters (+,-,/,*,<,>,= etc.)

Information:
Information is a set of data which is processed in a meaningful way according to the given
requirement. Information is processed, structured, or presented in a given context to make it
meaningful and useful.

Information assigns meaning and improves the reliability of the data. It helps to ensure
undesirability and reduces uncertainty. So, when the data is transformed into information, it
never has any useless details.

Differences between Data & Information:

Data Information
Data is unorganised and unrefined facts Information comprises processed, organised
data presented in a meaningful context

Data is an individual unit that contains raw Information is a group of data that
materials which do not carry any specific collectively carries a logical meaning.
meaning.

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 Data doesn’t depend on information. Information depends on data.

Raw data alone is insufficient for decision Information is sufficient for decision making
making

An example of data is a student’s test score The average score of a class is the
information derived from the given data.

Different Computer Languages (or) Types of Computer Languages:

Program: The operations of a computer are controlled by a set of instructions (called a computer
Program). These instructions are written to tell the computer.

The Language used in the communication of computer instructions is known as the programming
language. The computer has its own language and any communication with the computer must
be in its language or translated into this language.

Three levels of Programming Languages are available. They are

1. Machine Languages (Low Level Languages)

2. Assembly (or symbolic) Languages

3. Procedure-Oriented Languages (High Level Languages)

1. Machine Languages (Low Level Languages): As computers are made of two state electronic
devices they can understand only pulse and no-pulse (or ‘1’ and ‘0’) conditions. Therefore, all
instructions and data should be written using Binary codes 1 and 0. The binary code is called the
“Machine Code or Machine Language”.

2. Assembly (or symbolic) Languages: The Assembly Language, introduced in 1950s, reduced
programming complexity and provided some standardization to build an application. The
Assembly Language, the 0s and 1s of machine language are replaced with abbreviations or
mnemonic code.

An Assembly Language program consists of a series of instructions and mnemonics that

correspond to a stream of executable instructions & mnemonic code by zero or more operands.
The mnemonic code is called the operation code or opcode. The Assembly language program is
converted into the machine code with the help of an “Assembler”.

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 3. High Level Languages:

High level languages further simplified programming tasks by reducing the number of computer
operation details that had to be specified. High level languages like Cobol, Pascal, FORTRAN
and C are more abstract, easier to use and more portable as compared to low level programming
languages. A Programmer can concentrate more on the logic to solve the problem with the help
of variables, arrays or Boolean Expressions.

High Level Languages can be classified into the following three categories:

- Procedure-oriented languages (Third generation)

- Problem- oriented languages (Fourth generation)

- Natural Languages (Fifth generation)

Procedure-oriented languages: High Level Languages designed to solve general purpose

problems are called procedural languages or third generation languages. These include BASIC,
COBOL, FORTRAN,C, C++ and JAVA, which are designed to express the logic and procedure
of a problem.

The syntax of these programming language is difficult to understand. Advantage of third

generation languages is that they are Portable. Compiler or interpreter is used to translates the
code in these languages.

Problem- oriented languages: Problem-oriented languages are used to solve specific problems
and are known as the Fourth generation language. These include query languages, Report &
Applications generators which have simple, English-like Syntax rules. The Programmer just
needs to Drag and drop from the toolbar, to create various items like Buttons, Text Boxes,
Labels etc., Also the Programmer can quickly create the prototype of software Application.

Natural Languages: Natural Languages are designed to make a computer to bahave like an
expert and solve problems. The Programmer just needs to specify the problem and the
constraints for problem solving. Natural languages such as LISP (List Processing) and PROLOG
are mainly used in develop artificial intelligence and expert systems. These languages are widely
known as fifth generation languages.

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Number Systems:

A number system is a system of naming, representing, or expressing numbers in different types

of forms. The basic ways of representing number system are done in four ways.

1. Binary Number System

Base: 2 (i.e.; 0 & 1)

2. Octal Number System

Base: 8 (i.e.; 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 & 7)

3. Decimal Number System

Base: 10 (i.e.; 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 & 9)

4. Hexadecimal Number System

Base: 16 (i.e.; 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 & A- F)

In Hexa Decimal Number System: A is represented as 10, B -11, C- 12, D-13, E-14 & F-15.

Binary Number System:

A binary number is a number expressed in the base-2 numeral system or binary numeral system,
a method of mathematical expression which uses only two symbols: typically "0" (zero) and "1"
(one).
The base-2 numeral system is a positional notation with a radix of 2. Each digit is referred to as
a bit, or binary digit. Because of its straightforward implementation in digital electronic
circuitry using logic gates, the binary system is used by almost all modern computers and
computer-based devices, as a preferred system of use, over various other human techniques of
communication, because of the simplicity of the language and the noise immunity in physical
implementation.
Importance of binary code:
The binary number system is the base of all computing systems and operations. It enables
devices to store, access and manipulate all types of information directed to and from the CPU or
memory. Used to develop applications that enable users to do the following:

• view websites
• create and update documents

• play games

• view streaming video and other kinds of graphical information

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• access software
• Perform calculations and data analyses.

The binary schema of digital 1s and 0s offers a simple and elegant way for computers to work. It
also offers an efficient way to control logic circuits and to detect an electrical signal's true (1)
and false (0) states.

Decimal Number System:

In the decimal number system, the numbers are represented with base 10. The way of denoting
the decimal numbers with base 10 is also termed as decimal notation. This number system is
widely used in computer applications. It is also called the base-10 number system which consists
of 10 digits, such as, 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9. Each digit in the decimal system has a position and
every digit is ten times more significant than the previous digit.
A number system which uses digits from 0 to 9 to represent a number with base 10 is the decimal
system number. The number is expressed in base-10 where each value is denoted by 0 or first
nine positive integers. Each value in this number system has the place value of power 10. It
means the digit at the tens place is ten times greater than the digit at the unit place.

Octal Number System:

A number system with its base as eight and uses digits from 0 to 7 is called Octal Number
System. The word octal is used to represent the numbers that have eight as the base. The octal
numbers have many applications and importance such as it is used in computers and digital
numbering systems.

Position of every digit has a weight which is a power of 8. Each position in the Octal system is 8
times more significant than the previous position, that means numeric value of an octal number is
determined by multiplying each digit of the number by the value of the position in which the
digit appears and then adding the products. So, it is also a positional (or weighted) number
system.

Applications of Octal Number System:

Octal Number System is used when the number of bits in one word is a multiple of 3. It is also
used as shorthand for representing file permissions on UNIX systems and representation of
UTF8 numbers, etc.

Advantages and Disadvantages:

The main advantage of using octal numbers is that it uses less digits than decimal and
Hexadecimal number system. So, it has fewer computations and less computational errors. It

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uses only 3 bits to represent any digit in binary and easy to convert from octal to binary and
vice-versa. It is easier to handle input and output in the octal form.
The major disadvantage of Octal number system is that computer does not understand octal
number system directly, so we need octal to binary converter.

Hexadecimal Number System:

In computing, the hexadecimal (also base-16 or simply hex) numeral system is a positional
numeral system that represents numbers using a radix (base) of 16. Hexadecimal Number
System uses 16 distinct symbols, most often the symbols "0"–"9" to represent values 0 to 9, and
"A"–"F" (or alternatively "a"–"f") to represent values from 10 to 15.
Software developers and system designers widely use hexadecimal numbers because they
provide a human-friendly representation of binary-coded values. Each hexadecimal digit
represents four bits (binary digits), also known as a nibble (or nybble).
Hexadecimal is used in the transfer encoding Base16, in which each byte of the plaintext is
broken into two 4-bit values and represented by two hexadecimal digits.

Advantages of the Hexadecimal number system:

o Uses less memory to store more numbers
o Represents computer memory address
o Conversion from hexadecimal to binary and vice-versa is easier.
o Input and output in hexadecimal form can be handled easily.

Disadvantages of the Hexadecimal number system:

o Operations such as multiplication, division are difficult to perform using a hexadecimal
number system.
o It is hard to deal with computer data with hexadecimal numbers.

Applications of the Hexadecimal number system:

o Used in microprocessors and computer programming.
o Used to describe locations in memory for every byte.
o Helps to describe colors on web pages.

Binary to Decimal Conversion:

A binary number is converted into a decimal number by multiplying each digit of the binary
number by the power of either 1 or 0 to the corresponding power of 2. Let us consider that a
binary number has n digits, B = an-1…a3a2a1a0. Now, the corresponding decimal number is
given as D= (an-1 × 2n-1) +…+(a3 × 23) + (a2 × 22) + (a1 × 21) + (a0 × 20).

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Example: Convert (10011)2 to a decimal number.

Solution:

The given binary number is (10011)2.

(10011)2 = (1 × 24) + (0 × 23) + (0 × 22) + (1 × 21) + (1 × 20)

= 16 + 0 + 0 + 2 + 1 = (19)10
Hence, the binary number (10011)2 is expressed as (19)10

Decimal to Binary Conversion:

A decimal number is converted into a binary number by dividing the given decimal number by
2 continuously until we get the quotient as 1, and we write the numbers from downwards to
upwards.
Example: Convert (28)10 into a binary number.

Solution:

Hence, (28)10 is expressed as (11100)2.

Note: Same procedure for converting any given number from Binary to Decimal and Decimal
to Binary.

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