INTRODUCTION TO LOGIC

The Meaning of Logic

logike

• Logical vs. Illogical

• Formal Definition of Logic
- the science and art of correct
thinking.
LOGIC PUZZLES
• Involve making series of inferences and assessing them through
reasoning
• Manifests orderly, coherent and correct thinking

• EXAMPLES: 1. There are two ducks in front of a duck, two ducks

behind a duck and a duck in the middle. How many ducks are there?

2. A boat carries 50kls only. How many times would a

father weighing 50kls and his two sons weighing 25kls each use the
boat in order to cross a river?
SOLVING LOGIC PUZZLES
In a certain jeepney repair shop, the positions of
mechanic, electrician and body repairman are held by
three men, Asiong, Badong, and Carding, though not
necessarily in that order. The electrician, who is an only
child, earns the least. Carding, who married Badong’s
sister, earns more than the mechanic. What position
does each person hold?
ACTIVITY # 2: Solving Logic Puzzle
Alonzo, Kurt, Rudolf, and Willard are four creative artists of great
talent. One is a dancer, one is a painter, one is a singer, and one is a
writer, though not necessarily in that order.
a) Alonzo and Rudolf were in the audience the night the singer
made his debut on the concert stage.
b) Both Kurt and the writer have had their portraits painted
from life by the painter.
c) The writer, whose biography of Willard was a best seller, is
planning to write a biography of Alonzo.
d) Alonzo has never heard of Rudolf.
What is each man’s artistic field?
 DANCER PAINTER SINGER WRITER

ALONZO

KURT

RUDOLF

WILLARD
Birth and History of Logic
• Aristotle – father of logic
• Chrysippus – developed a logic with whole propositions as
fundamental elements
• Peter Abelard – theory of universals
• Leibniz – introduced symbolic logic
• Mill – initiated inductive logic
• Whitehead – tried to reduce math to logic
• Russell
TYPES OF LOGIC
A. ON THE BASIS OF APPROACH IN ARRIVING AT KNOWLEDGE
1. Deductive
2. Inductive

B. ON THE BASIS OF VALIDITY OF REASONING

1. Material
2. Formal
The Meaning of Deductive Logic
• Deductive Logic is a system of reasoning whereby a person
argues from universal or general truth to the particular, or
from the more to the less universal (particular to specific) by
way of the middle term.
• deals with deductive arguments which involve the claim
that their premises provide conclusive grounds for their
conclusions. When this claim is warranted, the reasoning
is correct and we call the argument valid; when this claim
cannot be sustained, the reasoning is incorrect and we call
the argument invalid.
• “Validity” therefore may be defined as follows: A
deductive argument is VALID when its premises, if
true, provide conclusive grounds for the truth of
its conclusion.
• A deductive argument is one whose conclusion is
claimed to follow from its premises with absolute
necessity, this necessity not being a matter of
degree and not depending in any way on whatever
else may be the case.
Universal All humans are mortal.(T)
Particular Krystal is human.(T)
Particular Therefore, Krystal is mortal.

• Every deductive argument is either valid or invalid.

• A valid deductive argument is an argument in
which the conclusion follows necessarily from the
premises; in other words, an argument such that if
the premises are assumed true, it is impossible that
the conclusion be false.
• The validity of a deductive argument can be either
formal or material. Validity refers to a relation
between propositions in a deductive argument.
Formal validity of an argument is based on the
conformity with the structure, pattern or
arrangement of the constituent parts or the rules of
correct argument.
• An argument is formally valid (valid) when it
conforms to the rules and structures of correct
reasoning established by Logic. Formal validity aims
at rectitude of argument.
• material validity of an argument is based on the
thought content or the meaning and truth of the
statement involved in thinking and reasoning.
• An argument is materially valid (true) when the ideas
therein conform with the fact or reality.
• Material validity, therefore, aims at certitude of the
propositions involved in the argument since an
argument is a group of propositions, some or all of
which may be true.
Validity and Truth
•In actual reasoning, both matter and form are
involved.
•There is that essential connection between the
validity or invalidity of an argument and the
truth or falsity of the propositions – premises
and conclusions.
VALID – false premises and a false conclusion

All four-legged animals are winged animals. All M are P. F

M P
All spiders are four-legged animals. All S are M. F
S M
Therefore, all spiders are winged animals. All S are P F
S P
VALID – false premises and a true conclusion

All fishes are mammals. All M are P. F

M P
All whales are fishes. All S are M. F
S M
Therefore, all whales are mammals. All S are P T
S P
INVALID – false premises and a true
conclusion

All mammals are winged animals. All P are M. F

P M
All whales are winged animals. All S are M. F
S M
Therefore, all whales are mammals. All S are P. T
S P
INVALID – true premises and a true conclusion

If I owned all the SM malls in the Philippines, If A is B, then C T

A is B is D.
then I would be wealthy.
C is D

But I do not own all the SM malls in the But A is not B. T

A is not B
Philippines. C is not D. T
Therefore, I am not wealthy.
C is not D
INVALID – true premises and a false conclusion

If Lucio Tan owned all the SM malls in the If A is B, then C T

A is B is D.
Philippines, then he should be wealthy.
C is D
But Lucio Tan does not own all the SM malls in
A is not B But A is not B. T
the Philippines.
Therefore, Lucio Tan is not wealthy. C is not D. F
C is not D
• Any deductive argument having true premises and
a false conclusion is necessarily invalid.
• If an argument is valid and its premises are true,
we may be certain that its conclusion must be true
also.
• When an argument is valid and all of its premises are
true, we call it “sound.” The conclusion of a sound
argument obviously must be true – and only a sound
argument can establish the truth of its conclusion.
a sound argument is a deductive
argument that is valid and has true
premises. Both conditions must be met for
an argument to be sound, if either is
missing, the argument is unsound.
VALID – true premises → true
conclusion

All mammals are lunged-animals. All M are P. T

M P
All whales are mammals. All S are M. T
S M
Therefore, all whales are lunged animals. All S are P T
S P
VALID – true premises and a true conclusion

If I owned all the SM malls in the Philippines, If A is B, then C T

A is B is D.
then I would be wealthy.
C is D

But I am not wealthy. But C is not D. T

C is not D

Therefore, I do not own all the SM malls in the A is not B. T

Philippines.
A is not B
Importance of Logic
•The importance of logic could be derived from
its theoretical and practical value. The study of
logic is intellectually rewarding for it provides
knowledge for its own sake. It provides us
knowledge and moreover makes us a better
thinker.
• With an understanding of the principles and methods of
logical inference, a person can reason out spontaneously
and clearly.
• Logic will enable a person to recognize good from bad
reasoning, it will enable him to point out the defects of bad
reasoning which he will avoid in his own argument and will
help him discover inconsistencies of thought.
• Knowledge of logic will help a person to evaluate
persuasions which use mere propaganda, psychological
means (emotions and majority pressure) rather that
supporting evidence or reason.
• Logic will help us make a critical examination of the reasons
for accepting authority as worthy of credence.
• Logic will enable a person to develop a critical
attitude toward his and others’ assumptions and
presuppositions, which serve as bases of ones’
argument.
• Logic will provide a person a good grasp of logical
terminologies useful in understanding works or
writings in philosophy, in physical and other social
sciences.
• Logic will make a person aware of ambiguity of
words and of various functions of language, and will
encourage him to be more exact and, hence, more
effective in the use of linguistic symbols.
• Logic will motivate a person to value the
systematic and objective approach in analyzing
issues and in doing things.
• Logic will develop in us a habit of analyzing our
thoughts, or distinguishing carefully between
our evidence and conclusions.
• It teaches us what to look for in order to test the
validity of arguments.