IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

UNIT -3 (Register Transfer Language and Microoperation)

1. What is register ?
Ans . Registers are a type of computer memory used to quickly accept, store, and transfer data
and instructions that are being used immediately by the CPU. The registers used by the CPU are
often termed as Processor registers.
2. What is Microoperations ?
Ans . The operations executed on values stored in registers are called as micro-operations." CPU
can perform operations on some values (operands), and these values are stored in
memory(registers). Operations made by the CPU to fetch these values and execute the instruction
are micro- operations.
3. What is register transfer language ?
Ans. The symbolic notation used to describe the micro-operation transfer among registers is
called RTL(Register Transfer Language).
The use of symbols instead of a narrative explanation provides an organized and concise
manner for listing the micro-operation sequences in registers and the control functions that initiate
them. It is a convenient tool for describing the internal organization of digital computers concise
andprecise manner.


4. Explain Bus transfer in computer architecture ?
Ans.

 A more efficient scheme for transferring information between registers in a

multiple-registerconfiguration is a Common Bus System.
 A common bus consists of a set of common lines, one for each bit of a register.
 Control signals determine which register is selected by the bus during each
particular registertransfer.
 Different ways of constructing a Common Bus System
 Using Multiplexers
 Using Tri-state Buffers

Common bus system is with multiplexers:

 The multiplexers select the source register whose binary

information is then placedon the bus.
 The construction of a bus system for four registers is shown in below Figure.
  The bus consists of four 4 x 1 multiplexers each having four data inputs, 0
through 3, and twoselection inputs, S1 and S0.
 For example, output 1 of register A is connected to input 0 of MUX 1 because
this input is labelledA1.
 The diagram shows that the bits in the same significant position in each register
are connected tothe data inputs of one multiplexer to form one line of the bus.
 Thus MUX 0 multiplexes the four 0 bits of the registers, MUX 1 multiplexes the
four 1 bits of theregisters, and similarly for the other two bits.
 The two selection lines Si and So are connected to the selection inputs of all four
multiplexers.
 The selection lines choose the four bits of one register and transfer them
into the four-linecommon bus.
 When S1S0 = 00, the 0 data inputs of all four multiplexers are selected and
applied to the outputsthat form the bus.
 This causes the bus lines to receive the content of register A since the outputs
of this register areconnected to the 0 data inputs of the multiplexers.
 Similarly, register B is selected if S1S0 = 01, and so on.
 Table 4-2 shows the register that is selected by the bus for each of the four
possible binary valueof the selection lines.

5. What is Register Transfer in computer Architecture ?

Ans.
 Information transfer from one register to another is designated in symbolic form by
 means of a
replacement operator.
 The statement R2← R1 denotes a transfer of the content of register R1 into register
R2.
 It designates a replacement of the content of R2 by the content of R1.
 By definition, the content of the source register R 1 does not change after the
transfer.
 If we want the transfer to occur only under a predetermined control
condition then it can beshown by an if-then statement.
if (P=1) then R2← R 1

 P is the control signal generated by a control section.

 We can separate the control variables from the register transfer operation by
specifying a ControlFunction.
 Control function is a Boolean variable that is equal to 0 or 1.
 control function is included in the statement as
P: R2← R1
 Control condition is terminated by a colon implies transfer operation be
executed by thehardware only if P=1.
 Every statement written in a register transfer notation implies a hardware
construction forimplementing the transfer.


6. What is Memory Transfer in computer Architecture ?

Ans.

 The transfer of information from a memory word to the outside environment is

called a read
operation.
  The transfer of new information to be stored into the memory is called a write
operation.
 A memory word will be symbolized by the letter M.
 The particular memory word among the many available is selected by the
memory address duringthe transfer.
 It is necessary to specify the address of M when writing memory transfer
operations.
 This will be done by enclosing the address in square brackets following the letter M.
 Consider a memory unit that receives the address from a register, called the
address register,symbolized by AR.
 The data are transferred to another register, called the data register, symbolized by
DR.
 The read operation can be stated as follows:

Read: DR<- M [AR]

 This causes a transfer of information into DR from the memory word M selected
by the address inAR.
 The write operation transfers the content of a data register to a memory word
M selected by theaddress. Assume that the input data are in register R1 and the
address is in AR.
 The write operation can be stated as follows:
Write: M [AR] <- R1

7. What is Microoperation explain in brief ?

Ans. The operations executed on values stored in registers are called as micro-operations." CPU
can perform operations on some values (operands), and these values are stored in
memory(registers). Operations made by the CPU to fetch these values and execute the instruction
are micro- operations.

Types of Micro-operations:

 Register Transfer Micro-operations: Transfer binary information from one register

to another.
 Arithmetic Micro-operations: Perform arithmetic operation on numeric data stored
in registers.
 Logical Micro-operations: Perform bit manipulation operations on data stored in
registers.
 Shift Micro-operations: Perform shift operations on data stored in registers.
Arithmetic Micro-operations:
 The basic arithmetic micro-operations are
o Addition
o Subtraction
o Increment
o Decrement
o Shift
 The arithmetic Micro-operation defined by the statement below
specifies the add micro-operation.
R3 ← R1 + R2
 It states that the contents of R1 are added to contents of R2 and sum is transferred
to R3.
 To implement this statement hardware requires 3 registers and digital
component that performsaddition
 Subtraction is most often implemented through complementation and addition.
 The subtract operation is specified by the following statement
R3 ← R1 + R2 + 1
 instead of minus operator, we can write as
 R2 is the symbol for the 1’s complement of R2
 Adding 1 to 1’s complement produces 2’s complement
 Adding the contents of R1 to the 2's complement of R2 is equivalent to R1-R2.

Logic Micro-operations:

 Logic microoperations specify binary operations for strings of bits stored in

registers.
 These operations consider each bit of the register separately and treat them as
binary variables.
 For example, the exclusive-OR microoperation with the contents of two
registers RI and R2 issymbolized by the statement

 It specifies a logic microoperation to be executed on the individual bits of the

registers providedthat the control variable P = 1.
 

Shift Microoperations:
 Shift microoperations are used for serial transfer of data.
 The contents of a register can be shifted to the left or the right.
 During a shift-left operation the serial input transfers a bit into the rightmost
position.
 During a shift-right operation the serial input transfers a bit into the leftmost
position.
There are three types of shifts: logical, circular, and arithmetic
 Logical Shift:
o A logical shift is one that transfers 0 through the serial input.
o The symbols shl and shr for logical shift-left and shift-right microoperations.
o The bit transferred to the end position through the serial input is
assumed to be 0 during a logical shift.
 Circular Shift:
o The circular shift (also known as a rotate operation) circulates the
bits of the registeraround the two ends without loss of information.
o This is accomplished by connecting the serial output of the shift register to
its serial input.
 IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
UNIT -4 (Basic computer organization and Design)

1. Define Instruction Code ?

Ans. An instruction code is a group of bits that instruct the computer to perform a
specific operation. • The operation code of an instruction is a group of bits that
define operations such as addition, subtraction, shift, complement, etc
2. Explain computer register and its types in brief ?
Ans. Register are used to quickly accept, store, and transfer data and instructions that are
being used immediately by the CPU, there are various types of Registers those are used for
various purpose. Among of the some Mostly used Registers named as AC or Accumulator,
Data Register or DR, the AR or Address Register, program counter (PC), memory Data
Register (MDR) ,Index register Buffer Register.
These Registers are used for performing the various Operations. While we are working on the
System then these Registers are used by the CPU for Performing the Operations. When We
Gives Some Input to the System then the Input will be Stored into the Registers and When the
System will gives us the Results after Processing then the Result will also be from the Registers.
So that they are used by the CPU for Processing the Data which is given by the User. Registers
Perform:-
1) Fetch: The Fetch Operation is used for taking the instructions those are given by the user
and the Instructions those are stored into the Main Memory will be fetch by using Registers.
2) Decode: The Decode Operation is used for interpreting the Instructions means the
Instructions are decoded means the CPU will find out which Operation is to be performed on
the Instructions.

3) Execute: The Execute Operation is performed by the CPU. And Results those are produced
by the CPU are then Stored into the Memory and after that they are displayed on the user
Screen.
Types of computer register.
1. Accumulator Register

2. MAR
3. MDR
4. CCR (Condition code register )
3. What is Addressing Mode in computer Architecture ?
Ans. The term addressing modes refers to the way in which the operand of an instruction
is specified. The addressing mode specifies a rule for interpreting or modifying the
address field of the instruction before the operand is actually executed.
 Types of Addressing Mode
Implied mode:: In implied addressing the operand is specified in the instruction itself. In
this mode the data is 8 bits or 16 bits long and data is the part of instruction.Zero address
instruction are designed with implied addressing mode.
Immediate addressing mode (symbol #):In this mode data is present in address field of
instruction .Designed like one address instruction format.
Note:Limitation in the immediate mode is that the range of constants are restricted by
size of address field.

Register mode: In register addressing the operand is placed in one of 8 bit or 16 bit
general purpose registers. The data is in the register that is specified by the instruction.
Here one register reference is required to access the data.

Register Indirect mode: In this addressing the operand’s offset is placed in any one of the
registers BX,BP,SI,DI as specified in the instruction. The effective address of the data is in
the base register or an index register that is specified by the instruction.
Here two register reference is required to access the data.

Auto Indexed (increment mode): Effective address of the operand is the contents of a
register specified in the instruction. After accessing the operand, the contents of this
register are automatically incremented to point to the next consecutive memory
location.(R1)+.
Here one register reference,one memory reference and one ALU operation is required to
access the
 Auto indexed ( decrement mode): Effective address of the operand is the contents of a
register specified in the instruction. Before accessing the operand, the contents of this
register are automatically decremented to point to the previous consecutive memory
location. –(R1)
 Here one register reference,one memory reference and one ALU operation is required
to access the data.

4. Explain Computer bus system in computer Architecture ?

Ans.
 A bus is a set of electrical wires (lines) that connects the various hardware
components of a computer system.
 It works as a communication pathway through which information flows from one
hardware component to the other hardware component.

Why Do We Need Bus?

 A computer system is made of different components such as memory, ALU, registers
etc.
 Each component should be able to communicate with other for proper execution of
instructions and information flow.
 If we try to implement a mesh topology among different components, it would be really
expensive.
 So, we use a common component to connect each necessary component i.e. BUS.

Components Of A System Bus-

The system bus consists of three major components-

1. Address Bus
2. Data Bus
3. Control Bus
 5. What do you mean by Instruction format ?
Ans. A standard machine which can be directly decoded and executed by the CPU is
called instruction format. It is a sequence of bits in a machine instruction that defines the
layout of the instruction. The format of instruction provides specific information to the
CPU regarding the information to be performed.

Format Of Instruction

The set of instructions that manages the operation codes is called the format of instruction.
The design of bits in instruction is supported by the format of instruction. The length of
instruction is generally preserved in multiples of character, which is 8bits. The instruction
format determines the behaviour and complexity of instruction. Depending upon the number
of addresses, the format of instruction is of variable length.

Types of instruction format include:

 Zero(0) Address Instruction format

 One(1) Address Instruction format
 Two(2) Address Instruction format
 Three(3) Address Instruction format

Types Of Instruction Format

Types of instruction formats are :

1. Zero(0) Address Instruction format

 The instruction format in which there is no address field is called zero address instruction

 In zero address instruction format, stacks are used

 In zero order instruction format, there is no operand

2. One(1) Address Instruction format

 The instruction format in which the instruction uses only one address field is called the one
address instruction format
 In this type of instruction format, one operand is in the accumulator and the other is in the
memory location
 It has only one operand
 It has two special instructions LOAD and STORE
 3. Two(2) Address Instruction format

 The instruction format in which the instruction uses only two address fields is called the two
address instruction format
 This type of instruction format is the most commonly used instruction format
 As in one address instruction format, the result is stored in the accumulator only, but in two
addresses instruction format the result can be stored in different locations
 This type of instruction format has two operands
 It requires shorter assembly language instructions

4. Three(3) Address Instruction format

 The instruction format in which the instruction uses the three address fields is called the
three address instruction format
 It has three operands
 It requires shorter assembly language instructions
 It requires more bits

Example Of format Of Instruction

1. Zero Address Instruction examples

 Assembly language instruction – PUSH A, PUSH B etc.

 Stack transfer operation – TOS <- A, TOS <- B etc.

2. One Address Instruction examples

 Assembly language instruction – LOAD C, ADD B, STORE T etc.

 Operation Register instruction – AC <- M[T], AC <- M[C] etc.

3. Two Address Instruction examples

 Assembly language instruction – MOV R1, A; ADD R1, B etc.

 Operation Register instruction – R1 <- M[A], R2 <- M[C] etc.

4. Three Address Instruction examples

 Assembly language instruction – ADD R1, A, B etc.

 Operation Register instruction – R1 <- M[A] + M[B] etc.