12 a i (Free) radical.

[1] H H
13 a C C H [1]
ii O O
H C C
N H H
O O N N σ bonds between the C and H atoms and the
O O central C–C atoms. [1]
NO2 N2O4 Both double bonds are composed of both a σ and
Figure A4.32
π bond. [1]
b i N2O + O → 2 NO [1] All of the carbon atoms are sp2 hybridised [1],
NO2 + O → NO + O2 [1] bond angles are around 120°.[1]
ii O3 → O2 + O [1] Molecule is planar and zig-zag shaped/
iii NO + O3 → NO2 + O2 and non-linear. [1]
NO2 + O → NO + O2 [1] The π bonds are delocalised across all 4 carbon
NO acts as a catalyst because it is regenerated atoms/diagram to show delocalisation. [1]
in the second equation. [1] [Max 6]
c i sp3 [1] b i The cis-isomer tends to form hydrogen bonding
ii 103–108° [1] within the molecule (intramolecular) which
d i coordinate/dative bond [1] means that it makes fewer intermolecular
ii Formal charges in Figure 4.24a are P = 0, hydrogen bonds. [1]
oxygen = 0, Cl = 0. [1] Therefore less energy is required to separate the
Formal charges in Figure 4.24b are P = +1, molecules and it has a lower melting point. [1]
O = –1, Cl = 0. [1] H
As the formal charges are closer to zero for the O
structure in Figure 4.24a, this is more likely. [1] H H H C O
C C O C C
P C
O C H O C H
e i Cl Cl [1] for shape, [1] for bond angle O O O
107° Cl
H H
Cl intramolecular H bonding positions for H bonding
Cl are all intermolecular
90°
ii Cl P 120° [1] for shape, [1] for bond angle
ii There is restricted rotation about the carbon–carbon
Cl
Cl double bond and so the carboxylic acid groups are
held too far apart to react with each other. [1]
F –
F
iii F
90°
P F [1] for shape, [1] for bond angle Chapter 5: Energetics/
thermochemistry
F F Exercise 5.1
F + 1 a i exothermic (combustion)
109.5°
ii endothermic (photosynthesis)
iv P [1] for shape, [1] for iii endothermic (liquid to gas involves bond
F breaking)
F F
iv endothermic (thermal decomposition)
bond angle

26

Answers.indd 26 2/20/2017 6:01:04 PM

 b The sign is negative because the chemical system c Heat losses to the surrounding air and the can
loses energy to the surroundings. The surroundings itself; evaporation of the water.
gain energy and so the temperature of the d Lagging or insulating the copper can; having a
surroundings increases. lower final temperature by not heating for as
c Heat is a type of energy whereas temperature is a long; evaporation increases at higher
measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles. temperatures.
d i e Data book values are quoted for the complete
combustion of a fuel. It is unlikely that this
Reactants Products fuel underwent complete combustion. They
Energy

Energy
∆H also are quoted under standard conditions but
∆H
Products Reactants the conditions here were not 298 K and
100 kPa and the H2O produced by the
Reaction coordinate Reaction coordinate
combustion of the fuel was not in its liquid
Exothermic reaction Endothermic reaction state.
Figure A5.1 a: Exothermic reaction; b: endothermic reaction.
Exercise 5.2
ii exothermic reactions (the products are 1 a i q = mcΔT = 50 × 4.18 × 11 = 2299 J
thermodynamically more stable than the m = 2.0
reactants as they have less energy) ii n = = 0.01887 mol
M r 105.99
2 a Using q = mc ΔT −q − 2299
384 = 20.0 × c × 50.0 iii ∆H1 == = –121 835 = –122 kJ mol–1
n 0.01887
c= 384 = 0.384 J g–1 K–1 b i q = mcΔT = 50 × 4.18 × –6.0 = –1254 J
( 20 . 0 × 50. 0 )
b Assuming no heat losses then the 384 J are ii n = m = 2.0 = 0.02381 mol
M r 84.01
transferred to the 250 g of water
384 = 250 × 4.18 × ΔT −q − ( − 1254)
iii ∆H2 = = = 52 674 = 52.7 kJ mol–1
384 n 0.02381
∆T = = 0.367 °C
(250 × 4.18) c
Final temperature of the water = 25 + 0.367 ∆Hr
2NaHCO3(s) Na2CO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
= 25.4 °C
3 a Mass of water heated = 326.5 – 212.3 = 114.2 g + 2HCl(aq) + 2HCl(aq)
Temperature change = 77.5 – 21.5 = 56.0 °C
Using q = mc ΔT 2 × ∆H2 1 × ∆H1
q = 114.2 × 4.18 × 56.0 = 26 731.936 J
Mass of fuel used = 104.0 – 99.3 = 4.7 g 2NaCl(aq) + 2H2O(l) + 2CO2(g)
Relative molecular mass of C5H11OH = 88.17 Figure A5.2 Hess’s cycle for decomposition of NaHCO3.
Using n = m = 4.7 = 0.05331 mol
M r 88.17 ΔHr = (2 × ΔH2) – ΔH1
−q −26731
−q −26731.936
Therefore enthalpy change = = = (2 × 52.7) – (–122)
n 0.05331
= 227 kJ mol–1
= –501 443 J mol–1 = –501 kJ mol–1
b Copper is a good thermal conductor so it allows
the heat energy from the flame to be transferred
into the water.

ANSWERS 27

Answers.indd 27 2/20/2017 6:01:05 PM

 2 a ∆Hr c
PCI5(g) PCI3(g) + Cl2(g)
∆Hr
C2H5OH(l) + CH3COOH(l) CH3COOCH2CH3(l) + H2O(l)
(+ 3O2) + (2O2) + (5O2)
–874
3438 –2439 –1367 –2238
4 4

4CO2(g) + 5H2O(l)
1 1
4 P4(s) + 2 Cl2(g)
2 Figure A5.5 Hess cycle for C2H5OH + CH3COOH →
Figure A5.3 Hess’s cycle for PCl5 → PCl3 + Cl2. CH3COOCH2CH3 + H2O.

ΔHr = (–1367) + (–874) – (–2238) = –3 kJ mol–1

3438 + ( −2439) = 249.75 d i
ΔHr =
4 4
∆Hr
= 249.8 kJ mol–1 (4 s.f.) C6H5COOH(s) + 7 12O2(g) 7CO2(g) + 3H2O(l)
An alternative method in these calculations is to 0
use algebra: what combination of the known 7 × –394 3 × –286
–385
equations can be combined to make the unknown
equation?
7C(s) + 3H2(g) + 8 12 O2(g)
In this question
1 (4PCl (g) → P (s) + 10Cl (g)) Figure A5.6 Hess cycle for the combustion of
5 4 2 C6H5COOH
4
+
1 (P (s) + 6Cl (g) → 4PCl (g)) ΔHr = –(–385) – (0) + (7 × –394) + (3 × –286)
4 4 2 3
= –3231 kJ mol–1
= PCl5(g) → PCl3(g) + Cl2(g)
Therefore, ii
3438 + −2439 = ∆H = 249.8 kJ mol–1 7C(s) + 3H2(g) + 8 12 O2(g)
r
4 4 –385 (7 × –394) + (3 × –286)
b
Energy

C6H5COOH(s) + 7 12 O2(g)
∆Hr
N2H4(l) + H2(g) 2NH3(g)
(+ CH4O(l)) (+ CH4O(l)) 7CO2(g) + 3H2O(l)

–46 Reaction coordinate

–37 –65 Figure A5.7 Energy level diagram for the combustion
of C6H5COOH.
CH2O(g) + N2(g) + 4H2(g)
Figure A5.4 Hess cycle for N2H4(l) + H2(g) → 2NH3(g). Exercise 5.3
ΔHr = (–37) + (–46) – (–65) = –18 kJ mol–1
1 a The average amount of energy required to break
Alternatively using algebra, (labelling the
one mole of covalent bonds in a gaseous molecule
equations given in the question as 1–4)
under standard conditions. Average refers to the
eqn 1 = eqn 2 + eqn 3 – eqn 4
fact that the actual bond enthalpy will vary in
different molecules.

28

Answers.indd 28 2/20/2017 6:01:06 PM

 b i
H H H H

H C C C C H + 6 12O O 4O C O +5 H O
H
H H H H

3×C C
( broken
Bonds
) ( formed
Bonds
) 8×C O
10 × C H 10 × H O
6 12× O O

4C(g) + 10H(g) + 13O(g)

Figure A5.8 Combustion of butane.

∆Hr = (3 × 346) + (10 × 414) + 6 × 498

1
2 ( ) Exercise 5.4
1 a The enthalpy change to form one mole of
– ((8 × 804) + (10 × 463)) = –2647 kJ mol–1
gaseous atoms from an element under standard
Alternatively, use the formula
conditions of 298 K and 100 kPa.
∆Hr = bond enthalpiesreactants – bond enthalpiesproducts
b The enthalpy change when one mole of a
or ∆Hr = bond enthalpiesbonds broken
substance is formed from its elements in their
– bond enthalpiesbonds formed
standard states under standard conditions of 298 K
ii 1. Bond enthalpy values are average values
and 100 kPa.
deduced from across arrange of molecules
c The enthalpy change when one mole of an ionic
and so are not entirely accurate.
substance dissociates into its gaseous ions under
2. The definition of the standard enthalpy of
standard conditions of 298 K and 100 kPa.
combustion produces water rather than H2O(g);
d The enthalpy change when one electron is added
bond enthalpy data is for the gaseous state.
2 a to each atom in one mole of gaseous atoms under
143
112 O2(g) O3(g) standard conditions of 298 K and 100 kPa;
X(g) + e– → X–(g)
e The enthalpy change when one electron is added
112 × O O 2×O O to each 1– charged ion in one mole of gaseous
bonds in ozone ions under standard conditions of 298 K and
100 kPa; X–(g) + e– → X2–(g)
3O(g) f The minimum amount of energy required to
Figure A5.9 Enthalpy of formation of ozone.
remove one electron from each atom in one mole
1
( )
143 = 1 × 498 – (2 × O–O bond in ozone)
2
of gaseous atoms under standard conditions of
(2 × O–O bond in ozone) = 604 298 K and 100 kPa; X(g) → X+(g) + e–
604 g The minimum amount of energy required to
O–O bond in ozone = = 302 kJ mol–1
2 remove one electron from each 1+ charged ion in
b The oxygen–oxygen bond in O2 is stronger than one mole of gaseous ions under standard
the average O–O bond in O3 as O2 contains a conditions of 298 K and
double bond. Higher energy radiation is required 100 kPa; X+(g) → X2+(g) + e–
to break this O=O and so only the highest UV-C 2 a A enthalpy of atomisation of calcium
energy is absorbed by O2. O3 absorbs mid-energy B enthalpy of atomisation of oxygen
UV-B as this is sufficient to break the oxygen– C first ionisation energy of calcium
oxygen bonds in ozone. The energy of UV-A is D second ionisation energy of calcium
not high enough to break the oxygen–oxygen E first electron affinity of oxygen
bonds in either O2 or O3 so UV-A radiation is F second electron affinity of oxygen
not absorbed and reaches the Earth’s surface.

ANSWERS 29

Answers.indd 29 2/20/2017 6:01:07 PM

 G lattice enthalpy of CaO 3 Using the formula ΔS ⦵ = Sproducts ⦵ – Sreactants ⦵
H enthalpy of formation of CaO a ΔS ⦵ = 5.7 – 2.4 = 3.3 J mol–1
b ∆Hf = (+178) + (+249) + (+590) + (+1145) b ΔS ⦵ = (214 + (2 × 70)) – (186 + (2 × 205))
+ (–141) + (+753) – (+3401) = –627 kJ mol–1 = –242 J mol–1
⦵
c The value for MgO is more endothermic than c ΔS = ((2 × 27) + 51) – ((2 × 28) + 87)
CaO which suggests that more energy is required = –38 J mol–1
to separate the lattice into its gaseous ions so the 4 a Spontaneous means that a reaction occurs at a
electrostatic forces of attraction between the ions given temperature without any outside influence.
in MgO must be stronger than in CaO. This is b A reaction is spontaneous when ∆G ⦵ < 0.
because the radius of the Mg2+ ion is smaller than c ∆G ⦵ = ∆H ⦵ – T∆S ⦵
the Ca2+ ion. Electrostatic forces of attraction are d
stronger over smaller distances.
∆H ⦵ ∆S ⦵ ∆G ⦵ Spontaneous?
d CaF2 has a less endothermic lattice enthalpy than
CaO even though the radius of F– is larger than positive positive negative at high only at high
temperatures temperatures
O2– because the electrostatic forces of attraction
increase as the charge on the ions increases and positive negative positive at all never spontaneous
temperatures
the oxide ion has a larger charge (2–) than the
fluoride ion (1–). negative positive negative at all always spontaneous
temperatures
3 a ∆Hsol = ∆Hlatt + ∆Hhyd (Ca2+) + (2 × ∆Hhyd(Br–)
negative negative negative at low only at low
= (+2176) + (–1616) + (2 × –328) temperatures temperatures
= –96 kJ mol–1 Table A5.1
b The lattice enthalpy of CaCl2 is probably more
endothermic than that of CaBr2 as the chloride ion 5 a Using ∆G ⦵ = ∆H ⦵ – T∆S ⦵
is smaller than bromide so the force of attraction
between the ions will be stronger in CaCl2, hence
( 1000 )
∆G ⦵ = –196 – 298 × 125 = –233 kJ mol–1
Spontaneous at all temperatures (as ∆H ⦵ is
∆Hsol could be less exothermic.The enthalpy of
negative and ∆S ⦵ is positive, ∆G ⦵ will always be
hydration of the chloride ion will be more
negative).
exothermic than that of bromide for the same
b Using ∆S ⦵ = ∆Sproducts ⦵ – ∆Sreactants ⦵
reason and so hence ∆Hsol could be more
∆S ⦵ = ((3 × 214) + (4 × 70)) –
exothermic. As these two factors have opposing
(220 + (5 × 206)) = –328 J mol–1
effects on the size of the enthalpy of solution,
Using ∆G ⦵ = ∆H ⦵ – T∆S ⦵
without knowing which of one of these two
increases more than the other, it is not possible to
predict the overall effect on the enthalpy of solution.
∆G ⦵ = –2219 – 298 × ( −
−328
1000 )
= –2121 kJ mol–1
∆G = 0 when ∆H ⦵ = T∆S ⦵
⦵

Exercise 5.5
1 a H2O (g)
–2219 = T × ( −
−328
1000 )
b at 100 °C T = –2219 × 1000 = 6765 K
c at 200 kPa −328
d solution made by dissolving 0.100 mol of NaCl in The reaction will be spontaneous at temperatures
100 g of water below 6765 K.
2 a Positive as a gas has been formed. c To find ∆H ⦵, using ∆Hr ⦵ =
b Negative as there are fewer moles of gas on the ∆Hf ⦵products – ∆Hf ⦵reactants
right hand side (2 → 1). ∆Hr ⦵ = ((–437) + (3 × –433) – (4 × –398)
c Negative as the products contain fewer moles of = –144 kJ mol–1
solute (and include a solid) than the reactants. To find ∆S ⦵, use ∆S ⦵ = ∆Sproducts ⦵ – åSreactants ⦵
∆S ⦵ = (83 + (3 × 151) – (4 × 143)
= –36 J mol–1

30

Answers.indd 30 2/20/2017 6:01:07 PM

 Using ∆G ⦵ = ∆H ⦵ – T∆S ⦵ g the same answer given in part a [1]

(
∆G ⦵ = –144 – 298 × −36 −
1000 )
= –133 kJ mol–1 12 a Hess’s law states that the energy change for a
reaction is independent of the route provided that
∆G ⦵ = 0 when ∆H ⦵ = T∆S ⦵ the conditions remain unchanged. [1]
−36 b i A standard enthalpy of formation of C6H6 [1]
–144 = T ×
1000 B standard enthalpy of formation of C6H5Cl [1]
T = 4000 K C standard enthalpy of formation of HCl [1]
The reaction will be spontaneous at temperatures ii ΔHr = –(49) + (11) + (–92.3) = –130 kJ mol–1
below 4000 K. [2, 1 mark if any one sign is incorrect, more
than one mistake scores zero]
Exam-style questions
c i ∆Hr
1 C 3C(s) + 3H2(g) C3H6(g)
2 A + 3O2 + 1 O2 1
2 + 4 12 O2
3 C 3 × ∆Hc(H2)
4 C 3 × ∆Hc(C) ∆Hc(C3H6)
5 D
6 C
7 B 3CO2(g) + 3H2O(g)
8 B Figure A5.10 ΔH for 3 C(s) + 3 H2(g) → C3H6(g).
9 A
10 D [1 mark for correct species, 1 mark for arrows
11 a between 11 and 12 °C [1] correctly orientated, 1 mark for all species
b Using q = mcΔT balanced (including oxygen)]
q = 50 × 4.18 × 11.5 = 2403 J [1] ii the standard enthalpy change of formation of
C3H6 [1]
n = 2.000 = 0.0823 mol
c n(Mg) = iii ΔHr = (3 × –394) + (3 × –286) – ( –2058)
M r 24.31
= +18 kJ mol–1; [3, 1 mark if any one sign is
n(CuSO4) = v × c = 50.0 × 0.100 = 0.00500 mol incorrect or multiples are missed, more than two
1000
[1 for both calculations] mistakes scores zero]
Mg and CuSO4 react 1 :1 then Mg is in excess iv
and CuSO4 is the limiting reactant [1] C3H6(g) + 4 12 O2(g)
−q −2403 + 18 kJ mol –1
d ΔH = = = –480 600 J mol–1
n 0.00500 3C(s) + 3H2(g) + 4O2(g)
= –481 kJ mol–1 [1 for the value, 1 for the correct
Energy

∆Hc(C3H6(g))
sign, units must be given] ∆Hc(C(s)) × 3
∆Hc(H2(g)) × 3
e The value obtained from the graph attempts to
correct for the heat losses from the solution to the 3CO2(g) + 3H2O(g)

surroundings. [1]
f The heat absorbed by the metals and the Reaction coordinate

apparatus has been ignored. Figure A5.11 Energy level diagram for formation of (C3H6).
The assumption that all of the CuSO4 reacts. [1 mark for correct levels, i.e. C3H6(g) above C(s)
The assumption that the specific heat capacity of + H2(g) above CO2 + H2O (ignore balancing)]
the mixture is the same as that of water. [1 mark for balancing including oxygen]
The assumption that the solution has a density of [1 mark for arrows pointing in the correct directions]
1 g cm–3. [1 mark for correct labelling of enthalpy changes
The assumption that the rate of cooling of the with words, symbols or numbers]
mixture is constant.
[Any 2]

ANSWERS 31

Answers.indd 31 2/20/2017 6:01:08 PM

 d i 14 a i
H H H Na+(g) + I –(g)
C C C H+4 O
1
2 O 3O C O+3H O H lattice enthalpy
∆Hhyd (Na+ )

Energy
H H + 4 12 × O O 6×C O Na I (s)
∆Hsol ∆Hhyd (I – )

6×O H Na+(aq) + I –(aq)

1×C C
6×C H
1×C C Reaction coordinate
3C(g) + 6H(g) + 9O(g) Figure A5.13 Enthalpy level diagram for NaI dissolving.
Figure A5.12 Combustion of C3H6.
[1 mark for Na+(g) + I–(g) above Na+(aq)
ΔHc = (614) + (6 × 414) + (346) + (4.5 × 498)
+ I–(aq) or NaI(aq)
– (6 × 804) – (6 × 463)
1 mark for enthalpy changes correctly labelled
= –1917 kJ mol–1; [3, 1 mark if any one
1 mark for NaI(s) above NaI(aq)]
sign is incorrect or multiples are missed,
ii Lattice enthalpy = ΔHsol ⦵(NaI)
more than two mistakes scores zero]
– (ΔHhyd ⦵(Na+) + ΔHhyd ⦵(I–))
ii 1. Bond enthalpy data use average values = –7.53 – (–424 + –287) = 703 kJ mol–1
deduced from across a range of different [2, 1 mark if any one sign is incorrect, more
molecules. [1] than one mistake scores zero]
2. Bond enthalpy data are for all species in the iii The lattice enthalpies become less endothermic
gaseous phase. ΔHc is for all substances in from NaCl to NaBr to NaI [1]
their standard states which for H2O is as anion radius increases. [1]
liquid and not gas. [1] iv become less exothermic down group 17 [1]
13 a A Mg(g) + Br2(l) v
B enthalpy of vaporisation of bromine
Na+(g) + Cl –(g) Na+(g) + I –(g)
C Br-Br bond enthalpy lattice enthalpy lattice enthalpy
∆Hhyd ∆Hhyd
D Mg(g) + 2Br(g) Na I (s)
E second ionisation energy of magnesium ∆Hsol
Energy

∆lattice
F Mg2+(g) + 2Br(g) + 2e– Na+(aq) + I –(aq)
G first electron affinity of bromine (×2) Na+(aq) + Cl –(aq) decrease in ∆Hhyd from
H lattice enthalpy of MgBr2 ∆Hsol
NaCl to NaI is much
smaller than the change
I enthalpy of formation of MgBr2 Na Cl (s) in the lattice enthalpy
[8 or 9 correct = 4 marks; 6 or 7 = 3 marks; from NaCl to NaI
Figure A5.14 Enthalpy level diagram for NaI and NaCl dissolving.
4 or 5 = 2 marks; 1, 2 or 3 = 1 mark]
b Lattice enthalpy = –(–524) + (129)
From NaCl to NaI both the lattice enthalpies and
+ (2 × 15) + (193) + (738)
the hydration enthalpies become smaller in
+ (1450) + (2 × –325)
–1 magnitude. As the enthalpy of solutions go from
= 2414 kJ mol . [3, 1 mark if any one sign is
exothermic to endothermic this suggests that the
incorrect or multiples are missed, more than two
reduction in the magnitude of the hydration
mistakes scores zero]
enthalpy is less than the reduction in the
c The larger the ionic radii, the less endothermic
magnitude of the lattice enthalpy.
the lattice enthalpies. [1]
[1 mark for both enthalpies increasing in
The higher the charges on the ions, the more
magnitude 1 mark for change in lattice enthalpy
endothermic the lattice enthalpies. [1]
> change in hydration enthalpy or vice versa]
d Lattice enthalpy for CaBr2 will be less
b Dissolving involves an increase in entropy. [1] The
endothermic than for MgBr2. [1]
increase in entropy is enough for ΔG < 0 at room
Ca2+ has a larger ionic radius than Mg2+ [1] resulting
temperature. [1]
in a lower force of attraction between the ions. [1]

32

Answers.indd 32 2/20/2017 6:01:09 PM

 15 a Using ΔHr ⦵ = ΔHf ⦵products – ΔHf ⦵reactants
ΔHr ⦵ = (2 × –46) + (10 × –286) + (–859) – (–3345) – (2 × –314)
= 162 kJ mol–1
[3, 1 mark if any one sign is incorrect or multiples are missed, more than two mistakes scores zero]
Using ΔS ⦵ = ∑Sproducts ⦵ – ∑Sreactants ⦵
ΔS⦵ = (2 × 192)+(10 × 70)+(124) – (427) – (2 × 95)
= 591 J mol–1
[3, 1 mark if any one sign is incorrect or multiples are missed, more than two mistakes scores zero]
Using ΔG ⦵ = ΔH ⦵ – TΔS ⦵ [1]

(
ΔG ⦵ = 162 – 298 × 591 ;
1000 )
[1 mark for correct conversion between J and kJ or kJ and J]
= –14 kJ mol–1 [1 mark for correct value, sign and units]
b ΔG ⦵ = 0 when ΔH ⦵ = TΔS ⦵
162 = (T × 591 )
1000
162 × 1000
T= = 274 K; [1 (calculation of the correct value)]
591
The reaction will be not be feasible at temperatures below 274 K. [1]

Chapter 6: Chemical kinetics

Exercise 6.1
1 a The collision theory states that for a reaction to occur, the particles must collide with the correct orientation and
with energy equal to or greater than the activation energy.
b Rate of reaction is the change in concentration of a reactant or product per unit time.
c concentration of a solution
pressure of a gas
surface area of solids
temperature
the presence of a catalyst
d As a reaction proceeds the reactants are used up and their concentration decrease. As there are fewer particles per unit
volume, the frequency of the collisions decreases and so the rate of reaction decreases.
2 a activation energy
b
Factor Frequency of collisions Proportion of successful collisions Minimum energy required for a successful collision
changing the The higher the concentration, Changing the concentration does not Changing the concentration does not change the
concentration of the more frequently the change the proportion of collisions which minimum amount of energy required for a collision to be
a reactant particles collide. are successful. successful.
changing the The higher the pressure, the more Changing the pressure does not change the Changing the pressure does not change the minimum
pressure of a gas frequently the particles collide. proportion of collisions which are successful. amount of energy required for a collision to be successful.
changing the The higher the surface area, the Changing the surface area does not change Changing the surface area does not change the
surface area of more frequently the particles the proportion of collisions which are minimum amount of energy required for a collision to be
a solid collide. successful. successful.
using a catalyst Catalysts do not change the The addition of a catalyst increases The addition of a catalyst lowers the minimum amount
frequency of collisions. the proportion of collisions which are of energy needed for the reaction as it provides an
successful. alternative route with a lower activation energy.
changing the The higher the temperature, the Increasing the temperature increases Changing the temperature does not change the
temperature more frequently the particles the proportion of collisions which are minimum amount of energy required for a collision to be
collide because their kinetic successful as a higher proportion of the successful.
energy and their average speed particles have energy equal to or greater
increase. than the activation energy.

Table A6.1

ANSWERS 33

Answers.indd 33 2/20/2017 6:01:09 PM