BABLYONIAN MATHEMATICS

Introduction

The knowledge of mankind in use of mathematics came from the Egyptians and Babylonians. Both
civilizations developed mathematics that was similar in scope but different in particulars. There can be no
denying the fact that the totality of their mathematics was profoundly elementary2, but their astronomy of
later times did achieve a level comparable to the Greeks. Assyria.

The Babylonian civilization has its roots dating to 4000BCE with the Sumerians in Mesopotamia. Yet
little is known about the Sumerians. Sumer was first settled between 4500 and 4000 BC by a non-Semiti

MAP OF ANCIENT BABLYONIA

Chronology of the Mesopotamian civilizations in Ancient Babylonia.

Sumerians (3500B.C)
Akkadians (unknown date)
1st Babylonian empire( 1900 B.C)
Assyrians (885 B.C)
2nd Babylonians empire- the Chaldeans (612 B.C)
Persian inversion (539 B.C)
In this area of Ancient Babylonia, mathematical contributions were made by these Mesopotamian
civilizations. When discussing the mathematical contributions made in Mesopotamia, the entire period
from 3500 B.C. to 539 B.C. is referred to as the Babylonian era; however, when the contributions are
determined to have been made during the earliest period of the Mesopotamian civilizations, the term
“Sumerian” is used .

The information we have regarding Babylonian mathematics comes from clay tablets. Although
approximately half a million of these tablets have been discovered since the beginning of the 1800s, fewer
than five hundred are mathematical in nature. The majority of these five hundred tablets are dated
between the years 1800 and 1600 B.C. It was not until the end of the 19th century, however, that
numerous Sumerian and Babylonian measurement texts were translated. Nevertheless, by the late 1920s
the study of Babylonian mathematics was well-established and scholars attained a thorough
understanding of the methods Babylonian mathematicians implemented for solving problems . Formation
of Babylonian Clay Tablets The script that was used on the clay tablets is called cuneiform script and the
texts were written in the Babylonian language, which is a dialect from the Akkadians that is Semitic in
nature and is closely related to the classical Arabic and Hebrew languages. The secret for the great
preservation of these Babylonian tablets lies in the manner in which the information was written. The
scripts were written on moist clay tablets using a stylus, which is a blunt reed. The clay was then baked,
either by the sun or in an actual oven. The impressions that remained were wedge-shaped, which is the
reason for the name of these scripts—“cuneiform,” which literally translates “wedge shaped.” Among the
various Mesopotamian civilizations, the Sumerians were the first to establish a system of writing using
this cuneiform method, primarily for bureaucratic purposes. Despite the benefit of the great preservation
of these scripts due to this method of inscription, many tablets contain several errors since the scribes had
to write on the moist clay very quickly before the clay dried. It is from these well-preserved tablets that
we gain our understanding of the number system the Babylonians had in place, their dealings with
“Pythagorean” mathematics and equations, possible ways they determined the value of the square root of
2, and some other mathematical topics.

The Number System

In most parts of the world today, a decimal place value system that uses the Hindu-Arabic numerals 0, 1,
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 is used. The position of these numerals affects the value of the number. For example,
in the numbers 6, 60, and 600 the numeral 6 is in three different places—in the first number, the six is in
the units place, with the value of 6 X 100 ; in the second number, the six is in the tens place, with the
value of 6 X 101 ; and in the third number, the six is in the hundreds place, with the value of 6 X 10 2 .
However, the Babylonians developed a number system that was sexagesimal in nature, which means
that instead of having a base of ten (decimal), it had a base of 60 (Hodgkin, 2005). The modern-day
methods for measuring time, geographic coordinates, and angles follow such a sexagesimal system.

Example:

 the angle measure of 4º1’15” is equivalent to 4 + (1/60) + (15/60 2 ), the sum of which is
4.0208330.However, the Babylonians did not have a pure 60-base system, since they did not use
60 individual digits; rather, they counted by both 10s and 60s. Therefore, in reality, the
Babylonians’ notation system may be considered both a decimal and sexagesimal system .
When the Sumerians established this system, it was incomplete in the sense that they used positional
notation only in base 60.

The Sumerians only had the following symbols

However, in about 2000 B.C., a simpler number system was devised by the Babylonians. In this system,
only two symbols were used: a pin shape that represented a value of one, and a wing shape that
represented a value of 10.

The story is a little more complicated. A few shortcuts or abbreviation were allowed, many originating in
the Seleucid period.Other devices for representing numbers were used. Below see how the number 19
was expressed.

From about 2500 B.C. on, the Babylonians’ number system drastically improved when they
realized that the pin- and wing-shaped symbols could represent various values based on their position in
relation to each other. In this place-value system, the manner in which values were represented was by
placing the signs side by side. Also, the Babylonian number system is read from left to right. So the
number 95, for example, would be written as follows:
 This first pin shape represents a value of 60, the three wings are each worth 10 (3 X 10 = 30), and the
final five pins are each worth one (5 X 1 = 5), which results in a total of 95.

this method too had its limitations. For example, instead of using a symbol like zero as a
placeholder to represent an “empty column” between two numbers, the Babylonians’ “placeholder”
was simply leaving extra space between their number symbols.

In order to better understand the value of these symbols, editors usually transliterate the value
and add commas or semicolons to signify and distinguish between whole numbers and decimals,
respectively. From the transliteration in which commas are used, the transliterated value can be turned
into a decimal value by multiplying the number on the far right by 60 0, the number immediately to its
left by 601 , the number immediately to the left of the previous number by 60 2 , etc., and then taking the
sum of these values.

For example: The decimal value equivalent of the transliteration

 ‘1, 15’ is 15 X 600 + 1 X 601 = 75.

 ‘44, 26, 40’ has a value (40 X 600 + 26 X 601 + 44 X 602 )= 40 + 1560 + 158,400 = 160,000
(Hodgkin, 2005).

While commas are used in the transliteration of whole numbers, semicolons are used in the
transliteration of decimal fractions . In the transliterated value of the Babylonian number, the semicolon
signifies a “decimal point,” even though the Babylonians had not yet established a symbol for this
concept. The transliteration of a number in which semicolons are used can be turned into a decimal
value by dividing the first number to the right of the semicolon by 60 1, the number immediately to the
right of the previous number by 602 , the number immediately to the right of the previous number by
603 , etc., and then taking the sum of these values.

Example:

 ‘1; 24, 51, 10,’ =1 + (24/601 ) + (51/602 ) + (10/603 ) = 1.141421

The transliterations of Babylonian symbols by editors have helped readers to better

understand the values of the symbols written in cuneiform script. However, not all editors come up
with the exact same transliterations. This is due to the way each editor interprets the spacing between
symbols—namely, whether or not there is the indication of a “zero”—along with the size of the symbols.

For example, ‘4 12’ may be transliterated in a variety of ways—

 4, 12 = 12 X 600 + 4 X 601 = 252

 4; 12 = 4 + (12/60) = (21/5)
 4; 1, 2 = 4 + (1/601) + (2/602 ) = 4.017 .
Similarly, since the Babylonians did not have a decimal point to separate the integer and
fractional parts of a number nor a symbol for zero,
Transliterations and decimal values for some larger cuneiform numbers.

Somewhere between the years of 700 and 300 B.C., the Babylonians made an improvement in
their number system by implementing a symbol that would mean “nothing in this column” . This
development was a step toward the modern usage of zero as a placeholder. However, in this particular
model the Babylonians used a symbol of two little triangles arranged in a column to represent the
placeholder between two other symbols. This new symbol helped eliminate some of the ambiguity that
existed in their previous form of the number system. For example, the number 7,240 could now be
written as follows

Without the placeholder symbol, such a number could be calculated as 160—2 pin shapes, . However,
since the placeholder symbol is in the 60s column, the pin shapes become worth 60 2 each instead of just
601 . The wings still have a value of 10 each, which implies that the value is (2 X 60 2) + (4 X 10), which
results in a sum of 7,240. Since the placeholder symbol was never placed at the end of numbers, but
rather was used only in the middle of numbers, it appears that the placeholder symbol never evolved
into an actual symbol for zero. In addition to the evolution of the Babylonians’ number system,
another topic of interest is the Babylonians’ apparent understanding of the number (2) 1/2. .

BABLYONIAN ALGEBRA

One perplexing tablet that has been discovered is the Yale tablet YBC8 7289. Although the exact time
this tablet was written is unknown, it is generally dated between 1800 and 1650 B.C. On this tablet,
there is evidence that the Babylonians may have had an understanding of irrational numbers—
particularly, that of square root of 2.
 Engraved in the tablet is the figure of a square, with one side marked with the number 30 . In addition,
the diagonal has two sexagesimal numbers marked—one of which is

and the other of which is

Regarding the former of these two numbers, scholars agree on transliterating it as 1; 24, 51, 10, which is
approximately(2)1/2 (1; 24, 51, 10 is equal to 1 +24/601 +51/602 + 10/603, the sum of which is
1.41421296.. ), accurate to five decimal places

(a). YBC 7289 tablet. b). Drawing. (c). Dimension

However, sources vary regarding the value of the second of these two diagonals. This
discrepancy is due to the manner in which the numbers are transliterated. For example, when
transliterated as 0; 42, 25, 35, the value is 42/60 1+25/602 + 35/603 approximately 0.7071064815 which is
(2)1/2 /2 accurate to six decimal places. However, other sources transliterate the number as 42; 25, 35
which is equal to 42 +25/601 +95/602 =42.426388. This is the equivalent of 30(2) 1/2, accurate to three
decimal places. Such a calculation implies that this value was determined by multiplying the length of
the side (30) by the length of the diagonal (2 1/2 ).

It seems more logical to this author that the latter transliteration of ‘42 25 35’ to 42; 25, 35 is the
correct one. The reasoning behind such a conclusion is based on the fact that the object appears to be
that of a square, with one of the sides being labeled with a value of 30. Based on the geometrical
definition of a square, each of the remaining sides must also have a value of 30. With the diagonal being
drawn in such a way as to equally divide the square into two right triangles, the two remaining triangles
are each of type 45°-45°-90°. This implies that the three sides for each of these two triangles are related
to each other by the proportion x:x:x(2 1/2 ) with x representing the measure of the two equal legs and x
representing the measure of the hypotenuse. By definition, since the two legs have already been
determined to have a measure of 30, the length of the hypotenuse must be 30(2) 1/2. A potential
explanation as to why the value of 1; 24, 51, 10 (namely,2 1/2 ) was inscribed in a position so close to 42;
25, 35 (i.e., 30(21/2 ) is that (21/2 ) may have served as an indication of how the value of 30 was derived. A
possible reason for the transliteration of to 0; 42, 25, 35, which is about 0.7071064815 ( accurate to six
decimal places), may be based on an alternate transliteration of 30—the value of the side of the square
inscribed on the tablet. Some scholars transliterate 30 as 0; 30 = = 15 , . Regardless of the manner in
which these numbers are transliterated, one can conclude that the sexagesimal numbers and are of
importance, as they appear again in the work of Islamic mathematicians over 3000 years after this
Babylonian work. While it appears that Babylonian mathematicians were able to use irrational numbers
like , scholars have not come to an agreement regarding how the Babylonians derived these values .

According to the Pythagorean theorem, the sum of the squares of the lengths of the legs of a right
triangle is equal to the square of the length of the hypotenuse.

Low number a and b is a high number after taking the average of these two numbers and squaring that
average, which is [(a + b) / 2]2 , if the result were greater than 2, then b could be replaced by this better
bound. However, if the value were less than 2, then a could be replaced by (a + b)/2.

The algorithm would then continue to be carried out. Such a method takes several steps to get a fair
approximation of . For example, it takes 19 steps to get to the sexagesimal value of 1; 24, 51, 10 when a =
1 and b = 2, as is evident .

The conjecture is that the Babylonians began with some guess for the value of , which we will call x.
Then they calculated e, the error: e = x 2 – 2. Then (x - e/2x) 2 can be expanded to the equivalent
expression x 2 - e + (e/2x) 2 . By adding the number two to both sides of the equation for e, the error, and
replacing x 2 in the previous expression with e + 2, we find that the expression can be written as 2 +
(e/2x) 2 , which produces a better approximation of , since if e has a small value then (e/2x) 2 will be
even smaller. Equation (1) shows the progression of this expression: (x - e/2x) 2 = x 2 - e + (e/2x) 2 = 2 +
(e/2x) 2 By continuing this process, the approximation for gets more and more accurate. In fact, if one
starts with the value of x = 1, only two steps of the algorithm are necessary .

RECORDS
“Pythagorean” Mathematics Of all the tablets that reveal Babylonian mathematics, the most famous is
arguably one that has been named “Plimpton 322”—a name given to it because it possesses the number
322 in G.A. Plimpton’s Collection at Columbia University. This tablet is believed to have been written
around 1800-1700 B.C. in Larsa, Iraq (present-day Tell as-Senkereh in southern Iraq) and it was first
cataloged for the Columbia University Library in 1943. As is evident in Figure below, the upper left
corner of this tablet is damaged and there is a large chunk missing from around the middle of the right
side of the tablet

This tablet has four columns, which we will refer to as Column I…Column IV, and 15 rows that contain
numbers in the cuneiform script. Column IV is the easiest to understand, since it simply contains the row
number, from 1 through 15. Column I, however, is often considered an enigma due to the missing
information caused by the damage in the left corner of the tablet.

In Mathematical Cuneiform Texts, Neugebauer and Sachs make note of the fact that in every row, when
the square of each number x from Column II is subtracted from the square of each number d from
Column III, the result is a perfect square, say y. In the original tablet, the heading for the values that we
denote x from Column II can be translated as “square-side of the short side” and the heading for the
values that we denote d from Column III can be translated as “square-side of the diagonal” .

This can be translated into the following equation: d 2 – x 2 = y 2 Consequently, many scholars argue that
the numbers on this particular tablet serve as a listing of Pythagorean triples. These triples are listed in
their translated decimal form in Pythagorean triples from the Plimpton 322 tablet. Pythagorean triples are
whole numbers that satisfy the equation a 2 + b 2 = c 2—where, in a right triangle, a and b represent the
lengths of two sides that are perpendicular to each other and where c represents the length of the
hypotenuse—which is referred to as the Pythagorean theorem.

Although there are only four columns in the actual Plimpton 322 tablet, Table above makes use of an
additional column—which we will refer to as Column V—that contains values equal to the square root of
d2 – x 2 , namely the middle value for each of the Pythagorean triples. Although the values of Column I
cannot be known for certain because of the damage in this area of the tablet, most scholars agree that each
of these values is the quantity of the value from Column III (which is labeled d) over the value from
Column II (which is labeled x), all of which is squared, as is depicted in Table above.

While Table seems to make it evident that Plimpton 322 is, in fact, a listing of Pythagorean triples, the
reader should be aware that not all the decimal values in this table are accurate translations of the symbols
written in cuneiform script in the original tablet.

. In order to accept the theory of the tablet being a listing of Pythagorean triples, one would have to
conclude that the author(s) of the tablet made four inscription errors, two in each column. The values in
Table are based on what are considered to be the corrected values. For example, in row six of the original
tablet the scribe gave d in Column III a value of 9, 1 which is equivalent to 1 X 60 0 + 9 X 601 ; this value
is equal to 541.

However, this appears to be an inscription error since the Pythagorean triple that would correspond with
the value of 319 for x in row six would be 319(x), 360(y), 481(d). The value shown in Table for d, which
is located in Column III, is produced from the transliteration of 8, 1 which is equivalent to 1 X 60 0 + 8 X
602 ; this value is equal to 481, which correctly satisfies the Pythagorean triple for row six. In addition to
the inscription errors on this tablet, there does not appear to be a logical ordering of the rows, except that
the numbers in Column I decrease with each successive row . An advocate of the theory that Plimpton
322 is a listing of Pythagorean triples, Erik Christopher Zeeman23, made an interesting observation that
may confirm that Plimpton 322 actually contains Pythagorean triples. Zeeman observed that if the
Babylonians had used the formulas h = 2mn, b = m 2 – n 2 , c = m 2 + n for producing Pythagorean triples,
then there are 16 triples that satisfy the conditions: 30 0< t< 450 , n< 60, and tan2 t = h 2 /b 2 .

Another piece of evidence that points to the idea that the Babylonians understood the concept of
Pythagorean triples and the Pythagorean theorem is the translation of a Babylonian tablet that current

ly is being held in the British museum, which states; 4 is the length and 5 the diagonal. What is the
breadth ? Its size is not known. 4 times 4 is 16. 5 times 5 is 25. You take 16 from 25 and there remains 9.
What times what shall I take in order to get 9 ? 3 times 3 is 9. 3 is the breadth.

A modern translation of such a problem may be as follows: In a right triangle, the length of one of the
sides is 4, the hypotenuse has a measure of 5, and the remaining side—which we will denote x—is
unknown. In order to find the measure of the unknown side, we set up an equation according to the
Pythagorean Theorem—namely, the sum of the square of the length for each of the two legs is equal to
the length of the hypotenuse squared.

Based on the information given on this particular right triangle, the equation would be set up as follows:
4 2 + x 2 = 52 Since 42 is 16 and 52 is 25, the equation may now be written in the following form: 16 + x 2
= 25 . In order to isolate the variable x, we first subtract 16 from both sides, which leaves us with x 2 = 9.
Now we take the square root of both sides of the equation and find that x = 3.

Even if the reader concludes that the Babylonians were aware of Pythagorean triples and the Pythagorean
theorem, he may ask how the Babylonians were able to derive these numbers. The Babylonians may have
gone about their derivation of these numbers in a comparable manner.

BABYLONIAN MATHEMATICIANS:

KIDUNNU AND NABU-RIMANI

The Babylonians had two great mathematicians that's Kidunnu and Nabu-rimani. However, not much is
known about them. Nabu-rimani lived around 490BC and Kiddinnu lived around 480 BC. Little is known
of Kiddinnu's life in Babylonia. Kidinnu was probably a temple priest, his discoveries were more about
motion of Mercury and the relationship between lunar periods.

HERON OF ALEXANDRA

 Heron of Alexandria was a geometer during the first century who invented various machines
 Alexandria’s best known work in mathematics is the formula for finding the area of a triangle
based on the lengths of its sides.
 Get a value that is equivalent to the approximation 1; 24, 51, 10. The fact that the Babylonians
used quadratic equations, which we will look at more thoroughly later on, makes this a plausible
method for finding the approximation of this algorithm, however, is not evident in any other
cases; so although it may be a plausible method, it is not necessarily likely. If, in fact, the
previous method for finding the approximation for is accurate, then the Babylonians appear to
have been familiar with Pythagorean mathematics.

Diophantus of Alexandria.

 Diophantus of Alexandria (between 200 and 214 to between 284 and 298) was a mathematician
who wrote Arithmetica, a series of books that involve solving algebraic equations, and who is
also often called the “Father of Algebra

 Using these results in the Pythagorean theorem, we obtain it in triples form: a 2 + b 2 = c 2 (p 2 –
q 2 ) 2 + (2pq) 2 = (p 2 + q 2 ) 2 All that remains is to choose integers for p and q to generate
Pythagorean triples. As is evident in the manner in which Rudman proposes the Babylonians may
have come about their derivation of the Pythagorean triples, Rudman assumes that the
Babylonians had an understanding of second-degree equations. The Babylonians referred to their
unknown quantity as sidi, for “side”—like the measure of the side of a square. Our modern
equivalent for sidi would simply be “x.” Similarly, we use “x 2 ” where the Babylonians would
use the word mehr, which means “square” . From these unknown quantities, the Babylonians
would then proceed to find the values of the unknowns by setting up and solving a linear
equation. However, there are limited examples available to us today of the Babylonians’ use of
linear equations and they generally appear as a system of linear equations. Like the Egyptians,
the Babylonians primarily solved these equations through the method of false position.
 The method of false position (also referred to as “regula falsi”) is a method for approximating
the roots of an algebraic equation. Consists of making a fairly close estimate, say r, then
substituting (r + h) in the equation, dropping the terms in h of higher degree than the first (since
they are relatively small), and solving the resulting linear equation for h. This process is then
repeated, using the new approximation (r + h) in place of r. E.g.,
The equation x 3 – 2x 2 – x + 1 = 0 has a root near 2 (between 2 and 3).
Hence we substitute (2 + h) for x. This gives (when the terms in h 2 and h 3 have been
dropped)
The equation 3h – 1 = 0; whence h = 1/3.
The next estimate will then be 2 + 1/3 or 7/3.
Solving linear systems (using false position): The solution of linear systems were solved in a
particularly clever way, reducing a problem of two variables to one variable in a sort of
elimination process, vaguely reminiscent of Gaussian elimination. Solve
One of two fields yields 2/3 sila per sar, the second yields 1/2 sila per sar. [Sila and sar are
measures for capacity and area, respectively.] The yield of the first field was 500 sila more than
that of the second; the areas of the two fields were together 1800 sar. How large is each field?
(2/3)x – (1/2)y = 500
x + y = 1800

 Geometric depiction for solving the system x + y = b, xy = c. In this particular depiction of the
geometric figure, the sides of the figure are labeled based on the genetic system x + y = b, xy = c.
The scribe began by halving the sum b and then constructing the square on it. Since b/2 = x – (x –
y)/2 = y + (x – y)/2, the square on b/2 exceeds the original rectangle of area c by the square on (x
– y)/2, that is, The figure then shows that adding the side of this square, namely,, to b/2 gives the
length x, and subtracting it from b/2 gives the width y.
Reference:

Rowbotham, W. (1987). Babylonian mathematics and science. SMS, 3. [Toronto: Society for
Mesopotamian Studies].

Teresi, D. (2002). Lost discoveries: The ancient roots of modern science—from the Babylonians to the
Maya. New York: Simon & Schuster.

Hodgkin, L. H. (2005). A history of mathematics: From Mesopotamia to modernity. Oxford: Oxford

University Press.
 KYAMBOGO UNIVERSITY

DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS

FACULTY OF SCIENCE

SMT 312 HISTORY OF MATHEMATICS

LECTURER: DR SARAH KISA

GROUP THREE

NAME REG.NO SIGNATURE

SSEMUYABA BRIAN 20/U/ESE/9051/PD
OKOT BRIAN 20/U/ESE/12925/GV
SHIMIYU JESSY 20/U/ESE/9061/PD
EYUPA EDWARD BRIAN 20/U/ESE/12851/GV
OMARA BRIAN 20/U/ESE/9091/PD
ARYASIIMA IDAN 20/U/ESE/9108/PD
AINEBYOONA DICKENS 20/U/ESE/9144/PD
EDIANGA ISAAC 20/U/ESE/9115/PD
SSEBANJJA UBED 19/U/ESE/2062/PD